Objectives:

 To know what is input- output models

 To know what is transfer function
 To know how transfer function is derived

INPUT-OUTPUT MODELS

Input-output models give a relationship between process input and process outputs.
They occur in the "Laplace domain". The Laplace domain representation is possible only for
linear or linearized systems. The input- output framework is used in many engineering
systems since it allows decomposing a problem into individual components, connected
through their inputs and outputs. The input-output view is particularly useful for special class
of linear, time-invariant systems. To define linearity, we let (u1, y1) and (u2, y2) denote two
input-output pairs--- i.e., the input u1 produces the (unique) output y1--- and a and b are real
numbers. A system is linear if (au1 + bu2, ay1 + by2) is also an input-output pair; this is often
called the principle of superposition. A system is time- invariant if the output response for a
given input does not depend on when that input is applied.

Physical Models vs. Empirical Models

Physical models or first principle models, in which the conservation laws of mass,
energy, and momentum are the basis for developing this type of modeling. The resulting
models typically involve sets of differential and algebraic equations that must be solved
simultaneously. On the other hand, empirical models involve postulating the form of a
dynamic model, usually as a transfer function. This transfer function, which contains a
number of parameters that need to be estimated from data.

Consider the illustration above; it is assumed that the reactor is operating

isothermally and that the inlet and exit volumetric flows and densities are the same. There
are two components, A and B, in the reactor, and a single first-order reaction of A-->B takes
place. The inlet concentration of A, which we call ci, varies with time. We can write a
dynamic mass balance for the concentration of A, denoted as cA, as:

Equation 1
 Where Fci is the flow in component of A, FcA is the flow out, and krVcA is the loss via
reaction. V is the reaction volume and k is the kinetic energy constant. If V, F and k is
constant, then the equation (1) is an example of a linear differential equation model and can
be rearranged by dividing by F + krV so that it contains only two groups of parameters. The
result is

Equation 2

Where τ= V/(F + krV) and K = F/(F + krV). For this illustration, the resulting model is a
first-order differential equation in which τ is called the time constant and K the process gain.
Process gain is defined as the change in the output of a system divided by a change in the
input to the system. Linear systems have constant process gains for all changes in the input.
Laplace transforms are very effective in solving linear differential equations.

Transfer Functions and Block Diagram

In general, a transfer function relates two variables in a physical process; one of

these is the cause (forcing function or input variable), and the other is the effect (response or
output variable). To illustrate how transfer function is developed, we can use equation 2.
First, define deviation variables, which are the process variables minus their steady-state
values at the operating points. For eq. 2, there would be deviation variables for both cA and ci
and these are defined as

Y= cA-CA equation 3

X= ci-Ci equation 4

Where the capital letter C stands for steady-state. Substitute the equations 3 and 4 to
equation 2, we can get

τdY/dt= KX-Y+ (KCi-CA) equation 5

At steady-state, the term in parenthesis is zero, therefore, it can be dropped. Denote

Y(s) as the Laplace Transform of Y and X(s) as the transform of X, the final transfer function
can be written as

Y(s)/X(s)=K/( τs+1) equation 6

We can have another illustration for transfer function. For example, an ordinary
mercury thermometer is placed in a glass; the surrounding temperature is the cause or input,
whereas the thermometer reading is the effect or output. We may write

Transfer function =G(s) =Y(s)/ X(s) equation 7

where G (s) = symbol for transfer function

X (s) =transform of forcing function or input, in deviation form

Y (s) = transform of response or output, in deviation form

 The transfer function completely describes the dynamic characteristics of the system.
If we select a particular input variation X (t) for which the transform is X (s), the response of
the system is simply

Ys =G(s)X(s) equation 8

By taking the inverse of Y (s), we get Y (t), the response of the system.

The transfer function results from a linear differential equation; therefore, the principle
of superposition is applicable. This means that the transformed response of a system with
transfer function G (s) to a forcing function

X(s)=a1X1(s )+a2X2(s) equation 9

where X1 and X2 are particular forcing functions and a1 and a2 are constants, is

Y(s) = G(s)X(s)

Y(s) =a1G(s)X1(s)+ a2G(s)X2(s) equation 10

Y(s) =a1Y1(s)+ a2Y2(s) equation 11

where Y1 ( s) and Y2 ( s) are the responses to X1 and X2 alone, respectively. For example,
the response of the mercury thermometer to a sudden change in surrounding temperature of
10°F is simply twice the response to a sudden change of 5°F in surrounding temperature.

The functional relationship contained in a transfer function is often expressed by a

block diagram representation. Block diagram illustrates how changes in an input variable
affect an output variable. Block diagrams are a means of concisely representing the
dynamics of a process under study. Since linearity is assumed in developing a block
diagram, if more than one variable affects an output, the contribution from each can be
added.

The arrow entering the box is the forcing

function or input variable, and the arrow
leaving the box is the response or output
variable. The transfer function is placed
inside the box. We state that the transfer
function G (s) in the box
“operates” on the input function X (s) to
produce an output function Y ( s).