Академический Документы
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ISELT-4
2016
ISBN: 978-602-74437-0-9
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF LANGUAGES AND ARTS
UNIVERSITAS NEGERI PADANG
Padang, Indonesia, May 11-12, 2016
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http://english.unp.ac.id/
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ISBN: 978-602-74437-0-9
BOARD OF EDITORS
Conference Chairperson
Prof. Dr. Hermawati Syarif, M. Hum
Editors
Prof. Lesley Harbon (University of Technology Sydney, Australia)
Ass. Prof. Michael Guest (The University of Miyazaki, Japan)
Dr. Loh Chin Ee (National Institute of Education, Singapore)
Prof. Dr. Jayakaran a/l Mukundan (University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia)
Adrian Rogers. Ph.D (Ohio State University, United State of America)
Prof. Dr. Hermawati Syarif, M. Hum (Universitas Negeri Padang, Indonesia)
Prof. Dr. M. Zaim, M.Hum (Universitas Negeri Padang, Indonesia)
Yenni Rozimela, M.Ed. Ph.D (Universitas Negeri Padang, Indonesia)
Prof. Rusdi, M.A. Ph.D (Universitas Negeri Padang, Indonesia)
Delvi Wahyuni, S.S, M.A (Universitas Negeri Padang, Indonesia)
Witri Oktavia, S. Pd, M. Pd (Universitas Negeri Padang, Indonesia)
Secretariat
Phone: (0751) 447347
Email: selt.fbs.unp@gmail.com
Web: http://selt.fbs.unp.ac.id/
Supported by:
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Steering Committee
1. Prof. Dr. Mukhaiyar, M.Pd. Universitas Negeri Padang, Indonesia
2. Prof. Dr. M. Zaim, M.Hum. Universitas Negeri Padang, Indonesia
3. Dr. Desmawati Radjab, M.Pd. Universitas Negeri Padang, Indonesia
4. Yenni Rozimela, M.Ed. Ph.D. Universitas Negeri Padang, Indonesia
5. Prof. Rusdi, M.A. Ph.D. Universitas Negeri Padang, Indonesia
6. Dr. Kurnia Ningsih, M.A. Universitas Negeri Padang, Indonesia
7. Prof. Lesley Harbon, University of Technology Sydney, Australia
8. Ass. Prof. Michael Guest, The University of Miyazaki, Japan
9. Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, the President of TEFLIN
10. Dr. Loh Chin Ee, National Institute of Education, Singapore
11. Adrian Rogers. Ph.D, Ohio State University, United State of America
12. Prof. Dr. Jayakaran a/l Mukundan, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia.
Organizing Committee :
Chaiperson : Prof. Dr. Hermawati Syarif, M.Hum
Vice Chaiperson I : Prof. Dr. Jufrizal, M. Hum.
Vice Chaiperson II : Drs. Jufri, M. Pd.
Secretary : Dr. Zul Amri, M. Ed.
Deputy Secretary : Delvi Wahyuni, S.S, M.A.
Treasurer : Dra. Aryuliva Adnan, M.Pd.
Executive Divisions :
I. Secretariat
Coordinator : Witri Oktavia, M. Pd.
Members:
1. Leni Marlina, S.S, M.A
2. Nova Yulia S.Hum, M.Pd.
3. Sutria Rahayu, M.A., TESOL
4. Damai Yani S. Hum. M.Pd.
5. Novrina Eka Putri, M.Pd.
6. Salam Mairi, S.Pd. M.Sc.
7. Syafitri Ramadhani, M.Pd.
8. Yati Aisya Rani, M.Pd.
9. Desi Fitria
10. Ferdiansyah
V. Event Organizer:
Coordinator : Dra. An Fauzia Rozani Syafei, M.A.
1. Devy Kurnia Alamsyah, S.S., M.Hum.
2. Yati Aisya Rani, M.Pd.
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PREFACE
Research shows that teaching-learning English as a foreign language (EFL) in countries where
English is not the vernacular language, like Indonesia, is riddled with multitudes of problems. Most
Indonesian learners are multilingual because they communicate in their local languages as L1 and in
bahasa Indonesia as the national and L2 language. Such condition brings about specific and complex
academic learning problems in using English as a medium of communication in classroom activities.
These need serious-pedagogical attention from scholars and practitioners in order to make some
improvement. In addition, government and policy makers should be aware of linguistic and
non-linguistic factors which may hinder any serious efforts to ignite a brighter future of EFL teaching
and learning in multilingual societies.
Issues emanating from EFL teaching and learning in multilingual settings, such as language
transfer, shifting paradigms, implicit knowledge on linguistic and non-linguistic factors and its practical
uses in communication, are crucial to be researched and discussed to overcome the problems mentioned
above. Studies and ways of how EFL learners in multilingual societies could have sufficient cultural
awareness and ability to minimize the negative L1 interference, for instance, should be carried out.
Results of such studies and ideas from scholars are expected to help practitioners in many aspects such
as preparing instructional materials, using appropriate teaching techniques, and selecting instructional
media.
To ensure a brighter future of EFL teaching and learning in multilingual societies, professional
teachers and instructors of EFL should make innovations and share with others. Regarding to that
purpose, English Department of Fakultas Bahasa dan Seni, Universitas Negeri Padang holds an
International Seminar on the English Language and Teaching (ISELT) for the fourth time under the
theme Igniting a Brighter Future of EFL Teaching and Learning in Multilingual Societies. To support
the main theme, there are some sub-themes that guide the speakers to write relevant papers presented in
plenary and parallel sessions.
This year, we welcome presenters coming not only from Indonesia, but also from other
countries adding to the international atmosphere of the seminar. There are 113 selected papers covering
various topics under the theme of the seminar. We hope that this event will serve as the right ―path‖ to
have academic-scientific discussion whereby various state-of-the-art research and concepts are
disseminated.
We would like to thank our keynote speaker, Prof. Dr. H. Irwan Prayitno, Psi., M.Sc.
(Gavernor of West Sumatera, Indonesia), and all invited speakers: Prof. Lesley Harbon (University of
Technology Sydney, Australia); Prof. Siti Hamin Stapa (National University of Malaysia, Malaysia);
Prof. M. Zaim, M. Hum (Universitas Negeri Padang, Indonesia); Prof. Joko Nurkamto (the President
of TEFLIN, Indonesia); Ass. Prof. Michael Guest (Miyazaki Univeristy, Japan); Dr. Loh Chin Ee
(National Institute of Education, Singapore).
The committee thanks all speakers and participants for your coming and valuable contribution at
any session this forum has. It is not too late to say on this occasion that ―Ranah Minang‖, the
mother-land of Minangkabaunese, happily welcomes you all! Have a nice seminar and good luck. May
God Bless us! Amin!
Padang, May 11, 2016
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
A. Keynote Speakers
B. Paralel Speakers
2. Maridha Fitri, Wina Viqa Sari, Eliyanti, Nurul Aiyah (Universitas Sumatera Utara dan
Universitas Muhammadiyah Sumatara Utara, Indonesia)
The Effect of Applying Talking Chips Technique on The Students‘ Achievement in Speaking Ability
................................................................................................................................................................62
6. Melvina,S.Pd., M.Ed & Dona Alicia, S.Pd.,M.Pd (STKIP PGRI SUMBAR, Indonesia)
Students‘ Problems in Giving Presentation a Study at STIKIP PGRI of West Sumatera ................... 105
Igniting a Brighter Future of EFL Teaching and Learning in Multilingual Societies
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7. Melviola Fitri, Putri Yulia Sari & Yummi Meirafoni (Universitas Negeri Padang, Indonesia)
The Effect of Recorded (Videotaped) Mini-Drama toward Students‘ Speaking Ability .................... 113
9. Ni Kadek Ary Susandi & Ni Luh Putu Krishnawati (STIKES Bali & Udayana University,
Indonesia)
Needs Analysis: ESP Syllabus Design for Indonesian EFL Nursing Students ................................... 130
12. Nita Maya Valiantien, M.Pd, Ririn Setyowati, M.Hum., Setya Ariani, M.Pd (Universitas
Mulawarman, Indonesia)
Igniting Students‘ Motivation in Writing through Journal Writing .................................................... 155
13. Nurul Atma & Nosmalasari (Halu Oleo University and Universitas Negeri Jakarta, Indonesia)
Communication Strategies; Do They Differ across the Students‘ Level of Language Learning Anxiety?
............................................................................................................................................................. 162
18. Retno Budi Wahyuni & Naniek Kuswardhani (Sekolah Tinggi Pariwisata Bandung, Indonesia)
The Effectiveness of Enhaii Trainees‘ English Communication towards the Customers‘ Understanding
............................................................................................................................................................. 210
28. Sariani, Witri Handayani, Mutia El-Khairat (Politeknik Negeri Padang, Indonesia)
Enriching Vocabulary Size Of EFL Learners through Deliberate Vocabulary Learning ................... 294
31. Siti Lestari & Sri Wahyuni (STKIP PGRI Semarang, Indonesia)
Bilingual Offline Game-Based Teaching Media for Science Subject ................................................. 316
32. Soraya Grabiella Dinamika & Elitaria Bestri Agustina Siregar (Universitas Sumatera Utara,
Indonesia)
Developing English Syllabus for Tourism Management Students...................................................... 323
37. Syayid Sandi Sukandi, S.S., M.A. (STKIP PGRI SUMBAR, Indonesia)
Students‘ Personal ―Colors‖ in Self-Evaluation Essays as the Post-Process Pedagogy in Teaching
Writing (a Descriptive Study on EFL Composition Learning Practice in Indonesia) ......................... 361
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KEYNOTE SPEAKERS
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Abstract
In the era of globalization, Eglish becomes the most powerful and essential tool of communication.
Consequently, teaching and learning English must be placed at a seriously important priority of
educational system. In order to achieve the ideal outcome of teaching and learning English in
multilingual society, three major aspects should be taken into account: 1) teachers, 2) teaching
methods, and 3) teaching materials. The flourishing English teachers are always characterized by
three dominant charateristics: 1) high degree of reflectivity, 2) high sense of efficacy, and 3) highly
student-centered teching style. English teaching methods should be creatively developed in order to
promote not only lower thinking order (memorizing and understanding) but also higher thinking
order, especially creative thinking level. Finally, teaching English materials should be developed on
the basis of students‘ background knowledge and environment, the concepts, principles, values, and
components for adapting didactic issues, and the higher thinking order.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the era of globalization, where we are living now, English becomes the most powerful and
essential tool of communication. No parts of the world, and no part of our life without English;
politics, economics, science and technology, education and socio-culture and so on employ English as
the means of communication. English becomes the language of all nations, and the language of every
sectors of the post modern age life. As reported by Ethnolaguage that English is utilized by 339
million people in 106 countries over the world (https://www.ethnologue.com/ accessed on April 21th
2016). It means that those who refuse learning English will be consequently thrown out from the
global companionship. As the result, teaching and learning English must be placed at a seriously
important priority of any level educational system.
In Indonesia, English has been formally taught as a core subject at the first year of junior high
school (K-7) through third year of senior high school (K-12). The basic competences to achieve is the
capability of communication in English covering interpersonal communication, transactional
communication, and functional communication. The 2014/2015 National Eexamination (Ujian
Nasional) Report shows that the English score of Indonsian students are relatively good—higher than
other courses. For junior high school, the avarage national score of English is 60,01, higher than
Mathematics (56,28) and Science (59,88). For senior high school, the avarage national score of
English for social sciences group (IPS) is 58,43—higher than Mathematics (55,76), Economics
(54,92), and Geography (51,55), except Sociology (59,00); for science group (IPA), the national
avarage score of English is 65,83—higher than Mathematics (59,17), Chamistry (59,98), Biology
(64,04), except Phisics (67,43) (Kemendibud, 2016 http://www.kemdikbud.go.id/ accessed on
04/18/2016).
However, the undoubtedly empirical fact shows that most of Indonesian high school
graduates who have formally learned English for six years are unable to communicate in English as
expected. They don not speak English fluently, and cannot write English confidently, although they
got excellent mark for English. It seems that there is no empirical relationship between the high school
students English score and the students‘ communication ability—orally and written. The basic
competences of interpersonal, trasactional and functional communication seems to be far from the
expectation. In short, It is hard to conclude that teaching English for high school students in Indonesia
has been successful in achieving it‘s goals.
The question is what the problems of teaching English in Indonesia are. In general, there are
three common issues of teaching and learning including teaching and learning English as foreign
language in multilingual society: 1) teachers, 2) teaching methods, and 3) teaching materials.
Although the constructivism approach places the students at the centre of teaching and learning
process, the significance of teachers‘ role in teaching and learning English should not be overlooked.
Teaching methods do not only motivate the students to actively take part in the teaching and learning
activities, but also inspire them to be more creative and self-encouraging. Teaching materials is a very
significant component of English teaching to create a lively and meaningful teaching and learning
atmosphere. These elements should be well integrated into a process of teaching and learning English
as foreign language in multilingual society.
This paper discusses the above mentioned issues in order to critically evaluate the
effectiveness of teaching English in a multilingual society like Indonesia. This paper focuses on the
central role of teacher, the signifacance of teaching methods, and teaching materials.
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changes (Akbari & Allvar, 2010). It is a label associated with various sets of consistent classroom
behaviors of the teachers regardless of the content that is being taught (Conti & Welborn, 1996). In
other words teaching style is a series of a teacher‘s expressive behaviors that constantly persist based
on his/hr beliefs, philosophy, and experiences.
Teaching styles is a very crucial component of English language teaching that either motivate
of demotivate the students. There are a number of teaching styles that have been identified in teaching.
Akbari & Allvar (2010) identifies some teaching styles introduced by deferent experts: 1) Visual,
Auditory, Group, Kinesthetic, Individual, and Tactile Styles (Salem, 2001), 2) Formal – Informal
(Bennett, Jordan, Long, & Wade, 1976), 3) Open -Traditional (Solomon & Kendall, 1979), 4)
Intellectual Excitement – Interpersonal Rapport (Lowman, 1995), and 5) Expert, Formal Authority,
Personal Model, Facilitator, and Delegator (Grasha, 1994). Sheikh & Mahmood (2014) evaluated the
dominant teaching styles of English language teachers that introduced by Grasha (1994) and found
that Delegator is the most prevalent style among the English language learners, because it is
student-centered in nature. In short, the more the teacher‘s teaching style student-centered in nature,
the more motivative the style is.
3. TEACHING METHODS
The second crucial issue of teaching English as foreing language is teaching methods. The
teaching methods determine the level students‘ involvement in the teaching activities. A number of
teaching methods have been introduced by experts for teaching English as second language. However,
not all of those methods are appropriate for all of language skills, especially the interpersonal,
functional, and transactional communication ability. The English teachers should mainly utilize the
teaching methods that promote the students to use the language in practice, rather than memorizing
and comprehending the rules or grammar of English. In other words, teaching methods selected by
English teachers should the ones that encourage the atmosphere where the students have more
opportunities to speak more than listen to the teachers lectures.
Although English consists a series of grammatical rules which students should understand, it
is a skill that involves a complex mental process. With reference to Bloom‘s taxonomy, teaching a
language does not end at the cognitive domain or lower thinking order (remembering, understanding,
and applying); it should reach the level of higher thinking order (analyzing, evaluating, and creating).
Teaching and learning English should not be only aimed at recognizing and recalling vocabulary and
rules, understanding the functions of the speeches, and applying them in mechanical ways, but also at
breaking down the components of language, judging the values of the communication, and creating
new sentences in meaningful contexts (e.i. interpersonal, transactional, and functional
communication, as stated in Kurikulum 2013). Therefore, the English teaching methods should be
creatively developed in order to promote higher thinking order, especially creative thinking level.
As reported by Baktash & Talebinejad (2015) that the very low learning objectives
(remembering, understanding, and applying) received more attention in this course book while little
heed was given to higher learning objectives (analyzing, evaluating ,and creating). This is equally true
as the teaching methods where teachrs of English tend to use lower thinking order teaching methods,
like leturing, mechanical drills, and alike. Hosseini (2007) asserted that most of Iranian language
classroom are run through a hybrid of grammar-translation method and audio-lingual methods, entails
translation, repetition, memorization, recitation, and reproduction. Interaction seems to be not
essential to the teaching and learning process, so that students miss the opportunity participate in the
process of collaborative tasks and interaction with their colleagues. This might be a mojor source of
English teaching disappointment in multilingual society, including Indonesia.
organize instruction, guide learning, evaluate people progress, and confer with perents concerning
their children. Therefore, in order to develop appropriate materials for teaching English in
multilingual society, the teacher as material developers should pay attention to: 1) what the students
have been familiar with, 2) the concept, principles, values, and components for adapting didactic
materials, and 3) the higher thinking order (analyzing, evaluating, and creating).
Since the setting or environment of English teaching in Indonesia is different from that of
America, England, or Australia, the materials should not be like what those in America, England or
Australia. The materials should be based on our students‘ daily live, rather then on other nations‘
culture. The materials should be developed on the basis of our culture and what the students have been
familiar with. It is hard to imagine that the English teaching be effective when the teachers use the
materials adopted from others‘ culture like Halloween, Canadian Day Festival, and Aborigin Culture.
It might be beneficial if the English teachers in Sumatera Barat develop the teahing materials based on
Minangkabau culture like Randai, Makan Bajamba, Malim Kundang, Cindua Mato, beautifulness of
Minagkabau nature, and so on.
Developing the teaching materials on the basis of national values must be a crucial
consideration of English teaching in every country in the world. For Indonesia, religious, humanism,
national integrity, democracy, and social justice values must be seriously taken into account by
English teachers when developing teaching materials. I believe that the National Curriculum
(Kurikulim 2013) is designed on the basis of our national values. However, the teachers should stand
on the first frontline of developing the young generation of our nation. In other word, although English
is not our culture, teaching English should be utilized as a tool of the national values development.
Finally, English teaching materials should encourage the higher thinking order as in Bloom‘s
Taxonomy introduced by Benjamin S. Bloom. The materials should not only be focused on the
cognitive domain (memorizing, recognizing and recalling rules or grammar and vocabulary;
understanding the rules or grammar and vocabulary; applying rules or grammar and vocabulary) but
also on the higher thinking domain (i.e. analyzing, evaluating rules or grammar, vocabulary, and
context, so that the students can create realistic and natural sentences). In short, English teaching
materials should be developed on the basis of integrating lower thinking order and higher thinking
order.
5. CONCLUSION
Since English is the most widely used language in the globalization era, teaching and learning
English should be placed on a seriously important priority of educational system. In order to achieve
the basic competences as stated in the national curriculum (Kurikulum 13)—the English
communication sklls encompassing interpersonal communication, transactional communication, and
functional communication—three major components of English teaching should be taken in account.
The first is characteristic of English teachers covering the degree of reflectiveness, the teachers‘ sense
of efficacy, and the teaching styles. The second is the teaching methods that should be creatively
developed in order to promote higher thinking order, especially creative thinking level. Finally,
teaching English materials should be developed on the basis of students‘ background knowledge, the
concept, principles, values, and components for adapting didactic materials, and the higher thinking
order (analyzing, evaluating, and creating).
REFERENCE
Abaslou, Azam & Langroudi, Jahanbakhsh (2015). The Effect Of Reflective Teaching on The
Intrinsic Motivation And Critical Thinking of Iranian EFL Learners Across Age Groups.
Modern Journal Of Language Teaching Methods, Vol. 4, Issue 5.
Akbari R. & Allvar, Nabi Karim (2010). L2 Teacher Characteristics as Predictors of Students‘
Academic Achievement. The Electronic Journal for English as a Second Language.
Volume 13, Number 4
Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational
Psychologist, 28, 117-148. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2802_3.
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Baktash, N. & Talebinejad, M. R. (2015). Evaluation Of The New Iranian High School Series Books
Based On Blooms's Revised Taxonomy : Prospect One In Focus. Modern Journal Of
Language Teaching Methods. Vol. 5, Issue 3
Behroozizad, S. Nambiar, Radha M.K. & Amir, Zaini (2015). The Relationship between Language
Learning Strategies and Teacher‘s Mediating Role. 3L: The Southeast Asian Journal of
English Language Studies – Vol 18(2): 35 – 48
Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative
process. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Freeman, D. & Johnson, K. (1998). Reconceptualizing the knowledge-base of language teacher
education. TESOL Quarterly, 32(3), 397-418.
Hosseini, S. M. H. (2007). ELT in higher education in Iran and India: critical view. Language in India,
7, 1-11. Retrieved 04/22/ 2014 from http://www. languageinindia.com
dec2007/eltinindiaandiran.pdf
Parke, Margaret B. (1966). Teaching Materials and Their Implementation. Review of Educational
Research, Vol. 36, No. 3 pp. 380-387. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1169798 Accessed:
22-04-2016 05:08 UTC
Tschannen-Moran, M, & Hoy, W, A. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive construct.
Teaching and Teacher Education 17, 783–805.
Abstract
In this paper I consider English writing in the context of what Vertovec calls the ―super-diversity‖
(1024) of multilingual societies. First I discuss the characteristics of multilingual societies, and the
example of Indonesia as a multilingual society with Bahasa Indonesia, the national language, many
regional languages, and languages of the different discourse communities, such as the language used
by socially connected young learners. Second I take up the concept of Vertovec‘s ―super-diversity‖
(1024), and how it might be applied to Indonesia today. Third I discuss general notions relating to
English writing, and particularly the sociocultural theory that has gained good ground in
conceptualisations of how best to teach and learn languages over recent decades (Vygotsky). Finally I
discuss my own practice in working with university students‘ writing through examples of two
particular cases. Salient aspects of my work with these two students are shared in the hope of
illuminating strategies which may be useful for teachers of English writing in Indonesia.
1. INTRODUCTION
In this paper I consider English writing in light of Vertovec‘s ―super-diversity‖ (1024), and
discuss firstly the characteristics of multilingual societies. I provide Indonesia as an example of a
multilingual society: its national language, Bahasa Indonesia, its many regional languages, and
languages of the different discourse communities, such as the language used by socially connected
young learners. The concept of Vertovec‘s ―super-diversity‖ (1024) is discussed, especially as regards
how it might be applied to Indonesia today. General key notions relating to English writing issues are
outlined, particularly the sociocultural theory that has advanced scholars‘ conceptualisations of how
best to teach and learn languages (Vygotsky). Thereafter I discuss my own practice in working with
higher degree research university students‘ writing through examples of two particular cases. My
reflections about what key issues these two students are facing provide a focus for my discussion
about the types of strategies which may be worth considering by English teachers in Indonesia who
face the same issues.
Contemporary classroom contexts in the west and in many developing countries can perhaps
be characterised by the term 'super-diversity', a term initially used to describe diversity in Britain‘s
more recent ―emergent demographic and social patterns… [where] an increased number of new, small
and scattered, multiple-origin, transnationally connected, socio-economically differentiated and
legally stratified immigrants… have arrived over the last decade‖ (Vertovec 1024). If school and
university classrooms can be considered versions of wider society on a micro-scale, then those notions
of super-diversity – emergent demographics, social patterns, multiple-origin, transnationally
connected – are equally able to be applied.
One such multilingual society is Australia. The ‗super-diversity‘ of the Australian context
includes the fact that Australian English is ―the official language of the country and spoken as a first
language by 90% of the population with regional and social variation‖ (Austin 580). There are also
indigenous languages, Aboriginal English, pidgins and creoles and community languages (Austin).
Australian school and university classrooms may thus be considered as super-diverse, with the student
cohort of the 22-plus million inhabitants speaking any mix of the 400 different languages, including
indigenous languages.
Indonesia is ―…a diverse society in terms of people and culture‖ (Erb, Sulisyanto and Faucher 3), with
a population in 2009 of 230 million (Hellwig and Tagliacozzo 1) and possessing 726 of the world‘s
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languages (Romaine 584). The national language, Bahasa Indonesia is ―a variety of Malay‖ (Clayton
432) and is the basis of government policy, societal communication and school and university
curriculum, except where policy allows the teaching and learning of ―different local or regional
languages such as Batak or Javanese‖ (Clayton 432). In 2006, English in Indonesia was classified as
an English of the expanding circle of world Englishes (Kachru 196), alongside China and Thailand. It
is ‗guesstimated‘ that of Indonesia‘s total population of more than 230 million people, approximately
12 million (or 5%) of the population are L1/L2 English users (Kachru 197). Figure 1, the map of
ethnic groups in Indonesia ―from Sabang to Merauke‖ (Hellwig and Tagliocozzo 4), displays the exact
nature of the ‗super-diversity‘ of the Indonesian context.
Multilingual societies
In describing multilingual societies in today‘s globalised world, Romaine states ―bilingualism
and multilingualism are a normal and unremarkable necessity of everyday life for the majority of the
world‘s population‖ (584). The very characteristics of multilingual societies bring inherent
challenges: ―the varied cultural and linguistic existing in contemporary societies around the globe
pose complex challenges for policy makers in many areas‖ (Romaine 584). All aspects of life are
shaped and impacted by language, and the complexity multiplies when people possess more than one
language. Yet for various reasons, people are usually at different proficiency levels in their various
languages. Often there is a need to receive more instruction in the second language, especially in
writing skills. Teachers need therefore to be up-to-date with the best strategies for teaching foreign
and second languages.
3. RESEARCH METHODS
Thesedays postgraduate research degree supervision is considered a teaching activity, rather
than a research activity, in an academic staff member‘s workload in Australian higher education
institutions. It is considered teaching because the activity involved is a type of research ‗training‘. In
the process of regular introspective, reflective evaluation of my higher degree research teaching,
considered as ―a concept of importance for the development of teacher professionalism‖ by Erlandson
(661), I took the following steps to journal my thoughts after recently experiencing critical incidents in
the supervision of two higher degree research students. I am certainly committed to the notion that
teachers ―use conscious reflection as a means of understanding the relationship between their own
thoughts and actions‖, as stated by Farrell (23), and thus track my professional supervision activity in
this way by making notes subsequent to a supervision meeting with my students.
Usually, and depending on which stage the student is at, I meet my research students on a
two-weekly basis. Two weeks between meetings gives them an opportunity to prepare new work for
me to read and critique. I require students to submit the written text to me 2 days prior to a meeting,
giving me sufficient time to read and critique and prepare feedback. In March and in April I spent time
reading two postgraduate students‘ work: Georgia submitting an essay for the coursework section of
her Masters degree, and Sunil writing up the chapter drafts for his Masters dissertation. After my
meetings, I wrote notes about the student, including comments about their writing. My notes are
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running records and quick comments that allow me to recall where I left off with my last feedback,
and for follow-up should I need to consult others to assist me with different aspects of supervision.
First the reflective journal notes are condensed data into categories based on valid inference
and interpretation. Such data analysis, according to Mackey and Gass, has the goal of seeing whether
the ―research findings… emerge from the frequent, dominant, or significant themes within the raw
data‖ (179). This is a ―directed‖ inductive process (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005) where the coding follows
the known theories. Trends and themes are then distilled from the reduced data.
After reading two draft versions of his dissertation chapter, my thoughts on Sunil‘s writing
include the following comments:
Sunil‘s style of writing is highly complex. He seems to take for granted that the target
audience/reader are academics and they supposedly understand technical terms in his
writing. He needs to simplify his writing at sentence level. After my first meeting with him on
the first draft, he told me the way English is taught to adult EFL learners in his country: that
they are given ‗big words‘ and ‗complex grammar‘ to indicate a high proficiency. Now after
the second meeting he has told me that he needs to ‗express‘ instead of ‗impress‘, thus making
the finished produce less complex. His long dependent clauses were encumbering his ability
to convey a clear thought. I told him he really had to work on his prepositions and pronouns
too.
Sunil came to this point in his professional development knowing quite a lot about English,
and quite a lot about English writing. However, I believe he was being encumbered by some rules he
had picked up. I believe Sunil has gone through a process, with my guidance, of needing to ‗unlearn‘
some of what he had first learned about English writing. Sometimes, he has now learned, and
depending on the writing genre, it is more important to simplify sentences and paragraphs. As well, he
has learned that the wrong use of a preposition or pronoun (which can be excused in a verbal
interchange because the interlocutor has more than just written textual clues and can rely on
paralinguistics to make meaning), can totally distort meaning and confuse the reader. Sunil knows
now to take great care with his lists of prepositions and pronouns, to double check the correct options.
Essentially for students in their secondary school years or perhaps in their university studies,
we have a situation where:
- the students are learning to write in English in a context where a curriculum has been written
for them by education authorities who may or might not be familiar with the student cohort
and their disparate needs and experience
- the classroom materials for teaching and learning English writing may or may not be useful
- the teachers/lecturers themselves, native speaker and/or non-native speaker teachers, will be
at different abilities in English writing competencies themselves, and
- the students may face situations where they need to ―unlearn‖ English writing skills, as well
as ―learn‖ new ones.
If all of those impacting factors are present, then the students like Georgia and Sunil need help
with their writing. What often results in much later years is young professionals who need to be able to
write in English, wishing they had developed and focussed their English skills in earlier years. It is
almost like authorities should run courses entitled, English for Wise Students, where an amount of
‗early wisdom‘ guides students into knowing what they will need to know later on.
Georgia is now coming to realise that example texts can provide her entry points to launch
into her writing, and assist her to dispel any fear she has of beginning to write, to put her first ideas into
structured text. As a part of the task of beginning her writing, Georgia has also learned that academic
contexts are replete with structured statements of what writing is required. Georgia needs to learn how
to look for those signposts – those structured statements – then plan carefully to take each one and
frame the chunks of her writing in that structured way.
Sunil needed to address the fact that he could unlearn the compulsion he felt to write complex
paragraphs. Sunil needed to re-learn that his English writing is just the production part of language
use: he does well to remember now that there is the receptive aspect of reading, where his supervisor
(and later examiner) needs to receive and decode the message he wishes to deliver. As his supervisor,
I felt obliged to let Sunil know what was important for me, reading his writing. If he could consider the
reader of his writing, he could plan to simplify his sentence and paragraph structure, and focus on how
the use of a particular preposition or pronoun can be crucial in delivering his message.
5. CONCLUSION
The four notions I now present in my conclusion show my desire to close with useful points
for English teachers to consider in their teaching of English writing. From a closer examination of
what issues existed to block Georgia and Sunil‘s writing progress, the following statements may be
valid for a good number of students:
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- English writers need to learn how to project their thinking about their writing into the minds
of those who will read their work. A simple question might be: If I was reading this, what
would I want to see written?
- English writers need to learn how to decode the signposts provided which guide their
planning to write. Simply, a question to guide them is: What is in the list of tasks I must
undertake to write this task?
- English writers should be guided to write firstly at a very simple level. Layers of complexity
can always be added. A guiding question here might be: Do I know what I am writing, and
why I am writing it - at every point?
- English writers need to know that the sometimes daunting starting point of their writing task
does not need to be a fearful thing. As they make ―notes to self‖, students might reflect: I
know I can produce drafts of my writing, so I should feel less anxious as I begin to write now.
Keeping good humour about students‘ English writing is probably the most important aspect
for both English teachers/lecturers and students of English. Adding an amount of light-hearted
humour might ease students‘ anxiety to an extent, and there are plenty of memes on social media to
assist here. We can never go wrong with, for example, Keep Calm and Start Writing!
REFERENCES
Austin, P.K. ―Australia: Language situation.‖ Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. 2nd ed. Ed.
Keith Brown. New York: Elsevier. 2006. 580 – 585. Print.
Beck, Clive and Kosnik, Claire. Innovations in teacher education: A social constructivist approach.
Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. 2006. Print.
Brutt-Griffler, J. ―Languages of wider communication.‖ Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics.
2nd ed. Ed. Keith Brown. New York: Elsevier. 2006. 690 – 697. Print.
Clayton, T. ―Language education policies in Southeast Asia.‖ Encyclopedia of Language and
Linguistics. 2nd ed. Ed. Keith Brown. New York: Elsevier. 2006. 430 – 432. Print.
Crystal, David. English as a global language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2003.
Print.
Erb, Maribeth, Sulistiyanto, Priyambudi, and Faucher, Carole. Regionalism in post-Suharto
Indonesia. New York: Routledge Curzon. 2005. Print.
Erlandson, Peter. ―The body disciplined: Rewriting teaching competence and the doctrine of
reflection.‖ Journal of the Philosophy of Education 39.4 (2005): 661 – 670. Print.
Farrell, Thomas S.C. ―Tailoring reflection to individual needs: a TESOL case study.‖ Journal of
Education for Teaching: International Research and Pedagogy 27.1 (2001): 23 – 38. Print.
Hellwig, Tineke. and Tagliacozzo, Eric. The Indonesia Reader: History, Culture, Politics. London:
Duke University Press. 2009. Print.
Hsieh, Hsiu-Fang, and Shannon, Sarah E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis.
Qualitative Health Research 15.9 (2005: 1277-1288. Print.
Kachru, B. ―English: World Englishes.‖ Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. 2nd ed. Ed. Keith
Brown. New York: Elsevier. 2006. 195 – 202. Print.
Liao, Hui-Chuan. ―Enhancing the grammatical accuracy of EFL writing by using an AWE-assisted
process approach.‖ System (article in press) (2016): 1 – 16. Web. 20 April 2016.
Mackey, Alison, and Gass, Susan M. Second language research: Methodology and design. Mahwah:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 2005. Print.
Paltridge, Brian., Harbon, Lesley., Hirsh, David., Shen, Huizhong., Stevenson, Marie., Phakiti, Aek.,
and Woodrow, Lindy., Teaching academic writing: An introduction for teachers of second
language writers. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 2009. Print.
Renshaw, Peter D. ―The sociocultural theory of teaching and learning: Implications for the curriculum
in the Australian context.‖ Australian Association of Research in Education 22nd Annual
Conference. Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria. November, 1992. Web.
Romaine, S. ―Language policy in multilingual educational contexts.‖ Encyclopedia of Language and
Linguistics. 2nd ed. Ed. Keith Brown. New York: Elsevier. 2006. 584 – 596. Print.
Simeon, Jemma. ―Learner writing strategies of Seychellois ESL (English as a second language)
secondary school students: A sociocultural theory perspective.‖ Learning, Culture and Social
Interaction 8 (2016): 1 – 11. Web. 20 April 2016.
Vertovec, Steven. ―Super-diversity and its implications.‖ Ethnic and Racial Studies 30.6. (2007).
1024 – 1054. Print.
Vygotsky, Lev Semyonovich. Mind in society. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1978. Print.
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Abstract
This article discusses the development of an English test to prepare for workplace readiness among
Malaysian graduates. This test is considered important to indicate the level of competency of the
graduates before entering workplace. This test focus on the oral competence as it was found that
Malaysian graduates lack communication skills. Six competencies (based on the framework
developed by TOCC) are examined in the test. These are discrete but work together holistically to
make a speaker persuasive and convincing in presentations and discussions: discourse competence
– holistic impression of speaking ability – persuasiveness, articulateness, linguistic competence
– fluency and accuracy of language, interactional competence – ability to give feedback or comment
on another‘s ideas without offending, strategic competence – ability to recover from mistakes, or to
think on feet, socio-cultural and formulaic competence – expected courtesies as heard in common
expressions.
1. INTRODUCTION
Malaysia‘s higher education has grown up tremendously in the last 20 years due to the
shifting of the country‘s economy from agricultural to industrial and service oriented (Kim & Rasiah,
2011). There were seven public universities in the era of 1990‘s which has expanded to 20 by 2007; an
additional of 18 private universities created during the same period. At the same time, there are more
than 500 other higher education institutions, which includes university colleges, branch campuses of
local and overseas institutions, open universities and other institutions with non-university status. The
total number of students enrolled in higher education institutions was 748,797 in 2007. The
Malaysian economy has grown, too during this period at an annual rate of 6.6% for the last 30 years
(Ismail 2011).
The expansion of the economy has produced an abundance of jobs primarily in the industrial
and service sector which requires graduates to fill them. These jobs require skill sets that are different
from those that were needed in a primarily agricultural society. One of the major emphasis is on
communication skills. Many jobs in the industrial sector and most jobs in the service sector rely
heavily on employees to have strong communication skills (Ismail 2011). Of course when
communication skills are mentioned here, it is the global language of English that is referred to.
Despite the expansion of the economy and higher education as well an abundance of jobs in
the industrial and service sector, many Malaysian graduates still do not find suitable employment.
Since 1998, the rate of unemployment has been on the rise consistent with the transition of the
economy from agricultural to industrial and service oriented (Ismail 2011). The employment rate
among graduates is the highest in the country (Singh and Singh, 2008).
Although there are many factors that contribute to the high unemployment rate among
graduates in Malaysia, a lack of English proficiency in general and a lack of communication skills in
particular are the major contributing factors. Ambigapathy and Aniswal (2005) noted that English
language skills in general are the major factor in Malaysian graduates‘ lack of employability. In a
survey conducted with 10 companies that recruited Malaysian graduates, 81% of them reported that
English language proficiency is the utmost important when recruiting graduates. Ismail (2011) found
that graduates may receive adequate training in the technical knowledge related to their field of study,
but do not possess soft skills (communication skills, in particular) needed in the workplace. She
continues by saying that since the official language of Malaysia is Bahasa Malaysia almost all courses
are delivered in this language. As a result of this, graduates may have difficulty communicating in
English upon entering workplace. At the same time employers are also reluctant to hire graduates
based on prior bad experiences with graduate employees with bad communication skills.
Hence, there is a need to prepare graduates with effective oral communication skills in
English that is required by the potential employers. This article presents the development of a
competency test that focus on workplace readiness in Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM). UKM
students were found to be incompetent in speaking and writing in English (Siti Hamin Stapa et al
2008). They also found that students are less able to use English for developing and conveying new
knowledge. Based on the problems in equipping the right intervention for the students, then there is a
need to investigate their level of oral communication. A team of lecturers from the School of
Language Studies and Linguistics proposed to develop a Competency based English Test (CBET).
CBET is a test which is developed to enable UKM students, undergraduate or postgraduate, to
assess how well prepared their oral communication skills are for the multinational workplace.
Hence, this investigation requires a mixed methods approach in which both qualitative and
quantitative data will be utilized. The validation of the proposed instrument would be done
quantitatively and qualitatively.
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It is our belief that the validated proposed test could be used as an alternative to other
well-known proficiency tests to decide on the language ability of the prospective students. We
believed that once the proposed CBET is validated it is appropriate to be used as an indicator to gauge
the students‘ language ability before leaving the university.
The Test
The test is divided into three parts:
1. Monologue
2. Description of tables/graphs
3. Problem solving task (pair work)
FST
The number of test takers given by the faculty is 56 but there are only 40 audio files for Part 1 and 18
audio files for Part II. Most students only responded to Part I. Only 14 students completed all 3 parts
of the test. Therefore, the overall analysis can only be done for the 14 students. The breakdown of the
FST student performance is given in Table 3.
Table 3: Performance of FST Test Takers
Band CBET Part 1 CBET Part 2 CBET Part 3 Overall
No. % No. % No. % No. %
A1 - - - - - - - -
A2 9 22.5 3 16.67 7 18.42 3 21.43
B1 12 30 6 33.33 15 39.47 6 42.86
B2 7 17.5 6 33.33 8 21.05 4 28.57
C1 8 20 3 16.67 6 15.79 1 7.14
C2 4 10 - - 2 5.27 - -
Total 40 100 18 100 38 100 14 100
FTSM
The number of FTSM students with at least one file that could be accessed is 77. Out of this
77, there are only 31 audio recordings for Part 1 and 32 for Part 2. Students either did not attempt the
question or did not provide a file in a format that could be accessed by the raters.
There are 72 student video performances. There are 5 students who have audio files for Part 1
and/or Part 2 but do not have any video performance (Part 3). Only 29 students have completed scores
for all the three parts.
The performance of the FTSM students are presented in the table below (Table 4). Generally,
majority of the FTSM students obtained either a B1 or B2, and there more B2 students than B1.
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FSSK
The number of students who registered is 78 but the number of students who sat for at least
one part of test is 80. This means that 2 students did the test without registering. There were 15
students who had only their video performance. There were no audio-files. This suggests that the
students might not have sent their audio files. There were 3 students with audio files but had no video
performance which means that they left after doing Parts 1 and 2. There were 4 students who
submitted blank files and one students who responded in Malay. There were only 54 students who
completed all the 3 parts of the test. All problematic cases mentioned were excluded from the analysis
of FSSK student performance presented in Table 5.
Table 5: Performance of FSSK Test Takers
Band CBET Part 1 CBET Part 2 CBET Part 3 Overall
No. % No. % No. % No. %
A1 - - - - 2 2.6 - -
A2 2 3.33 5 8.33 13 16.88 1 1.85
B1 14 23.33 10 16.67 21 27.27 15 27.78
B2 21 35 20 33.33 26 33.77 22 40.75
C1 10 16.67 12 20 10 12.98 8 14.81
C2 13 21.67 13 21.67 5 6.5 8 14.81
Total 60 100 60 100 77 100 54 100
Because of incomplete data and other problems summarised below, the test results that have
been presented might not be indicative of actual student performance.
PART 1: Ratings of students’ performance
A1 – Test takers have very limited ability to answer questions. Effort is lacking. They might
on occasions repeat parts of the questions and give up on the task or remain silent. They might attempt
to perform task but fail. Only occasional words or phrases are intelligible.
A2 – Test-takers have limited ability to answer questions. They respond with much effort but
provide limited speech sample and they often run out of time. It is obvious that they cannot fully
answer the questions posed due linguistic weakness but function can be evident. Answers given are
incomplete ideas without substantiation.
B1 – Test- takers can answer questions quite competently. They respond with effort,
sometimes provide limited speech sample and sometimes run out of time. They sometimes use
excessive distracting and ineffective language to compensate for linguistic weaknesses (vocabulary
and/or grammar). Content is adequate. Some listener effort is required.
B2 -- Test- takers can answer questions competently. They provide relevant information,
sometimes with difficulty and usually do not run of time. There are linguistic weaknesses and repair
strategies might be necessary and these could be distracting. Sometimes awkward expressions are
used. Generally, there are good content and supporting details. Little listener effort is required.
C1 -- Test-takers can answer questions very competently. They provide relevant information
freely with little difficulty, and may go beyond the task by using additional appropriate functions.
Very good language and appropriate expressions. Generally, there are very good content and
supporting details. No listener effort is required.
C2 – Test-takers can answer questions very competently and effectively. They provide
information freely with no difficulty and go beyond the task by using additional appropriate functions.
Excellent language and sophisticated expressions. Generally, very strong content and supporting
details. No listener effort is required.
PART 2 : Ratings of students’ performance
A1 – Test takers do not have the skills to understand the test directions and the content of the
test questions.
A2 – Test-takers can do limited description but cannot state their opinion or support it. The
opinion given is either not logical or not relevant. Responses given have very basic vocabulary and
grammar. Generally, the test-takers‘ responses are difficult to understand.
B1 – Test- takers can undertake simple basic description. They can with some difficulty state
their opinion but cannot support their opinion well. Responses given used limited vocabulary and
grammar. Generally, it is possible to comprehend their responses.
B2 – Test- takers can successful describe the graph but grammar and vocabulary used are
limited in variety and range. They have some success in expressing their opinion but their weaknesses
include vocabulary that is not precise enough, answers that are not clear and there seem to be
insufficient audience awareness. It is possible to comprehend their responses easily.
C1 – Test- takers can describe the graph with good grammar and suitable vocabulary. They
have successful expressed their opinion and support them clearly. Use of vocabulary and grammar
when they give their opinion is concise and appropriate. Answers are clear and show audience
awareness. It is possible to comprehend what is spoken with ease at all times.
C2 – Test-takers can do an excellent job in describing by using appropriate grammar and
vocabulary at all times. Opinion given are expressed and supported very clearly and logically.
Answers given are very appropriate and show their abilities to respond not only accurately but
critically. Basically they are very advanced speakers who have succeeded in meeting all the
requirements of the task given.
PART 3 : Ratings of students’ performance
A1 – Test takers display very limited ability to perform task. Effort is evident. They might
repeat prompt and give up on the task or remain silent. They might attempt to perform task but fail.
Only occasional words or phrases are intelligible.
A2 – Test-takers perform task limitedly. They respond with much effort but provide limited
speech sample and they often run out of time. Much effort is required on part of the listener to
understand. It is difficult to tell if task is fully performed because of linguistic weakness but function
can be evident.
B1 – Test- takers can perform task somewhat competently. They respond with effort,
sometimes provide limited speech sample and sometimes run out of time. They sometimes use
excessive distracting and ineffective repair strategies to compensate for linguistic weaknesses
(vocabulary and/or grammar). Content is adequate. Some listener effort is required.
B2 -- Test- takers can perform task competently. They volunteer information, sometimes with
effort and usually do not run of time. There are linguistic weaknesses and repair strategies might be
necessary and these could be distracting. Sometimes awkward expressions are used. Generally, there
is strong content. Little listener effort is required.
C1 -- Test-takers can perform task very competently. They volunteer information freely with
little effort, and may go beyond the task by using additional appropriate functions. Good repair
strategies, appropriate expressions and content are used. No listener effort is required.
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C2 – Test-takers can perform task very competently and effectively. They volunteer
information freely with no effort, and go beyond the task by using additional appropriate functions.
Excellent repair strategies, sophisticated expressions and very strong content are evident. No listener
effort is required.
4. PROBLEMS
A number of problems are identified and will be discussed below.
Students did not attempt all questions and parts
For Part I, raters reported that some students answered only the first question out of the 3
questions. Also, many did not answer Part II or did not appear to know what to say (FPI and FTSM).
This could be due to an error in the task for Part II which could be resolved when the test was
conducted at FSSK, but not at FPI and FTSM. However, when the test was conducted at FST the error
was correct. Nevertheless, only 18 students answered Part II out of 40 students who answered Part I in
FST (Table 3). This could be due to the way the test is conducted at FST.
Quality of audio and video files is poor
Raters for FTSM and FST reported that some of the audio files are barely audible probably
because students spoke very softly. There are also reports of voices overlapping (responses from one
part overlapped with responses from the other).
FST raters reported that the quality of the video files is poor. The videos appeared to have
been taped by the students and that they could hear many voices in the background. This suggests that
there are other students also carrying out the task in the same room. FTSM raters also said that there
are a lot of background noises in the videos. They could hear other students responding to the task in
the background. No quality issue was reported with the video files of FSSK and FPI.
Discrepancy in number of students who registered and number of files received
There are some FSSK students who either did not sent their audio files for Parts 1 and 2 which
involved self-taping or did not do them (Table 5). There were also students who sent blank files. The
reason why is not immediately clear. It could be due to internet access, uploading issue or problems
with taping or smartphone.
File Format that could not be accessed
A number of students from FTSM uploaded their audio files to Goggle Drive or Dropbox and
provided the link to the files via email. Raters reported that they could not access these files which are
in the AAV format.
Difficulty in assessing the test
Raters have problems rating some of the files because of the sound quality. Some raters could
not meet the deadline despite being given a month to do so as it was during the semester and they are
busy with classes etc. As the rating involves 2 raters, some have problems meeting up with their
partners as required.
5. RECOMMENDATIONS
The committee suggests the following changes to solve the problems highlighted above:
Streamline the test and response mode
The test will only has 1 task with 3 / 4 questions instead of the current 3 tasks. Test takers
would be required to talk about themselves, and be given real world scenario that requires them to
problem solve and think critically to come up with solution(s). The students will not be required to
discuss in pairs.
Test takers‘ responses will be audio-taped in the computer laboratories, if available.
Alternatively, they would be audio-taped using the students‘ own smartphones. With the change to the
test, the test takers only need to send in one audio file solving the problems of missing files or not
attempting certain tasks. There would be no video-taping as not all faculties have facilities to do this,
and asking the students to video-tape themselves have proved to be problematic. This also facilities
assessing as the examiners only need to give one score.
Dissimilate Information about CBET prior to the test
Sample test items with clear instructions on the mode of assessment, and the dos and don‘ts
will be dissimilated to test takers at least a week before the test so that they would not only be able to
practice and be familiar with using their smartphone to tape their response but also the pitfalls of
self-taping could be overcome.
6. CONCLUSION
With the implementation of these changes, the committee believes that the problems
encountered could be minimized and that CBET will not only be more test-taker and examiner-
friendly, but also more practical.
REFERENCES
Ambigapathy, P. and Aniswal, A.G (2005) University Curriculum: An Evaluation on Preparing
Graduates for Employment, University Sains Malaysia: National Higher Education Research
Institute).
Gurvinder Kaur Gurcharan Singh & Sharan kaur garib Singh. (2008). Malaysian graduates‘
employability skills. [Online] Available:
http://ejournal.unitar.edu.my/articles/Gurvindermalaysian Graduate.pdf (August 15, 2008)
Ismail, N.A. (2011). Graduates Characteristics and Employment : A Study among Malaysia
Graduates, International Journal of Business and Social Science, 2 (16), 94-102.
Kim, Peong Kwee & Rasiah, D. (2011). A Study on Ethical Investment Behaviour among Malaysian
General Insurance Fund Managers , Journal of Financial Studies & Research, Volume 2011
(2011),
Stapa, S.H., TG Maasaum, TNR, Mustaffa, R, and Darus, S. (2008) Workplace Written Literacy and
Its Effect on the Curriculum. GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies 8(1), 23-33.
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Abstract
The aim of language teaching is to enable learners to be fluency in the language being learned. Some
efforts have been done by the teachers in the process of teaching and learning in language class such
as using various methods and strategy of teaching to make the students learn in the class but the
results are still far from the expectation. Multimedia, that can be found easily nowadays, can be used
to enhance the learners‘ language skills. The use of silent story, picture cued, TV news, comic strips
are among the multimedia that can be used by teachers as the solution to make the learning process
more motivated for the learners to practice their language skills orally and in written form.
Multimedia has a power to motivate learners practice their language in a contextual situation then
they acquire the language.
1. INTRODUCTION
Instructional systems and educational technology have been gaining great attention by
educators in order to enhanche students‘ learning. Educators are always looking for ways to make
their educational initiative more effective. Therefore, the learning experience has shifted paradigms
from an instructor-focus appproach to learner centered pedagogical approach. Educators have been
adapting their curricular to take advantage of new instructional methods. Educational technologies
such as multimedia presentation, simulation methods, online courses, and computer assissted learning
are becoming commonplace (Yamauchi, 2008).
At the beginning, learning was done in the form of a dialogue between teachers and students,
as Plato‘s dialogues with his student Aristoteles, that solely used of teacher‘s voice in implementing
the learning process. When the teacher's voice alone is not sufficient to explain something, then
teaching aids was used by writing or drawing something on a flat area, which was known as the
chalkboard or blackboard. Chalkboard did not simply write a words, phrases, and sentences, but it is
also used to draw objects or graphs that need to be explained. Technological developments, changing
blackboard increasingly diverse both in terms of form, quality, and function, but remain solely serve
as a visual learning.
In foreign language learning, the first visual media used using a blackboard media is a simple
image in the form of stick figure, to explain object, action, or idea. For a talented persons, they can
make a better picture for the provoking productive and receptive language skills. Blackboard can be
used to write new vocabularyies, phrases, or sentences, and to practice in writing sentences by
language learners. Blackboard is solely the medium of instruction used by teachers in the classroom.
Some methods of teaching originally used by teachers are grammar translation method, direct
methods, total physical response, and audio-lingual (Larsen-Freeman, 1986), where the interaction of
teachers and students was done through voice of teachers to explain learning materials, conduct drills
to practice the language learned, practice the language being studied, and test the ability of oral and
written language to cummunicate with others. The emergence of communicative language learning
and communicative approach gives a new nuance in the importance of learning in order to improve the
understanding and skills in the language learners to master the language learned. Instructional media
are used to help teachers explain and practice the language.
The development of gadget technology has changed the role of teaching media. Everyone
now has one or more gadget that can access texts, pictures, videos and music. All of them can be used
as a medium of learning a foreign language. Foreign-language text can be read by language learners to
practice reading. Video, in the form of YouTube, can be accessed any time to listen how information
and entertainment in a foreign language can be understood. The students can learn not ony from
teachers but from any sources that be accessed easily through internet.
Learning is defined as the process of creating an environment that enables the process of
getting knowledges or skills. Learning is the mental activity of students in interacting with the
environment that produces behavioral changes that are relatively constant. Thus, the environment is
an important aspect in learning activities. The environment is created by rearranging the elements that
can change the behavior of students. Multimedia is one of the elements that can affect students'
learning environment. Multimedia can stimulate the mind, feelings, concerns and willingness to learn
so that the learning process takes place to achieve the objectives. If the selected instructional
multimedia developed and used appropriately and well, it will provide enormous benefits to the
implementation of instructional process (Ariasdi, 2008).
About teaching and learning, Brown (1994) mentions that ―learning is acquiring or getting of
knowledge of a subject or a skill by study, experience or instruction. Learning is a relatively
permanent change in a behavioral tendency and is the result of reinforced practice‖. He, then,
continuous that ―teaching is guiding and facilitating learning, enabling the learner to learn, setting the
conditions for learning‖. Similarly, teaching may be defined as ―showing or helping someone to learn
how to do something, giving instructions, guiding in the study of something, providing with
knowledge, causing to know or understand.‖ So, teaching cannot be defined apart from learning.
Teaching is guiding and facilitating learning, enabling the learner to learn, setting the conditions for
learning.
To set the conditions for learning, the use of media is very useful in teaching. Research at
Harvard Business School shows that the learning outcomes of students taught using audio-visual
media is 38.5% better than the group that was taught with traditional methods. Further research
indicates that the information received by the human brain comes from the five senses, in comparison
can be expressed as follows: sense of taste 1%, sense of touch 1.5%, sense of smell 3.5%, sense
listening 11%, and senses seeing 83%. The last report explained that what we can remember on
average through the five senses are: 10% of what we read, 20% of what we hear, 30% of what we see,
50% of what we hear and see, 80% of what we say, and 90% of what we say and do. This suggests that
the best conditions for teaching students are participating, namely reading, listening, seeing, saying
and doing (Zaim, 1990). Instructional media can help teachers to activate as many senses as possible
in learning.
Zaim (1989) says that instructional media can help to simplify the learning process, allow the
students to better understand the content of what being taught, help to shape the learning prcess, and
can stimulate interest in the language program and thus provide for a motivational impulse. The media
can serve as a source of linguistic information, models of linguistic, cultural resources, and cultural
model. A picture is worth a thousand words. With a picture, the teacher can instill concepts, uncover
ideas, making a conversation, and write an essay (Zaim, 1991). Instructional media can be single
media (audio or visual) and multimedia.
2. WHAT IS MULTIMEDIA?
Multimedia is media that connects two or more media elements consisting of text, graphics,
images, photographs, audio, video and animation integratedly. Multimedia can be divided into two
categories, namely linear multimedia and interactive multimedia. Linear multimedia is multimedia
that is not equipped with any control device that can be operated by users. This multimedia is running
sequential, for example, TV and Film. Interactive multimedia is a multimedia which is equipped with
a controller that can be operated by the user, so that the user can choose what he wants for the next
process, for example, gaming applications, and interactive learning multimedia (Ariasdi, 2008).
Mayer (2001) defines multimedia as the combination of various digital media types, such as
text, images, sounds, and video, into an integrated multi-sensory interactive application or
presentation to convey a message or information to an audience. Multimedia allows to convey the
understanding of a topic in a variety of ways, provide the students with opportunity to explain their
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ideas to others (Ivers and Baron, 2010). Multimedia is the presentation of instructional content to
certain target population via some instructional materials such as graphics, audios, and videos (Eristi,
Haseski, Uluuysal, and Karakoyun, 2012). So, multimedia is media that utilizes a combination of
different content forms displayed or accessed using computerized or electronic devices. In education,
multimedia resources allow the user to go through a series of presentations, text and associated
illustrations about a particular topic in various information formats.
Moreover, Ivers & Baron (2010) and Nunes & Guba (2011) state that there are some main
elemens which make up a typical multimedia program, they are text, image, video, animation, sound,
interactivity, and user control. Text is the on-screen display of words. They should be easy to read. The
use of different styles, fonts and colour can be used to emphasize specific points. Image is a picture of
an object. It has more impact than merely reading about the words. Video can help make learning more
meaningful to students. Animations are a series of graphic images that are shown in rapid succession
and fool the eye into seeing motion. Sound can be used in strategic parts of the program or during a
movie to emphasize certain points. This may include speech, audio effects, and music. Interactivity
refers to the action that occurs as two or more objects have an effect upon one another. User control is
to provide students with the option to use or leave certain parts of the application. Besides the criteria
above, Ampa at all (2013) add that the contents of multimedia materials should be very interesting and
engage the students in learning. The design should display particular skill relevant with the students
and the language should be appropriate, understandable, and very accurate. Multimedia allows
teachers to integrate text, graphics, animation, and other media into one package to present
comprehensive information for their students and to guide students to achieve specified course
outcomes (Yamauchi, 2008). Multimedia permits the demonstration of complicated prcess in a highly
interactive, animated fashion and that instructional material can be interconnected with other reated
topics in a more natural and intitive ways (Crosby & Stelovsky, 1995).
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minimum of the given level. For instance, in studying ―tourism‖ topic verbal supports may be
presented by names of historical sites, places of interest of a particular country.
b) Verbal-pictorial support
Slides with verbal and pictorial support are combination of images with the title slides,
inscriptions of various kinds, etc. This type is the most popular because it has an effect on
imagination, feelings and it allows combining verbal and visual image.
c) Graphic support
Slides with graphic support are slides with charts, diagrams, dates, pictures, etc. Students should
describe and discuss what they see, exchange opinions on what they know about the person and
the picture by operating the knowledge received earlier in class up to the utmost.
2) Video Presentation
Viedo provides simultinuous audio-visual input and complete contextualized conversations. It
contains captivating storyline, true-to-life scenarios, on-location scenes, various social
interactions, realistic yet easy–to-follow linguistic and cultural information (Hwang, 2005). By
viewing videos, learners can observe social, cultural, and discoursal conventions, and even go
through a range of emotional experiences along with characters (Diyyab, 2013). Instructional
videos have certain characteristics, they represent lasting records, they can be collected, edited
and recombined, and they sustain a set of practices that are very different from traditional
teaching (Brophy, 2008). Video can also be presented in the form of silent story where there is no
conversation or sounds in the film.
3) Animation
Animation is the process of making the illusion of motion and change by means of the rapid
display of a sequence of static images that minimally differ from each other (Wikipedia).
Animation is the process of displaying still images in a rapid sequence to create the illusion of
movement (Wisegeek, 2016). Animation is a simulation of movement created by displaying a
series of pictures or frames. (Beal, 2016). Cartoons on television is one example of animation.
Animation on computers is one of the chief ingredients of multimedia presentation.
Hwang (2005) states that the multimedia video material develops the students‘ understanding
of English-specific ways of thinking, of lexical/syntactic choices, and of formulaic expression. Aldera
(2015) investigates multimedia strategies to aid L2 listening comprehension in EFL environment. He
found that listening comprehension is improved more when multimedia is used than audio alone is
used. This may signify that the greater the amount of multimedia is used in listening comprehension
classes the better the listening skills will be.
7. CONCLUSION
Multimedia allows integration of text, graphics, audio, and motion video in a range of
combination. The result is that learners can now interact with textual, aural, and visual media in a
wide range of format. With multimedia, teachers can expose not only aural processing opportunities,
but multi modal, simultaneous sight, sound, and test. Multimedia supports teaching English as foreign
language. Multimedia can enhance the students ability to communicate orally and in written form with
the language being learned.
REFERENCES
Aldera, A.S. (2015). Investigating Multimedia Strategies to Aid L2 Listening Comprehension in EFL
Environment. Theory and Practice in Language Studies. 5 (10), 1983-1988.
Ampa, A.T., Rasyid, M.A., Rahman, M.A., Haryanto., Basri, M. (2013). ―The Implementation of
Multimedia Learning Materials in Teaching English Speaking Skills‖. International Journal
of English Language Education, 1 (3), 293-304.
Ariasdi. 2008. Pengantar Multimedia Pembelajaran. https://ariasdimultimedia.wordpress.com/
2008/02/12/panduan-pengembangan-multimedia-pembelajaran.
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Zaim, M. (1990). Penggunaan Media Pendidikan dalam Pengajaran Bahasa Inggris. Padang: FPBS
IKIP Padang.
Zaim, M. (1991). Media Gambar untuk Pengajaran Bahasa Inggris. Padang: FPBS IKIP Padang
Zaim, M., & Refnaldi. (2016). ―From Need Analysis to Multimedia Development: Using
Exe-Learning in Developing Multimedia Based Listening Matarials‖. Paper presented at 51st
RELC International Conference, 14-16 March 2016.
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Abstract
With an ever-increasing focus upon English for specific purposes (ESP) programs being advanced in
East Asia, training both English learners and young in-service professionals to enable their entry into
a specific discourse community has become necessary. Without the ability to engage and interact in
English within a professional specialty, it will be difficult for any society to maintain pace with, or
advance in, the global community. But what are the types of skills, the hallmarks of belonging, that are
required for entry into and participation in professional discourse communities (PDCs)? Moreover,
what does it mean for the Asian non-native English speaker to enter into such a community? Does this
type of internationalization require an abandonment of local norms and subsequent absorption into
Anglo-American modes of communication? This paper attempts to answer these questions by drawing
upon a compilation of the author‘s recent research regarding the management of spoken medical
English, both in Japan and Southeast Asia, focusing in particular upon English conference English
presentations and in vivo medical workplace discourse. Based upon the author‘s previous fieldwork
in this area, it will be demonstrated that management of professional discourses does not require
conformity to an Anglo-American standard. However, to avoid dependency upon overly localized
varieties of English that do not conform to the emerging standards of international discourse
communities, particular attention should be paid to the following often underappreciated aspects of
international professional discourses, 1) speech event opening gambits and transitions 2) the use of
semi-academic formulaic phrases in academic presentations, and 3) the use of ellipsis and other
abbreviated forms in the professional workplace. Samples from 1) Medical conference presentations
2) Doctor-Patient history taking, and 3) Nurse-Nurse workplace dialogues will be used to
demonstrate the value and importance of each of these features.
1. INTRODUCTION
1. Balancing the local and the international in professional English discourses
The exponential growth in economics and technology over the past 50 years seen in almost all
Asian societies has spurred a need for English speakers who can engage others within wider
international communities. Participation within various professional or specialist discourse
communities (PDCs) is crucial to maintaining this ongoing development, both economically and
educationally. But, for the English teacher, what does it mean to train learners or practitioners to
become a participant in a given professional discourse community? What are the essentials that mark
entry into such communities that ESP teachers in particular should be focusing upon?
Over the past 17 years I have been training both medical students and medical working
professionals in Japan so that they might become active participants within the international medical
discourse community. However, both administrators and medical practitioners often believe that all is
required for specialist English learners is a basic mastery of general English (EGP), decorated with a
subsequent sprinkling of terminology, and topped with a more nuanced, detailed grammaticality.
In fact however, through a combination of field research, workplace observations, and my
own teaching practice, I would argue that the hallmarks of practical specialist speech discourses that
deserve greater consideration from teachers and trainers are threefold: 1) the considered use of
opening and transitional strategies in speech, 2) the use of various types of ellipsis and abbreviated
forms in workplace speech, and 3) the deployment of semi-formulaic academic phrases in academic
discussion sessions such as conferences. In this paper, I will outline the arguments as to why I
advocate such an approach, applying observations from my own research practice, supported by
related studies on the essential features of teaching ESP discourse.
One essential feature that has become apparent of most international discourse communities
is that it represents a truly internationalized notion of English – it is not confined by Anglo-American
standards or norms, culturally, pragmatically, or stylistically (Kirkpatrick, 2011). In short, participants
need not adhere to mimic Anglo-American norms of discourse, even though this remains the model
most represented in the region‘s teaching materials and textbooks (Hamied, 2012; Kirkpatrick, 2012).
But while specialist professional discourses have come to recognize, and even enhance, the legitimacy
of various localized Englishes (Canagarajah, 2007), there remain international norms of discourse that
need to be adhered to. The three areas of focus that I will introduce today serve as testaments to these
qualities, as although they do not represent Anglo-American norms neither are they so localized as to
invite communicative breakdown among participants. However, before discussing the three aspects of
professional discourses that I consider crucial, let‘s first look at a brief overview of the status of Asian
Englishes within a PDC context.
2. Being an Asian English speaker within a Professional Discourse Community
Although the stable variety of what Kirkpatrick calls ‗entity English‘ (2012), the norms
utilized within the Anglo-American English sphere, remains the standard in written English
throughout Asia within education and academia, spoken English has increasingly become the
province of localized forms of English, referred to by Canagarajah (2007) as Lingua Franca English
(LFE), a term that should be distinguished from the more well-known, English as a Lingua Franca
(ELF). The former represents a code that is dynamic and constantly negotiated by its users – it is not a
single, stable variety. It represents not the accumulation of notable varieties found in the region
(Singapore‘s Singlish, the Philippine‘s Taglish etc.) but rather the form of English that emerges when
members of these communities interact with each other, forms that are mutually negotiated and yet do
not conform to Anglo-American norms.
Prior to the development of the Asian Corpus of English (ACE) headed by Kirkpatrick (2014),
and the susequent increasing awareness of an Asian LFE, Seidlhofer‘s research team at the University
of Vienna and developed a corpus of an European English as a lingua franca (ELF) known as VOICE
(2013), which indicated that even within academic, professional, and specialized discourse
communities, canonical ‗rules‘ of spoken English were regularly being broken in a manner that
reflects not so much the innate abilities of the native English speaker or as an indicator of an
individual‘s interlanguage development, but rather the innate capacity of the English language itself.
In my own observations of Englishes used by Asian speakers of English at medical
conferences within Asia as well, speech forms emerged with consistency and regularity that indicated
a more ‗localized‘ management of English, a form negotiated and mutually agreed upon by the
participants, but which in no way impeded communication (Guest, 2011, 2014, 2016). Note the
sample of medical conference presentation English forms (taken from Guest, 2014) uttered a
minimum of five occasions by effective and competent Asian English speakers of at least three
different nationalities presented below. The actual spoken form is represented on the left side with the
‗standard‘ form appearing on the right:
Table 1. Non-standard speech forms of Asian NNES at International Medical Conferences (adapted
from Guest, 2014)
Three colonoscopy were performed during two Three colonoscopies were performed during two
separate period separate periods
May have some advantage to do by endoscopy There may be some advantages in doing it by
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endoscopy
What is most immediately noticeable about these forms is that many conform to patterns that
have also been widely noted in the VOICE corpus, particularly the dropping of pronouns, objects, and
articles when meaning could still be conveyed adequately. However, what is even more significant is
how closely this coheres with Canajagarah‘s (2007) argument that, ―Language learning and use
succeed through performance strategies, situational resources, and social negotiations in fluid
communicative contexts. Proficiency is therefore practice-based, adaptive, and emergent.‖ (p. 921).
Even in regard to the English used within PDCs by those for whom English is very much still a second
language, such as those living in a multilingual community like Indonesia, and/or whose English skills
are still in the developmental stage, can perform as members of an English-speaking PDC .
In my own experience and observations at Asian medical conferences (Guest, 2013), attitudes
and expectations surrounding those who are not fully proficient in English were treated by fellow
community members with a linguistic magnanimity that fostered, and in many ways defined, their
entry into and membership in that PDC.
The bottom line is that these developments represent a boon for the Asian NNES. Young
professional NNESs need not be intimidated by a pressing necessity to mimic Anglo-American
speakers of English. Forms and interactions that are representative of larger Asian cultural, linguistic,
and interactive norms are increasingly accepted into, and regularly mark, professional communication.
No intrinsic sacrifice of local identity is called for, no necessity to attain the so-called ‗native standard‘
is warranted. With this in mind then, let‘s now take a look at the three points that I argue are crucial,
yet often underappreciated, features of English-speaking PCDs in Asia.
2. DISCUSSION
Indicators of participation within a professional discourse community as noted in from
three different types of speech events
For the purposes of this paper, I would like to discuss how salient features of discourse such as
opening and transitional gambits, the use of elliptical forms and semi-formulaic academic phrases, all
often ignored by teachers and trainers, were managed in three distinct types of professional medical
discourses 1) Academic conference presentations, 2) Clinical service encounters (doctor-patient
history taking), and, 3) High-intensity nursing workplace scenarios. Although the examples presented
come from the domain of medicine, readers should understand that many of these features can readily
be applied to cross-disciplinary contexts (Hyland, 2009).
not to mention Grice‘s maxim of quantity. This habit was noted far more among North Asian
presenters (Japan, Korea, China) than those from South or Southeast Asia and thus perhaps represents
a cultural value placed upon ceremonial formality found in those cultures that is not as abundant in
other settings.
Apologizing in advance for one‘s English also established an uncomfortable or adversarial
tone, as if the speaker were begging for leniency or special conditions, when in fact the majority of
speakers were fellow NNESs. This attempt to establish an interpersonal connection through often
backfired. The attempt at self-deprecation could be interpreted as a ready-made excuse for poor
performance, often creating a sense of palpable discomfort in the audience. The propensity to
apologize for one‘s English is in fact misplaced. NNES have nothing to apologize for, nor do
less-than-proficient speakers of English. In fact, it could be argued that apologizing in advance might
even encourage mediocrity, fostering pre-assembled negative expectations for the speaker‘s
shortcomings.
Lighthearted and anecdotal stories and comments were chosen as opening gambits largely to
establish a relaxed and more intimate relationship with the audience. However, this choice was far
more effective in plenary and keynote sessions, where the speaker not only is more well-known as a
personality in the field but also because these sessions generally last 30-90 minutes, much longer than
the 10-20 minutes generally allotted to parallel session speakers.
The most effective presentations tended to include opening gambits in which the speaker met
audience expectations by immediately launching into their research contents. Within this strategy,
several effective openings patterns have been noted (Guest, 2013). Among these were: beginning with
a rhetorical question, beginning with a statement challenging orthodoxy, beginning with the known
and thereafter moving to expressing the unknown (which also serves to acknowledge the audience as
peers), providing relevant background information immediately, and/or beginning with a variation of
the presentation title or a very general outline or statement of purpose.
In my observations, each of these strategies had the effect of meeting audience expectations
regarding the content-heavy quality of academic parallel presentations and thus helped to establish a
suitable interpersonal dimension in which the audience and presenter moved in synch with
academic/professional conference presentation norms. In virtually all presentations observed, these
opening strategies paved the way for the most effective and impacting performances.
b. Transitional phrases
A feature that regularly marked effective NNES medical conference presentations was the
careful choice and deployment of transitional phrases. These are the discourse signals that provide or
indicate the flow between rhetorical sections in the presentation, very often connected – but not
limited to – the advancement of presentation slides.
In my conference presentation observations, ineffective presenters often failed to give
considered use to the deployment of transitional phrases, instead relying on a combination of
single-word connectives (‗so/but/and/next/then‘) or by simply stating section headings
(‗summary/conclusion‘), often without regard for the actual discursive function of the word. It was
simply used as an acoustic marker accompanying the change of presentation slides but carrying no
rhetorical or descriptive weight.
However, because academic presentations often utilize crucial rhetorical cohesion patterns
such as question-answer, cause-effect, chronological sequencing, and induction/deduction, it is
essential that the device used to mark the transition as a direction signal, better allowing the audience
to understand the nature and flow of the rhetoric. Some of the notable transition markers commonly
utilized by effective NNES conference presentation speakers included those shown in table 2 below:
Table 2. Common transitional discourse markers used by proficient Asian NNES speakers in
conference presentations
Following this/that… Getting back to our main point…
It is important to note… So far I‘ve discussed/focused upon X so now I‘ll
move on to Y…
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Interestingly, I also noted that those speakers who utilized such effective transitional phrases
were not always the most fluent English speakers, however their considered choice of transitional
phrase impacted their intonation, ushering in greater dynamism in tone and character. This also
enabled the audience to better understand the rhetorical flow of the presentation, as well as allowing
both the speaker and audience to draw a cognitive breathing space and pace themselves adequately.
All in all, transitional phrases play an important role in establishing the flow and direction of
an oral conference presentation and the guidance function that they serve represent yet another
interpersonal dimension of conference presentations. Teachers and trainers would do well to
emphasize them more when training young academics and professionals to perform well at
international conferences.
Unlike the conference presentation forms mentioned earlier, medical clinical encounters must
employ a more delicate balance of power relationships, maintaining the authority of the doctor (or
other medical professional) while maintaining the dignity of the patient and recognizing that one is
offering a service to a customer.
A. Opening gambits
In my own classroom experience with 1st year medical students, there is a tendency to
overlook the civility and courtesy of beginning a clinical encounter with a common greeting and the
use of the patient‘s name (to establish a mutually respectful tone) in favor of immediately initiating a
history taking. When 106 of my 1st year medical students were asked at the beginning of a
communicative medical English course how they would open such a clinical encounter, only 6
responded with some type of interpersonal dimension, the others opting for a thoroughly
informational opening (―What‘s wrong? What‘s the matter?‖). Interestingly however, Glendinning &
Holmstrom‘s (2011) first dialogue from the textbook ‗English in Medicine‘, used in my own
Communication English courses, begins a doctor-patient encounter (p. 92) as follows:
Dr: Good morning Mr. Hall. So, what‘s brought you along today?
Not only does this greeting and use of name establish an interpersonal dimension at the head
of the speech event, the form of the opening ‗present complaint‘ question extends this amicable tone.
Other initially popular choices among students, such as, ‗What‘s the matter?‖ or ―What‘s wrong?
appear somewhat stark and cold, perhaps even face-threatening.
b. Transitions
The use of explicit means of marking a transition in the discourse should also be noted. The
use of ‗so‘, as a discourse marker indicating the opening of the medical history speech event further
serves as an interpersonal function, softening the transition from greeting/salutation to medical history
taking, adding a degree of levity to the proceedings.
Abrupt changes in tone or topic without accompanying signals can confuse or alienate a
patient. In the ‗English in Medicine‘ sample dialogue cited earlier, the topical transition occurs after
the doctor has proceeded through a series of history taking questions focusing on, among other things,
duration, location, other symptoms. The transition then occurs as follows:
Patient: Well, the wife, my wife, she says that I seem to be getting a bit deaf.
Dr.: Oh! Well, Mr. Hall, at this stage I think I‘d like to check your ears…
The doctor marks the transition from history taking to physical examination first with a
summative, ‗Oh!‘ The following item, ‗well‘, indicates that the dialogue will now move from an
interview format to a suggestion. The name of the patient is then used again, a further signal that the
structure of the discourse is about to change. Finally, the explicit transition marker, ‗I think at this
stage‘, is used to usher in the beginning of the physical examination.
By marking the transition in such a way, the doctor ensures the cooperation and understanding
of the patient. Once again, an easily overlooked feature of professional workplace discourse should be
considered of great importance, both interpersonally and in terms of managing the encounter.
Awareness of and utilization of forms as simple as these mark PDCs and should be inculcated among
learners and young practitioners.
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standard workplace speech events. Prominent among these were roll call (the pre-shift briefing given
by a head nurse to the gathered team of nurses under his/her care) and handover (nurse to nurse
briefings given as the shift and patient responsibility changes). For the purposes of our discussion,
let‘s focus on discourse features noted in examples taken from each type of speech event.
a) Openings and transitions
In almost all of the high-intensity nursing workplace scenarios I observed, the roll call and
handover speech events began with an decisive ―Ok‖ followed by either a number (representing the
bed number of the patient under discussion‘s) or some type of existential framing of data (―There
is…‖, ―We‘ve got a…‖).
Such truncated and stark openings, the hallmark of a busy workplace where time is limited,
can be contrasted with the expectations of Japanese nurses, whose roll calls typically began with a
formalized or ceremonial statement explicitly marking the beginning of the speech event, a feature
widely associated with Japanese workplace discourse. One (translated) example I noted in a Japanese
hospital was as follows:
―Everybody, thank you for your hard work. Now, if it‘s all right, I would like to start today‘s roll call.
Is everyone prepared? Starting with room x…‖
Japanese nurses expecting this type of elaborate opening in Southeast Asian workplace
settings might be ill-prepared for the lack of any explicit opening gambit for such set speech events.
With Indonesian and Philippine nurses now being employed in Japan and in other countries in the
region, the norms and standards regarding openings, transitions, and the use of ellipsis and
abbreviations – those elements that most emphatically mark the localized discourse – need to be
understood by learners and young professionals in order to effectively participate within such a
workplace.
Transitions in these high-intensity nursing workplace scenarios were markedly different from
those noted in academic presentations, partially because these events were more dialogic in nature, but
also due to time constraints and power considerations. Handover scenarios were often performed
effectively using only ‗so‘ as a turn-taking marker, a weak choice in an academic presentation but a
very appropriate one in a one-on-one high-intensity scenario. In roll calls transitions were regularly
marked by explicit requests for clarifying comments or further questions were typically initiated by
more powerful of the speakers, usually indicating that they completed a turn (―So, unless anything
else, that‘s all‖).
Once again, for learners unfamiliar with the interactive norms of the workplace, an
understanding of how transitions in discourse is signaled should be considered a central feature of
active participation within that PDC.
Nurse A: So, still radiating, now extending to lower leg. Hypertensive meds. X stable. PTOP (?) was
just now so just document it. And x was restarted again.
Nurse B: So, so far no y. She already knows, yeah?
Nurse A: No, the y is still there. So today‘s review is x, tomorrow blood, and they‘ll do the x-ray. So far
blister still isn‘t broken…
This exchange is marked by a significant degree of negotiation between two speakers of
differing L1s. However, because they share the same nursing discourse protocols they are able to
decode the intensive workplace data through a shared understanding of the rapid-fire nature,
manifested in the abbreviated and elliptical forms, employed in this type of speech event. NNES
nurses expecting a more formulaic discussion involving full and complete grammatical form might
well struggle in such an encounter. The need to negotiate in abbreviated and elliptical forms is
paramount, and once again represents a feature that deserves greater consideration when developing
classroom materials or lessons.
3. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
In this paper I have outlined in brief some of what I consider to be the essential marks of
participating within an English-speaking professional discourse community (PDC), particularly for
the NNES Asian professional or student. Based on my research into both presentation and workplace
discourse within the region, as well as my years of medical English teaching practice in Japan, it has
become apparent that an ability to use appropriate opening and transitional phrases, both in academic
presentations and within the professional workplace, is an essential marker of belonging to a PDC.
Furthermore, the ability to deploy semi-formulaic academic phrases in professional-to-professional
speech events such as conference English, and utilize abbreviated/elliptical forms in high-intensity
workplace scenarios are common markers of PDC membership throughout the region.
However, these features are often under-appreciated by ESP teachers and trainers, even those
who hope to foster in their learners skills that will enable them to actively participate within such
PDCs. ESP curricula and course designers would do well to include these features and teachers should
try to heighten learner awareness of them when formulating their lesson plans.
Moreover, it should be remembered and reinforced that mastering such skills does not require
adherence to an Anglo-American standard or English nor does it imply any specific cultural milieu.
While the Asian continent is host to a great number of distinct Englishes and differing micro-cultures,
the forms and strategies used across to communicate in PDCs across the region can be taught and
acquired as distinctly Asian norms and values, without a loss of local identity nor submission to an
‗international standard‘ that ignores the identity of the individual learner.
Hamied (2012) has argued that for a country such as Indonesia, with its vast number of local
languages and cultures and an intricate relationships both to the national Bahasa Indonesian language
and English as well as the need among many working professionals and academics to speak in English,
calls for competence in performance, not native-like proficiency in English, wherein English can still
also be used as a means of expressing ones local identity.
This combination of reflecting the local while balancing the global (a phenomenon sometimes
referred to as glocal) should represent a welcome direction for both ESP teachers and learners. ESP
courses and classes can help foster skills that truly enable a learner to perform effectively within an
international PDC without losing his or her local identity.
REFERENCES
ACE. (2014). The Asian Corpus of English. Director: Andy Kirkpatrick; Researchers: Wang Lixun,
John Patkin, Sophiann Subhan. http://corpus.ied.edu.hk/ace/ (last accessed Feb. 10/2016).
Canagarajah, S. (2007). Lingua Franca English, Multilingual Communities, and Language
Acquisition. The Modern Language Journal, 91: 923–939.
doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4781.2007.00678.
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2016
Abstract
English language teaching in high schools in Indonesia is carried out based on a nationally compiled
curriculum which tends to be standardized and prescriptive – one for all (Widodo, 2016). In reality,
the situation in which English is taught and learned is highly complex, due to the interaction of a
number of variables, such as political, economic, and geographical factors, as well as the school, the
teachers, and the students (Richards, 2002). Therefore, in order to teach successfully, the teacher, as
the implementer of the curriculum, needs to interpret this policy creatively in accordance with the
situation and context in the field. According to Matsumoto (2009: 160), creativity is ―the capacity to
produce new art, ideas, techniques, or other products which are useful, aesthetically appealing,
meaningful, and correct within a particular field.‖ In this paper, I will explain the different forms of
the teacher‘s creativity in teacahing -- the knowledge and skills of the teacher in selecting and
applying the appropriate teaching strategies for transforming the lesson (Huizinga, Handlezalts,
Nieveen, and Voogt, 2013). In addition to broadening our understanding of the concept of creativity in
the teaching of the English language, it is also hoped that this paper will provide input for teachers in
the implementation of their pedagogical duties in the field.
Keywords: teacher‘s creativity, mandated curriculum, pedagogical practice, and particular contexts
1. INTRODUCTION
During the last 40 years, Indonesia has undergone six changes in the curriculum for primary
and secondary school education, namely the 1975 Curriculum, 1984 Curriculum, 1994 Curriculum,
2004 Curriculum, 2006 Curriculum, and 2013 Curriculum (Hamied, 2014). Each of these curriculums
has different characteristics, from the point of view of the language theory, the theory for language
teaching, and the design of the lesson. The curriculums mentioned above are among five curriculum
models proposed by Burns and Joyce (2007), namely the Centre to Periphery Model, Genetic Model,
De Facto Model, Goals-Objectives Model, and Outcomes Model. From the point of view of the
teacher‘s role, some of these curriculums offer broad autonomy to the teacher for planning and
implementing the lesson (for example the Goals-Objectives Model), while others leave little room for
the teacher‘s creativity (for example the Centre to Periphery Model). In the Centre to Periphery Model
of curriculum, the teacher is required to follow as closely as possible the stipulations that have been set
by the designers of the curriculum, which in general is on a national level, while in the
Goals-Objectives Model of curriculum, the teacher is given the freedom to determine the objectives of
the lesson, the lesson procedure, the type of activity, the text book used, and the model of assessment.
1 A paper presented at the 4th International Seminar on English Language and Teaching (ISELT-4)
with the theme ―Igniting a Brighter Future of EFL Teaching and Learning in Multilingual
Societies‖, hosted by the English Department, Faculty of Language and Arts, Universitas Negeri
Padang, 11 – 12 May 2016.
2
JOKO NURKAMTO teaches ―Language Curriculum and Materials Development‖ in the English
Department of the Teacher Training and Education Faculty, University of Sebelas Maret, Surakarta,
Central Java, Indonesia. He received his Doctorate in English Education from Jakarta State
University (Indonesia) in 2000, and earned his professorship in 2004. His research interests include
language curriculum development and teacher professional development.
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The central government only determines the general goal of the teaching in relation to the level of
language skill that should be acquired by the student.
In the Indonesian context, the 2006 Curriculum, which is known as Kurikulum Tingkat
Satuan Pendidikan or KTSP (School Based Curriculum or SBC) is closer to the Goals-Objectives
Model. As the name sugggests, SBC gives the freedom to each school, or to a group of schools in the
same area, to design, implement, and evaluate its own curriculum. This policy is founded on the
assumption that the school understands its own needs in accordance with the context and situation in
which the school exists. The central government only determines the standard of competence and the
basic competence for each level of education as the minimum criteria that must be met nationally by
all school graduates (The Decree of the Minister of National Education of the Republic of Indonesia
Numbers 22 and 23 Year 2006). Schools with the potential to do so are encouraged to develop and
implement a curriculum which is above this minimum standard (The Decree of the Minister of
National Education of the Republic of Indonesia Number 24 Year 2006).
Unfortunately, before 10 years had passed, the 2006 Curriculum, which was in fact more
suitable for the multicultural and multilingual nature of the Indonesian nation, was replaced with the
2013 Curriculum. According to Hamied (2014: 17-18), this change in curriculum was due to four
main reasons, namely ―current global challenges, required competencies, current negative phenomena
especially among young people, and discouraging perceptions among Indonesians regarding
education.‖ In connection with this, Widodo (2016: 127) states that the replacement of the 2006
Curriculum by the 2013 Curriculum ―has much been driven by the ideological and political agenda
instead of pedagogical benefits of interested stakeholders (e.g. students, teachers, and parents).‖
Based on its characteristics, the 2013 Curriculum is closer to the Centre to Periphery Model, which
tends to be prescriptive in nature and allows little opportunity for the teacher to be creative (Burns and
Joyce, 2007). The question is, what can the teacher do with this curriculum? This paper intends to
answer this question.
(A curriculum is a set of plans and blueprints for students‘ learning outcomes, teaching materials,
teaching process, and assessments to run courses of study.
language teaching program (Richards, 2002). This is where the importance of the teacher‘s creativity
lies, since the teacher is the person who develops and implements the curriculum and needs to be
supported by a design expertise which includes curriculum design expertise, subject matter
knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, and curriculum consistency expertise (Huizinga,
Handlezalts, Nieveen, and Voogt, 2013).
In general, creativity is understood to be ―the ability to juxtapose ideas in a new and unusual
way to find solutions to problems, create new inventions, or produce works of art.‖ (Strickland, 2001:
167). More specifically, creativity refers to certain aspects, which Kozbelt, Beghetto, and Runco
(2010) refer to as the six Ps, namely person, process, product, place, persuasion, and potential. A
similar view is expressed by Richards and Cotterall (2016), who state that creativity can be regarded
as a person, process, and product. If it is viewed as a person, then creativity refers to expertise, such as
that of mathematicians, architects, writers, and other groups in terms of the traits that may be
indicative or contraindicative of creative potential. If it is viewed as a process, creativity refers to the
nature of the mental mechanisms that occur when a person is engaged in creative thinking or creative
activity, which typically specify different stages of processing. And if it is viewed as a product,
creative products include works of art, inventions, publications, musical compositions, and so on,
which can usually be counted, thus permitting considerable quantitative objectivity (Kozbelt,
Beghetto, and Runco, 2010).
If this is applied to a curriculum, creativity is needed in the planning process, the teaching
process, and the evaluation process (Graves, 2009). The planning process includes the activity of
analyzing the students‘ needs and the analysis of the situation; the determining of the main goals and
the objectives of the teaching; and the transformation of the goals into the material and activity of the
teaching. The teaching process includes the activity of using a particular approach or method and
material for teaching that is appropriate for the needs, competence, and interests of the students. The
evaluation process includes the activity of selecting and using the right evaluation techniques for
reviewing the effectiveness of the teaching process and measuring the learning outcomes of the
students. In addition to these three processes, creativity is also needed in class management, especially
in managing the role of the teacher and the students and the effects caused by the distribution pattern
of these roles (Mayes, 2013).
With this in mind, it can be concluded that creativity in a curriculum refers to the activities of
designing, implementing, and evaluating the teaching in an appropriate and dynamic way in
accordance with the context, situation, or environment in which the teaching is taking place, so that
the lesson will be conducive to achieving the goals that have been agreed upon beforehand.
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evaluation, standard of educators and educational staff, standard of equipment and facilities, standard
of management, and standard of costs. The standard of competence is divided into three levels,
namely primary school level, junior high school level, and senior high school level, each of which has
a different scope and depth (Attachment to the Decree of the Minister of Education and Culture
Number 54 Year 2013 about the Standard of Competence for Graduates of Elementary and Secondary
Education).
The teaching material is developed based on competence so that it fulfils aspects of
compatibility and adequacy. While previously the competence was derived from the subject taught, it
has been changed so that the subject taught is now developed based on competence. The material also
accommodates local, national, and international content. In order to accommodate the concept of
equal content between public high schools and vocational high schools, a curriculum structure has
been developed for high school education which is made up of a group of compulsory subjects and
another group of optional subjects. The optional subjects are intended to provide an additional feature
for the function of the education unit, and contain choices to suit the interests of the student
(Attachment to the Decree of the Minister of Education and Culture Number 69 Year 2013 about the
Basic Framework and Structure of the High School/Madrasah Aliyah Curriculum).
The teaching process is oriented towards achieving competence in the student, including
attitude, skill, and knowledge. The implementation of the teaching uses a scientific approach which
gives priority to discovery learning and project-based learning. The standard of the process, which
was originally focused on exploration, elaboration, and confirmation, is now complemented with
observing, asking, processing, presenting, concluding, and creating. In its implementation, the
teaching not only takes place in the classroom but also in the rest of the school environment and also in
the community. Therefore, the teacher is not the only source of learning. Attitude is not taught
verbally but rather through example (Attachment to the Decree of the Minister of Education and
Culture Number 65 Year 2013 about the Standard of Process in Primary and Secondary Education).
The teaching evaluation is implemented on a competence basis. There has been a shift in
evaluation, from evaluation solely through tests (in which the competence of knowledge is measured
based on results alone) to more authentic testing (in which the competence of attitude, skill, and
knowledge are all measured based on process and results). In order to maintain the quality of
education, the criteria for achieving competence are based on criterion-referenced evaluation, which is
the achievement of learning outcomes based on the position of the score obtained by the student in
comparison to the ideal (maximum) score. Evaluation is not on a level of basic competence but also
core competence and the standard of competence for graduates (Attachment to the Decree of the
Minister of Education and Culture Number 66 Year 2013 about the Standard of Evaluation in
Education).
In connection with the English subject matter in the 2013 Curriculum, Agustien (2014)
focuses her review on the theory of linguistics, the theory of applied lingusitcs, approaches and
methods. Agustien argues that the 2013 Curriculum adopts a systemic functional linguistic (SFL)
theory, ―that sees language as a resource for making meaning, for interacting with others, and for
communication.‖ (p. 40). In connection with this, Derewianka (2004: 3) states that ―A functional
approach looks at how language enables us to do things ... It is concerned with how people use real
language for real purposes. At the heart of a functional model of language is an emphasis on meaning
and on how language is involved in the construction of meaning. It sees language as a resource for
making meaning.‖ Hence, in the opinion of Gerot and Wignell (1995: v), ―good functional grammar
can help language teachers be more effective teachers, since language teachers usually find they need
to be discourse analysts in their own classrooms.‖
The theory of applied linguistics in the 2013 Curriculum is related to the primary goal of
language teaching, which is building communicative competence among students (Agustien, 2014).
Brown (2007: 219) refers to communicative competence as ―that aspect of our competence that
enables us to convey and interpret messages and to negotiate meanings interpersonally within a
specific context.‖ In order to achieve this competence, a language learner must have a command of the
six pillars which make up this communicative competence, namely linguistic competence,
socio-cultural competence, formulaic competence, interactional competence, strategic competence,
and discourse competence (Murcia, 2007). Of these six elements, discourse competence lies at the
centre of the construction of communicative competence. According to Murcia (2009: 46), discourse
competence refers to ―the selection, sequencing, and arrangement of words, structures, and utterances
to achieve a unified spoken message. This is where the top-down communicative intent and
sociocultural knowledge intersect with the lexical and grammatical resources to express messages and
attitudes and to create coherent texts.‖
Consistent with the theory of linguistics discussed above, the 2013 Curriculum adopts a
genre-based approach (GBA), which aims to develop both verbal and written communication
(Agustien, 2014). Referring to Derewianka (2011), Agustien suggests two cycles (verbal and written)
and five steps, namely building knowledge of the topic, learning about the text type, guided practice in
using the text type, independent use of the text type, and reflecting on the text type and its use. Here,
Agustien (2014) sees a discrepancy between the linear approach to language teaching and the
linguistic theory on which it is founded, that is between the genre-based approach (GBA) and the
approach suggested by the Ministry concerned, which is a scientific approach (SA) that is derived
from the framework of science teaching. In the 2013 Curriculum, all subjects must use this scientific
approach.
After looking at the 2013 Curriculum in its entirety, Widodo (2016: 138-139) sees that the
curriculum is inclined to be prescriptive in nature since it ―dictates what and how to teach and learn
English within the remit of pre-determined competencies. Both core and basic competencies are set
based on the ideological and political agenda.‖ He goes on to elaborate four weaknesses of the 2013
Curriculum. First, its core competence and basic competence do not reflect communicative language
competence or the totality of the competences that students have to develop to become competent
users of English. Second, the 2013 Curriculum marginalizes the role of the teacher as the person who
designs the curriculum and develops the teaching material. Third, pedagogically, the teacher must
follow five teaching steps (in the scientific approach), as specified in the curriculum, which may not
be appropriate to the real condition in the field. Fourth, in the 2013 Curriculum, evaluation still places
priority on cognitive evaluation through formal assessment.
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communicative language teaching, cooperative language teaching, the silent way, and the natural
approach (Freeman, 2000; Richards and Rodgers, 2014). Selecting and using an appropriate teaching
strategy means selecting and using a teaching strategy that suits the context or situation in which the
teaching is taking place. Context plays an extremely important role in the selection and use a teaching
strategy. Different contexts should produce different teaching strategies. This is what led
Kumaravadivelu (2003: 1) to say that ―there is no best method out there ready and waiting to be
discovered.‖ It may be that a strategy which is considered appropriate and which works in a particular
situation or context does not work well in another context. Appropriateness is measured based on a
number of parameters, such as the goal of the teaching (For what purpose is the teaching being
implemented?), the competence of the students (Are they fast learners or slow learners?), and the
teaching facilities available (Are there teaching facilities available that are needed for the effective
implementation of the teaching?). As an illustration, discovery learning is more suitable to be used in
teaching where the outcome is related to the process rather than the product (Westwood, 2008).
Therefore, the teacher needs a comprehensive outlook of the context and situation in which the
teaching activity is being implemented.
where class sizes are usually large (between 30 and 40 students), the teacher needs to adapt the
teaching strategy. On this subject, Richards and Rodgers (2014: 350) give the following suggestion:
A more flexible way of considering approaches and methods is to see them as a resource that
can be tailored to the teacher‘s needs. This view of the relationship between teachers and
methods assigns a greater role to teacher creativity and individuality and positions method in a
supporting rather than a controlling role. The method is viewed as providing a core set of
principles and procedures that can be adapted and modified to the teacher‘s teaching context.
5. CONCLUSION
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The topic of this paper is teachers‘ creativity in transforming the mandated curriculum, which
has been established by Central Government, into a teaching practice in a variety of different contexts
and situations, such as is found in Indonesia. I have discussed a number of important issues related to
this topic, such as creativity in curriculum reappropriation, the context of the mandated curriculum,
and designing a linguistically and culturally diverse pedagogical practice. The final topic, which is the
main idea I wish to present in this paper, comprises three sections, namely the criteria for creativity in
teaching, the forms of creativity in teaching, and the prerequisites for creativity in teaching. There are
five forms of creativity that teachers can use in their teaching, namely selecting and using an
appropriate teaching strategy, combining two or more teaching strategies, changing strategies while
the teaching process is taking place, adapting the teaching strategies, and creating new teaching
strategies. The implication of all this is that teachers need to have a wide repertoire of teaching
strategies which can provide them with a source that can be used in accordance with the needs and
goals of the teaching. In addition, teachers also need to have knowledge and solid skills about
reflective practice in teaching.
REFERENCES
Agustien, Helena I.R. (2014). The 2013 English curriculum: the paradigm, interpretation and
implementation. In Handoyo Puji Widodo and Nugrahenny T. Zacharias (Eds.), Recent issues
in English language education: challenges and directions (pp.39-64). Surakarta: Sebelas Maret
University Press.
Brown, H. Douglas. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching (5th Ed.). New York:
Pearson Education.
Burns, Anne and Joyce, Helen de Silva. (2007). Challenging requirements: how teachers navigate to
make changes within required curricula. In Anne Burns and Helen de Silva Joyce (Eds.),
Planning and teaching creatively within a required cirriculum for adult leaners (pp. 1-14).
Virginia: Teachers of English to peakers of Other Languages Inc.
Derewianka, Beverly. (2004). Exploring how texts work. Sydney: Primary English Teaching
Association,
Farrell, Thomas S.C. (2013). Reflective teaching. Virginia: TESOL International Association.
Freeman, Diane Larsen. (2000). Techniques and principles in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Gerot, Linda and Wigness, Peter. (1995). Making sense of functional grammar. Sydney: Gerd
Stabber.
Graves, Kathleen. (2000). Designing language courses: a guide for teachers. Boston: Heinle & Heinle
Thomson Learning.
Graves, Kathleen. (2009). Series editor‘s preface. In Katleen Granes and Lucilla Lopriore (Eds.),
Developing a new curriculum for school-age learners (pp. v-vi). Virginia: TESOL
International Association.
Hamied, Fuad Abdul. (2014). Curriculum change: what does it mean to Indonesian TEFL?. In
Handoyo Puji Widodo and Nugrahenny T. Zacharias (Eds.), Recent issues in English language
education: challenges and directions (pp.13-37). Surakarta: Sebelas Maret University Press.
Huizinga, Tjark; Handelzalts, Adam; Nieveen, Nienke; and Voogt, Joke M. (2014). Teacher
involvement in curriculum design: need for support to enhance teachers‘ design expertice.
Journal of cucciculum studies, 46 (1), 33-57.
Jones and Richards. (2016). Creativity and language teaching. In Rodney H. Jones and Jack C.
Richards (Eds.), Creativity in language teaching: perspectives from research and practice
(pp.3-15). New York: Routledge.
Kumaravadivelu, B. (2003). Beyond methods: macrostrategies for language teaching. New Haven:
Yale University Press.
Matsumoto, David (Ed.). (2009). The cambridge dictionary of psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Mayes, Eve. (2013). Negotiating the hidden curriculum: power and affect in negotiated clasrooms.
English in Australia, 48 (3), 62-71.
Nation, I.S.P., and Macalister, John. (2010). Language curriculum design. New York: Routledge.
Nuh, Muhammad. (2013). Lampiran Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan nomor 69
tahun 2013 tentang kerangka dasar dan struktur kurikulum sekolah menengah atas/madrasah
Aliyah. Jakarta: Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan.
Nuh, Muhammad. (2013). Lampiran Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan nomor 54
tahun 2013, tentang standar kompetensi lulusan pendidikan dasar dan menengah. Jakarta:
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Nuh, Muhammad. (2013). Lampiran Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Republik
Indonesia nomor 65 tahun 2013 tentang standar proses pendidikan dasar dan menengah.
Jakarta: Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan.
Nuh, Muhammad. (2013). Lampiran Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Republik
Indonesia nomor 66 tahun 2013 tentang standar penilaian pendidikan. Jakarta: Kementerian
Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan.
Richards and Cotterall. (2016). Exploring creativity in language teaching. In Rodney H. Jones and
Jack C. Richards (Eds.), Creativity in language teaching: perspectives from research and
practice (pp.97-113). New York: Routledge.
Richards, Jack C. (2002). Curriculum development in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Richards, Jack C. and Rodgers, Theodore S. (2014). Approaches and methods in language teaching.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Soekarnoputri, Megawati. (2003). Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia nomor 20 tahun 2003 tentang
sistem pendidikan nasional. Jakarta: Sekretarian Negara Republik Indonesia.
Strickland, Bonnie (Ed.). (2001). The gale encyclopedia of psychology. Detroit: Gale Group.
Tan, Charlene. (2016). Teacher agency and school-based curriculum in China‘s non-elite schools.
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Westwood, Peter. (2008). What teachers need to know about teaching methods. Victoria: Acer Press.
Widodo, Handoyo Puji. (2016). Language policy in practice: reframing the English language
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Abstract
Much has been written about the benefits of extensive reading, which include increased positive
attitudes towards reading, increased scores in reading comprehension ability and increased reading
speed and fluency. Well-implemented extensive reading programmes can thus improve students‘
reading competency and motivate them to read more. As a result of their wide reading, they are more
likely to increase their knowledge, which lead greater linguistic and academic competence. This
paper argues for the use of literary texts to engage students in extensive reading in the EFL
classroom. In addition to improving their linguistic ability, the students are exposed to creativity in
language, to different social and culture worlds embedded in texts, and to enjoyment through the
reading of literature. Various strategies for using literary texts such as reading aloud, organizing
literary reading circles, complementing extensive reading with intensive reading of literary texts,
book cluster selection will be discussed in this paper.
1. INTRODUCTION
Much research has documented the strong correlation between independent reading and
academic achievement (Kirsch et al., 2002), and extensive reading has been widely promoted as a
strategy for increasing and improving student reading (Krashen, 2004). Extensive reading can lead to
increased reading speed and fluency, vocabulary gains, increased score in reading comprehension
skills and most importantly, increased positive attitudes towards reading (Renandya & Jacobs, 2002).
Well-implemented extensive reading programmes can thus improve students‘ reading competency
and motivate them to read more. As a result of their wide reading, students are more likely to increase
their knowledge, which lead to gains in academic achievement (Cunningham & Stanovich, 1998).
Since motivation is an important factor in students‘ choice to read voluntarily (Gambrell, 2013),
motivating unengaged readers to read should be one of the most important aims of extensive reading.
This paper argues for the use of literary texts to engage students in extensive reading in the
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom. The success or failure of extensive reading
programmes can be measured by whether students are encouraged to read independently and whether
students are given the opportunity to read a wide range of well-written texts. John McRae (1991)
distinguishes between literature with a capital ‗L‘ and literature with a small ‗l‘. Literature with a
capital ‗L‘ refers to classic canonical works by writers such as William Shakespeare and Charles
Dickens. On the other hand, literature with a small ‗l‘ refers to popular fiction, fables and song lyrics.
Both kinds of literature are creative works, and offer much potential for improving enjoyment,
empathy, creativity and language improvement. In the following sections, I will first discuss the kinds
of literature suitable for extensive reading, and then, various strategies for reading literature in the
EFL classroom.
YA literature is a relatively new genre. Before the 1990s, it was more typically associated
with romance and growing up novels, but has since then, ―come of age as literature – literature that
welcomes artistic innovation, experimentation, and risk-taking‖ (Cart, 2008). YA Literature is defined
by Robert Carlson (in VanderStaay, 1992, p. 48) as literature where the protagonist is either a teenager
or one who approaches problems from a teenage perspective. Such novels are generally of moderate
length and told from first person. Typically, they describe initiation into the adult world, or the
surmounting of a contemporary problem forced upon the protagonist(s) by the adult world. Though
generally written for a teenage reader, such novels – like all fine literature – address the entire
spectrum of life.
The Hunger Games trilogy by Suzanne Collins is a striking example of a contemporary YA
literature that has caught the attention of the public, especially because it has been adapted into a
movie series. The dystopian series features a strong female protagonist, has an exciting plotline and
deals with the larger themes of class and society, the role of the media, the role of power, and the
power of sacrifice, among others. High quality YA series are appealing because readers can identify
with the characters and story, and are encouraged to read more books by the same author. Moreover,
series books also allow readers to build communities around their books as they read and talk about
their reading (Jones, 2015). Reading a series around a particular topic can encourage students to read
more of the same kinds of books. For example, students might be encouraged to read The Maze
Runner series by James Dashner and other dystopian literature after reading The Hunger Games.Other
than series books, students can be encouraged to read award-winning YA literature. A Monster Calls
by Patrick Ness was awarded the CILIP Carnegie Medal in 2012. Jim Kay was also awarded the
CILIP Kate Greenaway Medal for his illustrations of the book.
The monster showed up just after midnight. As they do.
Conor was awake when it came.
He‘d had a nightmare. Well, not a nightmare. The nightmare. The one he‘d been having a lot
lately. The one with the darkness and the wind and the screaming. The one with the hands
slipping from his grasp, no matter how hard he tried to hold on. The one that always ended
with –
―Go away,‖ Conor whispered into the darkness of his bedroom, trying to push the nightmare
back, not let it follow him into the world of waking. ―Go away now.‖
(Introduction from The Monster Calls)
The introduction of A Monster Calls reads like a horror story, but as the story unravels, one
learns that Conor, the protagonist, is learning to deal with his mother‘s impending death from cancer.
The text is rich in description and literary symbolism, but holds the attention of the reader at the level
of the story about a boy learning to deal with loss and death. For students who might find the novel too
difficult to read on their own, read aloud can be employed as a strategy for students to appreciate and
understand the story. Reading aloud is a useful strategy to expose students to different literary texts
and tease them into reading the full novel. One teacher has shared about how she has read aloud A
Monster Calls for her upper primary students. Her students enjoyed the book tremendously and
looked forward to the daily read aloud sessions. Some students, unwilling to wait to find out what
happened, borrowed the book and completed it on their own. Helping students to select good stories
and rich literary texts can allow for deeper conversations around their readings.
Multicultural literature
Other than using YA literature, using multicultural literature is another way to encourage
extensive reading in the EFL classroom. While there are various definitions of multicultural literature
(see Cai, 1998 for a comprehensive discussion), I find Yokota‘s (1993) inclusive definition of
multicultural literature as ―Literature that represents any distinct cultural group through accurate
portrayal and rich detail‖ most useful. In contrast to canonical Western literature with its dominantly
white European-American male perspectives, multicultural literature exposes students to literature
written from different parts of the world. Multicultural literature includes the literature that is distinct
to one‘s own non-Anglophile culture, and can provide a way for students to understand one‘s own
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culture and other cultures. In helping students to select multicultural literature for reading, it is
important to remember to exposure students to books that are both international and local so that they
have opportunities to understand diversity both globally and within the national context (Loh, 2009).
In Singapore, students enjoy reading novels that are set in Singapore or Asia. Books like Sing
to the Dawn by Ho Minfong (about a Thai girl achieving her dreams of studying) and Gone Case by
Dave Chua (about a adolescent boys‘ experience of growing up) are culturally relevant to students.
Our teenage students identify with the adolescent protagonists and are able to relate to the issues that
are set in more familiar Asian contexts. Ensuring that students have access to a wide selection of
multicultural literature allows them to firstly, access their own worlds, and secondly, to expand their
knowledge of other worlds. It is one way of expanding students‘ horizons of what they read (Said,
1993). In an increasingly globalized world, it is extremely important that we expose our students to
literatures from all over the world. It is particularly vital for students in our interconnected Asian
context to read each other‘s literature for greater understanding of our neighbours. As such, English
teachers should curate and ensure that a wide selection of multicultural literature is available to their
students for reading. Perhaps we can have conversations with EFL teachers in different Asian contexts
to exchange suggestions for books to read to learn more about each culture.
Extensive reading can also be complemented with intensive reading of literary texts. For
example, a unit on fairytales can include in-class intensive reading of fairytales to understand the
narrative structure, and complemented with a supplementary list of fairytales to be read for extensive
reading. This way, students‘ in-class discussion can deepen their out-of-class readings and vice versa
as they have a chance to be immersed in understanding the narrative structure and various fairytales.
Another example: a unit on popular culture can include non-fiction and fiction texts, and students can
be encouraged to read YA literature that deal with contemporary issues meaningful to them. Newberry
winner Linda Sue Park‘s A Long Walk to Water is based on the true story of Salva Dut, a Sudanese lost
boy, and the fictional story of Nya, a young village girl, and how their paths cross. Its issue of access
to clean water is relevant to our students, and the themes of belonging, survival, and unity are
important for understanding our world today. Students can be given a list of common books and
tasked to read at least one of the books for extensive reading. Excerpts from these books can be used
for intensive reading to further encourage students to read these books and to scaffold their
understanding.
In addition, talking about books can generate greater interest in books and help students to
understand the books and language better. Providing opportunities for students to discuss books read
in the form of literary book clubs (Daniels, 2002) or even informal chat sessions allow students to
share about the books read and cultivate a peer culture that supports reading. Through these
opportunities to have conversations about books, it is hoped that the students can learn to ―author rich
literate selves‖ and ―want the life of a reader and envision that for themselves‖ (Calkins, 2001, pp.
8-9).
Finally, it is vital that teachers themselves are wide readers (Cremin et al., 2014). Being
familiar with literature will allow teachers to recommend the right books to students and enthuse them
with their own reading. Teachers should ensure that the books recommended are available to students
by checking that they are stocked in either the class or school library. Access to a wide variety of good
literature is important to encourage students pick up books of their own accord and to read for pleasure
(Loh, 2015).
3. CONCLUSION
Encouraging the reading of literary texts in extensive reading allow students to immerse
themselves in enjoying a text, learning empathy, cultivating creativity and contributing to language
improvement. Students should be encouraged to read both literature with a capital ―L‖ and with a
small ―l‖ in the form of YA literature, multicultural literature and western classics. By ensuring
student access to rich literary texts, teachers can cultivate students‘ acquisition and appreciation of
English. Through such extensive reading, students can also widen their view of the world and of
language, thus learning to read both the world and the word (Freire & Macedo, 1987).
REFERENCES
Bruner, J. (2002). Making stories: Law, Literature and Life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
Cai, M. (1998). Multiple definitions of multicultural literature: Is the debate really just "ivory tower"
bickering? The New Advocate, 11(4), 311-324.
Calkins, L. M. (2001). The art of teaching reading. NY: Longman.
Cart, M. (2008). The value of young adult literature. Retrieved April 22, 2016, from
http://www.ala.org/yalsa/guidelines/whitepapers/yalit
Cremin, T., Mottram, M., Collins, F. M., Powerll, S. & Safford, K. (2014) Building communities of
engaged readers: Reading for pleasure. NY: Routledge.
Cunningham, A. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (1998). What reading does for the mind. American Educator,
1-8.
Daniels, H. (2002). Literature circles: Voice and choice in book clubs and reading groups. Portland,
ME: Stenhouse Publishers.
Freire, P., & Macedo, D. (1987). Reading the word and the world. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey
Publishers, Inc.
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Gambrell, L. B. (2013). Reading motivational engagement: Research trends and future directions. In
P. J. Dunston, S. K. Fullerton, C. C. Bates, P. M. Stecker, M. W. Cole, A. H. Hall, D. Herro &
K. N. Headley (Eds.), 62nd Yearbook of the Literacy Research Association (pp. 43-52).
Altamonte Springs, Florida: Literacy Research Association.
Jones, S. A. (2015). Children reading series books: Ways into peer culture and reading development.
Changing English, 22(3), 307-325.
Kirsch, I., de Jong, J., Lafontaine, D., McQueen, J., Mendelovits, J., & Monseur, C. (2002). Reading
for change: Performance and engagement across countries Paris: Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development.
Krashen, S. D. (2004). The power of reading: Insights from research (2nd edition ed.). Portsmouth,
NH: Heinemann.
Larson, L. C. (2015). E-books and audiobooks: Extending the digital reading experience. Journal of
Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 69(2), 169-177.
Loh, C. E. (2015) Building a reading culture in a Singapore school: identifying spaces for change
through a socio-spatial approach. Changing English 22(2), 209-221.
Loh, C. E. (2009). Reading the world: Reconceptualizing reading multicultural literature in the
English Language Arts classroom in a global world. Changing English, 16(3), 287-299.
McRae, J. (1991). Literature with a small 'l'. London: MacMillan.
Neuman, S. B., & Celano, D. (2012). Giving our children a fighting chance: Poverty, literacy, and the
development of information capital. NY: Teachers College Press.
Renandya, W., & Jacobs, G. (2002). Extensive reading: why aren't we all doing it? In J. C. Richards &
W. Renandya (Eds.), Methodology in Language Teaching (pp. 295-302). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Said, E. W. (1993). Culture and imperialism. United Kingdom: Vintage.
Turner, M. (1998). The literary mind. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
VanderStaay, S. (1992) Young Adult Literature: A Writer Strikes the Genre. English Journal 81(4),
48-52.
Yokota, J. (1993). Issues in selecting multicultural children's literature. Language Arts, 70, 156-167.
Author Biography
Loh Chin Ee is an Assistant Professor in the English Language and Literature Academic Group at the
National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University. She is the co-editor of Teaching
Literature in Singapore Secondary Schools (Pearson, 2013), Little Things: an Anthology of Poetry
(Ethos, 2013) and Teaching Poetry to Adolescents: a Teachers‘ Guide to Little Things. Her book, The
Space and Practice of Reading: A Case Study of Reading and Social Class in Singapore, will be out in
end-2016 (Routledge). She is Book Review co-editor of Pedagogies, and international journal, and
founder of enl*ght, a NIE-based student-run publication for Literature teachers. Her research interest
is in Literature education, reading and school libraries for 21st century learning.
PARALEL SPEAKERS
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Abstract
Text messages have become common media of communication in this era. Face-to-face interactions
between teachers and students have often been replaced by virtual communication through these
media. In practice, such a communication may create breakdown due to the language which is used
in them. Politeness features which serve an essential buffer for a successful interaction are
sometimes neglected. The research was aimed at analyzing politeness issues appearing in English
and Indonesian text messages. The communication took place between Indonesian students at the
English Education Department of Sanata Dharma University Yogyakarta and their teachers. Thirty
text messages were collected from various teachers and then they were analyzed. The analysis
revealed that there were features in the text messages which did not abide by the principles of
politeness. It could be seen among others from the diction and absence of greetings and address
terms. The situation was potentially able to induce discomfort on the receiver‘s part and it may affect
the flow and success of communication. From the findings it could be concluded that not all of the
senders had sociolinguistic competence. Such senders often disregarded the concepts of social
distance and power relation, which should actually be taken into consideration while texting their
teachers.
1. INTRODUCTION
Communication nowadays has been made easier with the advancement of technology.
People may communicate with each other through a variety of modern tools, such as through mobile
phones. Distance among people is minimized as these modern means of communication are able to
connect people wherever they are. In addition to using short message service, the existence of
numerous messenger applications, such as Whatsapp messenger and Blackberry Messenger, have
made communication faster and easier. The use of this gadget along with messenger applications in
education domain is also unavoidable. Not only has it been used to communicate among students or
among teachers, but now it is also used to replace a face to face interaction between students and
teachers. Instead of meeting the teacher in person or giving him/her a call, which is definitely more
costly, students will send text messages to their teachers with whom they want to communicate.
The growing use of text messages in academic setting has raised the issues of politeness.
Some teachers have been heard making complaints about the students‘ use of language in the text
messages sent to them. The complaints were largely about the text messages which were seen to be
lacking politeness seen from the receivers‘ viewpoint. This happens both in the text messages written
in English and in Indonesian.
The research was aimed at analyzing English and Indonesian text messages which were sent
by the English Education Department students of Sanata Dharma University to their teachers in light
of politeness features. Thirty text messages were collected from a number of teachers and then they
were analyzed. The analysis focused on describing the students‘ use of languages in the messages
and analyzing whether the languages adhere to politeness theories.
The following part elaborates the theories that underlie the research. They are theories on
language variation and code choice, politeness, factors which afftect politeness, and sociolinguistic
competence.
1. Language Variation and Code Choice
Language use varies from person to person. The variation, according to Holmes (2001), is
determined by gender, education, social status, interactional status, speech events, interlocutors, and
the group(s) one wishes to be identified with (or, sometimes, disassociated from). Speakers select a
particular code, or language, by considering some social factors (Holmes, 2001). Addressee is one of
the factors. In any interaction, speakers always plan their utterances with the addressee in mind.
Other factors are social context of the talk and the topic of discussion.
Furthermore, a code is selected by taking account of social distance. It means that how well
the participants know each other will determine the language to be used in the interaction. Certain
linguistic choices indicate social relationship that the speaker perceives to exist between his/her
interlocutor. In addition, status relationship (including social role), degrees of formality of an
interaction, and the function or goal of the interaction, be it affective or referential, should also be
taken into consideration in selecting a certain code.
In describing code choice, an area called discourse domain is employed. Domain refers to a
number of typical interactions which are relevant in describing patterns of code choice in many
speech communities. Holmes (2001: 20) states that ―A domain involves typical interactions between
typical participants in typical settings.‖ It implies that domain constitutes three elements; they are
topic, participants, and setting. For example, a conversation about throwing a birthday party for a
family member will be one of the typical topics in family domain.
2. Politeness
Politeness is a central issue in language learning. Being linguistically polite means that a
speaker has the ability to select linguistic forms which express the appropriate degree of social
distance or which recognize relevant status or power differences (Holmes, 2001). By so doing, the
speaker will make his/her conversation partners at ease because his/her feelings are taken into
consideration. To successfully do so, a speaker needs cultural knowledge as the degree of politeness
is different between one culture and another. Such knowledge requires the speaker‘s awareness of
‗face‘ and the sense of self and of the addressees (Brown and Levinson, 1987).
The concept of politeness is related to Goffman‘s work on ‗face‘ (as cited in Brown and
Levinson, 1987). Face means ―the public self-image of a person. It refers to ―the emotional and social
sense of self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize‖ (Yule, 1998: 60). The
purpose of face is to avoid embarrassing the interlocutors or making them feel uncomfortable (Brown
and Levinson, 1987). From the definition, two kinds of face are derived, namely positive face and
negative face. According to Brown & Levinson (in Wardhaugh, 2002: 272), the former refers to ―the
desire to gain the approval of others‖, while the latter refers to ―the desire to be unimpeded by others
in one‘s actions.‖ Positive face is solidarity-oriented. Negative face, on the other hand, concerns the
need to act without giving offence.
Consequently, these two kinds of face result in two kinds of politeness. Positive politeness is
characterized by attempts to attain solidarity through statements of friendship, using language
informally, employing compliments, and using hedging and attempts to avoid conflict. ―It
emphasizes shared attitudes and values‖ (Holmes, 2001: 268), which means that it expresses
solidarity and minimize status difference. Positive politeness deals with positive face, i.e. one‘s self
esteem.
Positive politeness strategy recognizes the addressee‘s desire to be respected, accepted, or
liked by others, treated as a member of the group. Besides, it recognizes the addressee‘s needs to
know that his/her wants are shared by others. It also verifies that the relationship is friendly and
expresses group reciprocity. Such strategies seek to minimize the threat to the hearer‘s positive face.
Negative politeness, on the other hand, is shown by paying people respect and avoiding
intruding on them. It involves ―expressing oneself appropriately in terms of social distance and
respecting status differences‖ (Holmes, 2001: 268). Negative politeness focuses more on expressing
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oneself appropriately in terms of social distance and respecting status differences. Such politeness is
characterized by deference, apology, indirectness, and using language formally.
It has been common knowledge that speakers need to respect each other‘s expectations
regarding self-image, consider their feelings, and avoid face threatening-acts (FTAs). FTAs are ―acts
that by their nature run contrary to the face wants of the addressee and/or of the speaker‖ as Brown
and Levinson (1987: 65) state. To decide which strategy to use in real life situations, there are three
sociological factors to consider (Brown & Levinson, 1987). The first factor is social distance
between parties, i.e. how they are related. The second factor is power relations between parties. The
way one speaks will be different whenever speaking to social equals or those whose status is higher
or lower. The third factor is the threat level of the imposition.
3. Factors Affecting Politeness
There are four dimensions which influence polite use of language as proposed by Holmes
(2001: 9-11). They are social distance scale, status scale, formality scale, and referential and affective
function scales. According to Holmes (2001), the Social Distance Scale is solidarity-oriented,
whereby it is related to participant relationships. This shows that how well people know each other
will determine the linguistic choices. An example of this is the use of first name over full name. The
Status Scale also deals with the relationships of the participants. The linguistic choices are
determined by the relative status existing between the speaker and the hearer. The third scale, The
Formality Scale, concerns itself with the setting or type of interaction which will affect the language
styles, i.e. the formality of the language. The more formal an interaction is, the higher the level of
formality will be. The Referential and Affective Function Scales are related to the purposes of an
interaction. It shows how much information content or speakers‘ emotions or attitudes there are. The
more referentially-oriented an interaction is, the less emotional content it will carry.
4. Sociolinguistic Competence
Sociolinguistic competence is one of the pragmatic aspects of communicative competence,
which deals with how language is used in communication situations to achieve a speaker's purposes.
Acquiring sociolinguistic competence is a difficult undertaking, even in one‘s first language.
Sociolinguistic competence is defined as the ability to interpret the social meaning of the choice of
linguistic varieties and to use language with the appropriate social meaning for the communication
situation (as cited in Broersma, 2016). It is understood as the ability to use language appropriately as
confirmed by Holmes (2001: 366-367), who claims that sociolinguistic competence refers to ―the
knowledge which underlies people‘s ability to use language appropriately.‖ Broersma (2016) argues
that having good sociolinguistic competence means having an ability to ―read situations and know
what is the right thing to say or do.‖
Possessing sociolinguistic competence in a second language is critical. Lacking this
competence will make people think that the speaker is ignorant. This may happen if his/her grammar
is poor. Even worse than that, the speaker will be thought of as being ill-mannered, dishonest,
insincere, rude, pushy, and some more negative impressions. By contrast, if his/her grammar is
excellent, the absence of such ability is considered sociolinguistic gaffes, which may result in
disappointment, shock, bewilderment, insult, or contempt.
Many people assume that language learners will acquire sociolinguistic competence
naturally as they are exposed to the culture of the language they are learning. However, this is untrue.
Learners need to be assisted to understand how to behave appropriately in a new cultural context.
Thus, efforts to improve sociolinguistic competence of learners should be an integral part of language
learning early on.
The goal of a language learning process is developing the ability to communicate
competently (NCLRC Home, 2007). One of the competences referred to is sociolinguistic
competence. This refers to the ability to use and respond to language appropriately, given the setting,
the topic, and the relationships among the people who are involved in the communication. This
implies that a speaker should try to avoid offending their conversation partners.
As language is used for communication, language learning should be directed at possessing
sociolinguistic competence, which is closely related to politeness. People are expected, among
others, to have knowledge about the social distance norms of the community and knowledge of how
to use the community language which signals one‘s membership of social group and enacts social
identities, and to choose appropriate linguistic code or variety in different domains and for different
functions. In a nutshell, a sociolinguistically-competent speaker should have the ability to choose
language forms which express the appropriate degree of social distance or which recognize relevant
status or power differences between the participants.
Acquiring sociolinguistic competence in a language is a difficult process. It is not enough to
understand the language solely. It is beyond having rich vocabulary, sophisticated grammar, and
excellent pronunciation. More importantly, it requires a speaker to understand the social and cultural
values of the community, as well as its social distance norms.
[1] Selamat malam miss, maaf mw tny, besok bisa ktm jam berapa? Nuwun.
[2] Selamat pagi, maam. Maaf mengganggu. Sehubungan dengan feedback dr Ms X minggu
lalu, ada yang perlu saya konsultasikan. Apakah ada waktu, Maam? Terima kasih.
Meanwhile, there were a few of the senders who employed casual style in the greeting, as
seen in [3]. The sender used ‗Met malam‘ instead of ―Selamat malam.‖ In addition to the casual
greetings, casual style in the content of the messages also appeared. In [4], to perform a request, the
sender used question tag to insist on his/her wish.
[4] Selamat malam Miss. Ini A. Saya mau daftar buat konsultasi Research Methods. Bisa kan
Miss?
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Politeness issues emerged when the senders used inappropriate dictions or expressions to
express his/her requests. For example, in [3], the sender used a direct question Besok ada bimbingan
atau tidak? A better way would be asking ―Apakah besok ada bimbingan?‖ A similar case was
illustrated in [5], in which the sender asked ―besok ada waktu luang utk konsultasi?‖ In [6], the
sender said ―saya ingin miss cek sebentar.‖ This message indicated that the sender did not realize that
his/her request was an FTA. It would have been more acceptable and would have saved the receiver‘s
face if the senders had said ―saya minta tolong …‖
[5] Good afternoon Miss X, besok ada waktu luang utk konsultasi? Terima kasih.
[6] Selamat malam, Miss X. Power point saya sudah selesai. Kalau boleh, saya ingin miss
cek sebentar. Terima kasih Miss. Happy Sunday!
The use of inappropriate expressions was shown in [7] and [8]. Although the intended
actions were the same, the ways they were expressed would influence how the receivers would react.
―Apakah besok Ibu ada waktu untuk berbicara dengan saya?‖ implied that the sender positioned
himself or herself higher than the receiver, and it obviously threatened the receiver‘s face. Setting the
time instead of asking the receiver‘s availability would also threaten face.
[7] Selamat siang Bu. Saya ingin bertemu dengan Ibu besok untuk membicarakan skripsi
saya. Apakah besok Ibu ada waktu untuk berbicara dengan saya? Mungkin tidak lama, hanya
sekitar 10 menit. Terima kasih.
[8] Selamat malam Ms. Besok saya mau konsul skripsi jam 2, apakah ada waktu Ms?
The most severe problem found in the Indonesian text messages in the study was shown in
[9]. In this message, the sender was pushy despite his/her saying ―minta tolong‖ as s/he directly
requested something without considering the receiver‘s situations and was very straightforward in
his/her message content.
[9] Bu Y, sy mnt tolong bsk diluangkan wkt utk bimbingan krn sy hrs maju bulan feb..tdk bs
diundur lg.. sy mnt pengertian ibu. Terima kasih.
Eighteen text messages written in English were gathered and analyzed. Some of the
messages were classified since polite as they had observed politeness features. Like polite Indonesian
text messages, the senders employed greetings to open the interchange. The senders also used
appropriate address term, such as Miss, Ms, or Sir to pay respect to the people two whom they sent the
messages, as seen in [10]. These address terms were used for power recognition. It showed that the
senders made use of negative politeness. Some of the senders even felt the need to reveal their
identity by mentioning their name, such as in [11], assuming that the receiver may not know who the
senders were. At the end of the interchange, the senders also expressed gratitude.
[10] Good evening Ms B, may I have a thesis consultation tomorrow? Thanks in advance :)
[11] Morning miss D,,, This is C. I just wonder if you have time to see my final paper
today..When should I come to your office, Miss? Thank you.
When any inconvenience had happened on the receiver‘s part, the senders also
acknowledged it and they also asked for an apology. As to the content of their messages which were
mostly questions or requests, the senders employed negative politeness strategies in that they
apologized for something they were about to say. It exhibited their awareness that they were about to
impose on others. These features were shown in [12]-[14].
[12] Miss B, I‘m so sorry to disturb you. I‘m A. As I said last Wednesday I had submitted
my PKMM in your pigeon hole. Would you mind checking it? I do really your advices for
improvement. Thanks.
[13] Good morning Miss. Sorry to interrupt your morning. I‘d like to ask you whether you
have free time tomorrow for consultation. Thank you.
[14] Miss, A and I plan to meet you if it is possible and not bothering. We want to ask your
signature for our scholarship. Thank you miss.
Unlike the Indonesian messages, the English messages gathered in the study demonstrated
more politeness problems. There were language features in the text messages which did not conform
to politeness theories. The senders‘ possession of sociolinguistic competence was questioned.
In [15]-[16], the senders did not establish a good connection first with the receiver by making
an opening; out of the blue they came up with the content. They were found to be very
straightforward, and did not take caution to use greetings and address terms, nor did they say sorry or
thank you. This situation was not favorable because the receiver felt that s/he was not acknowledged
properly and not connected with the sender.
In these messages the senders did not seem to recognize status difference and power relation
that existed between them and the receivers. Even though some smiley emoticon was inserted and the
sender said sorry like in [15] and [16] respectively, it did not make the messages more polite. The
senders should have worded them differently. For example, instead of using a direct question s/he can
use an indirect one. Hence, [16] can be rewritten as I am wondering if we can make a new
appointment.
[16] I‘m really sorry for the inconvenience that I couldn‘t make it for a consultation
yesterday. I had something to take care of. Can we rearrange the meeting? Thank you.
Another problem that appeared in the messages seemed to be caused by poor diction or ignorance.
The senders in [17] and [18] placed themselves equal to the receiver, or even higher. Message [17]
can be rewritten as Where can I meet you? and [18] can be rewritten as I am wondering if you have
time. I would like to ask for your signature or I‘d like to know if I can see you to ask for your
signature.
Another issue with status and power differences was found in [19]-[22]. The senders assumed equal
or higher power than that of the interlocutor. They did not mitigate the imposition they made, despite
the existence of ‗polite features‘ in the messages, such as the use of greetings, address terms, and
expressions of gratitude. They thought that they had more control over the interaction and did not
realize that they should have asked for an apology due to the inconvenience they had caused.
[19] Good afternoon. I would come at 14.50 because my bike‘s chain is being repaired.
Thank you.
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When a sender expressed directives, the language used was often too direct and
straightforward. They used imperatives, which were the least polite form of directives. The senders
talked as if to their subordinates and tended to be task-oriented, as seen in [22]. After notifying the
teacher that s/he had submitted his or her thesis draft, s/he continued by saying ―Please check it‖,
which was actually unnecessary. Teachers know their job, without their students telling them. As a
matter of fact, by mentioning that s/he had submitted a draft, it implied that what followed should be
the teacher‘s giving the student feedback. The existence of ‗please‘ in that message, nonetheless, did
not make the message more polite.
Messages containing impolite features would result in irritation, annoyance, and contempt
on the receivers‘ part, i.e. the teachers. The senders, regardless of the linguistic competence they had,
showed an absence of sociolinguistic competence. They were unaware of the social relationship with
the interlocutors. They did not recognize existing social distance as well as status and power
differences. As the interaction took place in the school domain, which was formal, the language
employed should have reflected appropriate possession of power resulting from the social role that
each of the participants held, which was teacher-student relationship. In reality, conversely, many
students were communicating as if they were equals. Consequently, they selected inappropriate
forms of language which did not abide by politeness features and made the interlocutors
uncomfortable.
3. CONCLUSION
Politeness is a very important principle in communication. It employs devices to show
certain relationships to other people as well as attitudes toward them. In expressing an FTA in written
communication, for instance, a good advice will be to take longer effort to express it in order to
mitigate imposition. It means longer sentences would be more preferred.
From the study it was found that some of the analyzed messages had employed polite
features; however, the majority of the messages had politeness issues as they contained features
which did not conform to politeness theories. The same situations happened to both Indonesian and
English messages. Yet, in terms of the number of problems, English messages were found to have
more problems. This may be due to the nature of the language, which was not the senders‘ L1, and the
senders‘ less familiarity with the culture of the foreign language.
Many students were not aware of social distance, roles and status, and power relations. They
were communicating as if they were equals, or even some of them placed themselves higher than the
interlocutors. The phenomenon resulted in many teachers becoming annoyed and irritated by the
messages. In a nutshell, such students were concluded to have a lack of sociolinguistic competence
due to their failure to recognize the existing social distance and power differences between the two
parties.
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THE EFFECT OF APPLYI NG TALKING CHIPS TEC HNIQUE ON THE STUDEN TS’
ACHIEVEMENT IN SPEAK ING ABILITY
Maridha Fitri
maridhafitri@gmail.com
Wina Viqa Sari
Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Universitas Sumatera Utara
winaviqasari@gmail.com
Eliyati
Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Universitas Sumatera Utara
eliyatipane73@gmail.com
Nurul Aisyah
Faculty of Teachers‘ Training and Education, University of Muhammadiyah Sumatera Utara
maridhafitri@yahoo.com
Abstract
The objective of this research was 1) to find out the effect of applying talking chips on students‘
achievement in speaking 2) to find out the students‘ difficulties of applying talking chips technique in
learning speaking. The experimental research method was applied in this study. The population was
the 2013/2014 first grade of SMA HARAPAN MEKAR jalan Marelan No. 77 Medan which consisted
of 60 students. All of the population was taken as the sample. The students were divided into two
groups, namely experimental and control group. The experimental group was taught by talking chips
while control group was taught by discussion method. The instrument was used in this study was
essay test. The essay test consisted of 5 items; the test was teacher-made test. The data was analyzed
by using t-test formula. The findings showed t-observed= 2.45, while t-table=2.02. Based on the
findings above, t-observed bigger than t-table (2.45>2.02). It means that the students who were
taught by applying talking chips were better than those who were taught by discussion method. So, it
can be said that alternative hypothesis (Ha) was accepted.
1. INTRODUCTION
English language as a foreign language has four skills; speaking, writing reading and
listening. One of those language skills that influence the language ability is speaking. Teaching
speaking is considered to be difficult among the four skills. Chastain in Paisal (2011: 1) states that
learning is obviously more difficult. It means that more effort is required by the students and various
interesting activities are also required by the teacher. Furthermore, he states that it is not enough for
the students to hear or to listen speech only. The teacher needs to give opportunities to the student to
practice their oral language especially speaking.
In teaching English for speaking skill, the English teachers must be creative to design many
communication activities in the classroom that urge and motivate students to use the language
actively and productively. Byrne in Paisal (2011: 1) states that the first task of the teacher is create the
best condition for students to study. In other words, the teacher is responsible for the situation were
the student can orally communicate with their classmates. Most of the students think that speaking
English is really difficult because we should adapt among the written form and pronunciation. We
can see the fact that most of the Indonesian students cannot perform speaking English well.
The observation result when the researcher conducted teaching practice at the first year
students of SMA Harapan Mekar Medan showed that speaking was most frustrating English skill for
students. The students faced many problems in learning speaking because of many factors such as
shy to speak, have low motivation, have less self confidence, afraid of making mistakes and etc. They
sometimes understand about the topic or material but they were difficult to express their idea to
others. Therefore, it was important to focus the teachers‘ intention to stimulate the students in
speaking. For this purpose, active learning was demanded. This problem actually was a matter of
teaching method that conducted by the teachers. So, the teachers had to find out a special method to
facilitate the students to solve their problem. Based on this statement, the researcher chooses the
Cooperative Learning Type Talking Chips Method to make the student become active and improve
the speaking ability.
According to Robert E. Slavin in Mustari (2010: 12), cooperative learning is one of the
learning methods where the students are engaged in groups when they receive material from a teacher
or do their task or assignment. Cooperative learning is an approach to organizing classroom activities
into academic and social learning experience. Student must be put in group to complete the two sets
of task collectively. Everyone succeeds when group succeeds (Brown and Ciuffetelli Parker, 2010).
Several types of cooperative learning namely make a match, think-fair-share, swapping couples,
exchanging greetings and questions, numbered heads together, two stat to stray, talking chips (card
speak), round table, inside-outside-circle, paired storytelling, and jigsaw.
Based on the background above, the researcher was interested to use Chips to help students
in learning speaking. Talking Chips Technique was chosen because it could build a sense of
responsibility to join, care and get committed together in the group. Therefore, the researcher chooses
to research “The Effect of Applying Talking Chips Technique on the Students’ Achievement in
Speaking Ability”.
2.REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Speaking is one of language skill that people use in communication to others. The purpose of
the teachers of speaking is to enable the student to speak and interpret the message that occurs in the
communication process. Speaking ability is an ability to express, to convey the idea and suggestion.
Talking is about how to express, it is related to the language problem and the pronunciation of speech
sound.
In accordance with this, Talking Chips Technique is one of the cooperative learning methods
where students are engaged in groups and receive material from a teacher in order to do academic
activities and have social learning experience (Slavin in Mustari, 2010).
Talking Chips
Talking Chips is developed by Kagan (1992), Talking is a word taken from the English
language, means to speak, while the Chips means the card. So, the meaning of Talking Chips is the
card to speak. Talking Chips technique is a technique of teaching speaking which make the students
interested and help student to speak. In the course of talking chips, each member of the group gets a
chance to provide their construction and listen to the views and concerns of other members.
Talking chips learning model is one model of learning using cooperative learning methods.
In cooperative learning, students learn together in small groups and help each other. Classes are
arranged in groups of 4-5 students with heterogeneous capabilities. Heterogeneous in this regard,
previous grades, gender, religion, race, and so on.
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In Talking Chips, students are divided into small groups of about 4-6 people in group. In the
groups, the students were asked to discuss an issue or subject matter. Each group was given 4-5 cards
used for student in talking. After the students give their opinion, the card kept on the table of their
group. The process is continued until all students can use their cards to speak. This method makes no
students more dominant and no student to be passive; all students have to express their opinions. In
addition, the implementation of cooperative learning techniques Talking Chips is a model of
student-centered learning (student-oriented), which is consistent learning model occupies a central
position as the subject of learning through activities seek and find the subject matter itself. According
to Wina Sanjaya in Supri Wahyudi Utomo, stated that dengan beraktifitas siswa bukan hanya
dituntut menguasai sejumlah informasi dengan cara menghafal, akan tetapi bagaimana memperoleh
informasi secara mandiri dan kreatif melalui aktifitas mencari dan menemukan. Thus, what is
learned to be more meaningful, because the learning experience gained through the process, not the
result of other people‘s notification.
Talking chips has two important processes; they are social process and the process of
mastering the material. Social processes play an important role in studying Talking Chips in order to
make students capable to work in group. Those students learn to discuss, summarize, clarify concept,
and solve problems.
Applying Talking Chips Technique in the Class
According Kagan (1992), there are some steps that the teacher does in the classroom in
teaching speaking by applying Talking Chips Technique, they are:
1. Each member in the group was given 4-5 cards.
2. The students in the group discussed the topic for solving problem which was given by the
teacher.
3. All students who would like to speak or express an idea; students should raise their cards and
then kept their cards on the table of their group.
4. Student could not talk anymore if his/her card had been used, until all of the cards of other
members in his group were used.
5. The teacher gave score based on the time and the speaking skill aspects, such as
pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, fluency.
Materials that were used in this study are expression of asking, giving and declining an
opinion. In these materials, the students should be able to give opinions of the topic. In Talking
Chips Technique, students gathered in a group, and then they were given 4-5 cards. Each group was
given a question sheet and each student in the group was asked to discuss to find the answer. For
example, the students must provide pro or contra opinions toward the given quarries or the students
were asked to make conversation with a situation that was determined by the teacher. All students
who would like to speak or express their ideas, the students should raise their card first, and then their
card is stored on the table. The process was continued until all students could use their card to speak.
This means that students do not have to dominate and all of the students have the turn to speak their
mind. Therefore, each student in each group should be able to understand the material from the
expression of asking, giving and declining an opinion to defend his group‘s position.
Factor Affecting the Speaking Ability
According to Clark and Clark (1977:25), speaking is fundamentally instrumental act. So, the
students should learn how to be communicative in speaking English. They learn some speaking skill
and develop some attitude toward speaking achievement. Therefore, the speaker must know the topic
of the conversation in order to give of share the other information.
In the manner of speaking course, it is important to know principle in speaking, as follow:
1. Speaking is characterized by two or more people who communicate orally as speaker and
listener.
2. There are many types of oral communication between the speaker and listener.
3. The teacher encourages the students to effectively develop their speaking competence.
In other hand, speaking is the one of language skills which is difficult to be acquired by
students. Brown (1994:1) divides the problems which influence speaking ability into:
1. Students cannot express their idea.
2. This problem comes from the student itself. Example, student shy or reluctant to speak.
3. The student had nothing to say
In order to measure the speaking ability, there some elements that should had got attention,
they are:
1. Pronunciation.
Pronunciation skill obviously influenced by L1. The pronunciation can be varies because of
the influences of locality and social surrounding.
2. Grammar.
Grammar is the description of the structure of the language and the way in which linguistic
units, such as words and phrases, combined to produce sentence in the language (Richards,
Platt and Weber, 1955).
3. Vocabulary.
Vocabulary is more than lists of target language words. In order to communicate idea
precisely, a speaker should express them with precise word rather than general words.
4. Fluency.
The definition of fluency is derived as the ability of an individual to speak without hesitation.
5. Comprehension.
Hormby stated that comprehension is the mind‘s act or power of understanding. Clark and
Clark (1977) stated that make a simple meaning of comprehension as the building of
meaning from sounds. It means what the listeners hear and understand from a speaker is to
show.
Hypothesis
There is significant effect of applying Talking Chips Technique to the students‘ achievement
in teaching speaking.
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Population and Sample
The research was conducted at SMA Harapan Mekar, Jalan Marelan no. 77, Medan. The
population of this research was the tenth grade students of academic year 2013-2014 of SMA
Harapan Mekar which consist of two classes (XA, XB). The total number of the students was 60
students.
According to Arikunto (2006:131), if the subject less than 100, it is better all the subject
become the sample in the research, but if the subject is more than 100, the sample could be 10% -
15% or 20% - 50% from the population. Since the population is less than 100, then all the population
is taken as the sample.
Sample
No Class Sample
1 X-A 30 (experimental)
2 X-B 30 (Control)
Total 60
Research Design
This research was applied in an experimental research with two group pre-test and post-test
design. One of the classes was assigned to be control group and the other to be experimental group.
The design was applied in order to investigate the effect of applying talking chips technique on the
students‘ achievement in speaking ability. The data was collected from students‘ answer. The type of
the test was essay test, the teacher asks students to answer the questions orally. This test was given to
the students in group.
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Pre-test was given out to both groups (experimental group and control group) before the
treatment. The function of the ore-test was to know the students‘ scores from both group before
receiving treatment.
The treatment was given to the both group. The experimental group was taught by applying
Talking Chips Technique, while the control group was taught using discussion method.
Post-test was given after the treatment. This post-test was exactly same with the pre-test
which was used in order to know the mean score of experimental group and control group.
After collecting the data from the test, the data was calculated by using T-test in order to test
the hypothesis.
4. DISCUSSION
The test was administrated to collect the data. The data required in this study were obtained
from the result of the test had given to the students. The first group was treated as the experimental
group, and the second group as the control group. The total score in the experimental group are, 430
for the pre-test and 544 for the post-test. While, the total score in control group are, 216 for pre-test
and 302 for post-test. Therefore, comparing of both classes total scores, experimental group has
higher score than the control group.
Based on the total score of both classes, it can be said that applying talking chips technique in
studying speaking is more effective than applying discussion method. Besides that, the students in
experimental group shows that they had confidence, brave to share and express their ideas and all of
the students have the sense of the responsibility in joining the group activity.
Testing Hypothesis
T-test used to find the relationship of applying talking chips technique in teaching speaking
towards the students‘ achievement in speaking ability. T-test was implemented to find out t-observed
value of both groups as the basis to test the hypothesis of this research. After accounting the data by
using t-test formula, it shows that critical is 2.45, then after seeking the table of distribution as
t-critical as basis of counting t-critical in certain degree of freedom (df), the calculation shows that df
is 58. In the line of 58 showed that t-table is 2.02 for 0.05.
To test hypothesis, the formula of t-test and the distribution table of t-critical value were
applied. If t-observed is greater than t-table, it means that the null hypothesis is rejected and
alternative hypothesis is accepted. The fact of this research showed that t-observed is greater than
t-table (2.45>2.02). Therefore, the students who were taught by Talking Chips Technique got higher
scores than those who were taught by Discussion Method in speaking, there was significant effect of
Talking Chips to the students‘ achievement in speaking ability.
Conversation Indicators
From the conversation indicators, it shows that the total fluency score were lower than other
indicators. Therefore, it can be concluded that the students‘ difficulties were in fluency, while the
highest indicator was in comprehension. It means that they understood what they spoke but they were
still difficult to utter their ideas fluently.
1 Pronunciation 139
2 Grammar 127
3 Vocabulary 122
4 Fluency 116
5 Comprehension 144
REFERENCES
Brown, H. Douglas. 2007. Principles of Language and Teaching. USA: Prentice-Hall.
Clark and Clark, H. E. V. 1977. Psychology and Language: An Introduction to Psycholinguistic.
New York: Harcourt Brace.
Richard, J. C. et.al. 1985. The Context of Language Teaching. New York: Cambridge University
Press.
S, Kagan. 1992. Cooperative Learning. San Cemente, CA: Kagan Publishing.
Suharsimi, Arikunto. 2006. Prosedur Penelitian. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta.
Supri, Wahyudi Utomo. 2007. Penerapan Metode Talking Chips dalam Pembelajaran Kooperatif
Guna Meningkatkan Prestasi Belajar Kewirausahaan di SMKN I Madiun. Madiun: IKIP
PGRI Madiun.
Underwood, M. 1989. Teaching Speaking. New York: Longman.
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Abstract
In order to improve students‘ language skill various teaching methods need to be introduced in the
language classroom. The aim of this paper was to investigate the effect of small group discussion on
students‘ achievement in grammar. This was a pre-experimental research, in which there was only
an experiment group that was taught through small group discussion. The subjects consisted of the
second semester Accountancy students at Dehasen University. The data were obtained from the
students‘ test scores. Data analysis showed that there was a significant difference between pre-test
mean and post-test mean. Thus, it could be concluded that small group discussion technique could
improve students‘ grammar. This improvement could be contributed to more active students‘
participation through small group discussion. Further study using quasi experiment is recomended.
1. INTRODUCTION
Listening, speaking, reading and writing are four basic skills that have to be mastered by
language learners. In addition, there is also one important thing which students need to master,
namely, grammar. Harmer (2001) says that grammar is the description of word forms and the rules to
combine them into sentences. In other words, grammar refers to the rules of language that regulate
the combination of correct and appropriate forms for meaningful language. Meanwhile, Brindley
(1994) defines grammar as a set of rules for determining correct or incorrect forms and for
maintaining standards. It can be concluded that grammar refers to the principles of language rules to
form meaningful and correct language. Grammar includes parts of speech, such as noun, pronoun,
verb, adverb, adjective, preposition, conjunction and interjection.
Mastering grammar is very important because it may affect the meanings and messages that
speakers want to convey. William (2005) emphasizes the fact that grammar is essential for good
communication. Furthermore, Widodo, in Brindley (1994), argues that grammar is related to
language skills, such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing. It is crucial that language speakers
acquire the capability of producing grammatically acceptable utterances in a language.
There are many grammatical aspects that the learners should master to have good
competence in English language. Learners often find it difficult to understand the rules of the
language. The reason is that there are many rules to remember and understand, and thus they often
make mistakes in using rules or composing sentences. Such a situation also happens in the Business
English course, Economic Faculty, Dehasen University, a private university in Bengkulu City. Here,
parts of speech belong to the core materials to be taught. There are three departments in the Economy
faculty, namely, management, accountancy, and banking finance. In this paper the writer focuses on
the accountancy class as the subject of her research.
In Indonesia, students learn grammar since the junior secondary school level but their ability
is still unsatisfactory. Apparently, the situation goes on the university. An informal observation in
the mentioned department revealed that students‘ grammar command was still unsatisfactory.
Therefore, in order to help students, the teacher should find appropriate methods in teaching.
There are a lot of language teaching methods that can be selected; one of which is small group
discussion.
There are some previous studies that investigated small group discussion method. For
example, Ahmad (2013) found that small group discussion method effectively improved students‘
reading skill, increase students‘ participation in class, and developed their responsibility to finish the
task.
Meanwhile, some studies in speaking class provided similar results. In a domestic study in
Riau, Indonesia, Rive (2016) found that small group discussion improved students‘ speaking skill.
The improvement occured on general speaking speaking scores as well as pronunciation, grammar,
vocabulay, fluency, and comprehension scores.
By comparison, in an overseas study in Gaza, Palestine, Alhabbash (2014) found that class
group discussion method and online group discussion method were more effective than traditional
method, and that online discussion method was more effective than other methods, in improving
student‘s speaking skill. The improment occured on general speaking speaking scores as well as
grammar, vocabulay, and fluency scores.
The findings of these studies revealed that small group discussion could improve students‘
language skill. More specifically, it could also improve students‘ grammar skill
Based on this background, the writer decided to investigate the effect of small group
discussion method on students‘ grammar ability. Student‘s grammar ability was defined as the score
that the student got after he/she took a grammar test that was provided by the researcher.
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From the explanation above, while caution needs to be exercised in using small group
discussion, small group has many advantages in teaching learning process because it can motivate
and develop student‘s skill. Small group also can develop student‘s learning outcome. It is an
effective technique that a teacher can apply in the classroom.
3. METHODOLOGY
The exposition of methodology consists of general outline of the study and data analysis.
General Outline of the study
This paper is a pre-experimental study, which aimed to find the effect of small group
discussion method on students‘ grammar achievement. The population consisted of the Accountancy
Department, the Economy Faculty, Dehasen University, Bengkulu, Indonesia. The sample consisted
of 20 students in the second semester. The instrument consisted of a grammar test.
Research Procedure
The research procedure included several stages, namely, pre-test, treatment, post test and
data analysis. A pre-test was given before the treatment started. Then, treatment was given in the
form of small group discussion, which was given in 3 meetings. Subsequently, a post test was
administered to the students. Finally, pre-test and post test scores were compared to see whether there
was any progress in student‘s grammar skill
The application of small group discussion was performed in the following steps:
a. The teacher provided resource material of several kinds.
b. The teacher assigned individual into groups; then s/he formed a special group to help other
groups.
c. The teacher set some well-defined, accomplishable tasks that provided early reinforcement, to
enhance students‘ satisfaction
d. The teacher worked with each group in turn. She sat down with them and systematically
explored the ―state of the project‖ with each group member, in order to student‘s motivating in
learning.
e. After the project was finished, the teacher asked the student in each group to report and discuss
the result of group discussion; then she offered suggestions.
Technique for Data Analysis
For data analysis, students‘ pre-test and posttest scores were collected and compared. The
score were then analyzed to find the average score, standard deviation, and t-count. The paired t-test
was used to compare the students‘ pre-test and post-test scores. The statistical formula was as
follows:
Note: d bar is the mean difference, s² is the sample variance, n is the sample size and t is a Student t
with n-1 degrees of freedom.
The analysis was performed by using Excel statistical analysis package.
Discussion
The finding of this study showed that small group discussion could improve students‗ ability
in grammar. The improvement was proved to be statistically significant.
In this respect, the finding supports the theory that small group discussion is beneficial for teaching as
it provides better motivation, provides greater enjoyment of learning expereiencde,and promote
cooperation, and these all may lead to improvement in studens‘ skill, including grammar.
The finding was also in line with a number of studies, both domestic and overseas. One
domestic study that dealt with the use of small group discussion was one by Rivi (2014), an action
research in which small group discussion was used to improve students‘ speaking skill at Pasir
Pengairan University, Riau, Indonesia. His data showed that after cycle 1 there was improvements
only in grammar and vocabulary. However, after cycle 2, there was improvements in all aspects,
namely, pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension.
In this respect his finding on grammar was similar to the finding of this study, in which small
group discussion improved student‘s grammar skill. Rivi (2014) attributed the success of his study to
the fact that small group discussion enabled students to be more actively involved in speaking
activities. This supports the benefits of small group discussion as outlined in the previous exposition
on theory.
Another study that gave similar finding to this study was an overseas study by Alhabbash
(2014). He used a true experiment to investiagate the comparative effect of classroom group
discussion and online group discussion on student‘s speaking skill among year-12 students in a
Palestinian secondary school. As the subjects of his study sat in the last class of a secondary school,
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they were considered close in ability with the subjects in this study and thus a comparison could be
made with this study.
Alhabbash (2014) found that both class group discussion method and online group
discussion method were more effective than traditional method, and that online discussion method
was more effective than other methods, in improving student‘s speaking skill. As online method was
beyond the scope of this study, only classroom group discussion method is discusssed.
Alhabbash (2014) found that there was a significant difference in average score between the
experimental group the control group. Moreover, the average score for the experimental group was
almost twice of the average score for the control group, in the total score as well as the scores for
vocabulary, grammar, and flueny.
Alhabbash (2014) attributed the success of this study to the fact that in the group discussion
students were encouraged to be more active participants in the teaching and learning process and this
led to greater development of their skill. His result provided another evidence of the benefit of small
group discussion for improving the speaking skill.
These studies supported the theory that group work is beneficial for language instruction,
including grammar. However, the theory also mentions the disadvantage of group discussion, in that
it may lead to dependency and that it may require more classroom management skill and more time to
implement. In addition, Changko (2016) showed that while students perceived group discussion
positively, they faced some challenges, including differing proficiency levels among members of
groups, difficulty in decision making process, and relationship with peers. It is also to be noted that
this study was a pre-experiment and thus its finding was not so robust as the finding of true and quasi
experiments.
In general, group work seems to offer more benefit than drawback. As a result, it is
recommended that teachers use it for his/her language teaching. However, considering the drawback,
Changko (2016) suggested that teachers need to consider students‘ differing proficiency levels,
students‘ relations with each other, and the individual differences among the students. Teachers may
also need to consistently observe students‘ needs and wants regarding group work, e.g., by
conducting surveys or interviews. Lastly, in order to arrive at a stronger finding, further researchers
need to conduct a stronger form of investigation, such as quasi and true experiments.
5. CONCLUSION
Based on finding it can be concluded that small group discussion is an effective method to
enhance students‘ grammar ability. In addition, students also get more active in classroom by
interacting between one another. Therefore, further study is recommended to find out more about
small group discussion method by using quasi experiment or true experiment.
REFERENCES
Ahmad, Cecep. The Effectiveness of Small Group Discussion Method in Teaching Reading (A Quasi
Experiment Research in Second Grade Students one of Public Junior High School). Bandung :
Perpustakaan UPI. (2013). edu. http://www.e-journal.upi.edu// retrieved on March 10th 2016.
Alhabbash, Mohammed. The Effectiveness of Online and Classroom Discussion on English Speaking
Skill of 12th Graders at Gaza. Thesis. Gaza, Palestina. 2012. Gaza, Palestina : Islamic of Gaza.
Print.
Antoni, Rivi. Teaching Speaking Skill through Small Group Discussion Technique at the Accounting
Study Program. Al-Manar : Journal of Education and Islamic Studies 5.1. (2014) : 55-64 : Web
5th Jan 2016.
Barker, Larry. Communication. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall Inc. (1987)
Brindley, G. (1994). Factors affecting task difficulty. In D. Nunan (Ed). Guidelines for the
Development of Curriculum Resources. Adelaide: National Curriculum Resource Centre.
Hamra & Syatriana. ―Developing a Model of Teaching Reading Comprehension for EFL Students.‖
Teflin Journal 21. (2010).
Fowler, William. Infant and Child Care : A Guide to Education Group Settings. New York : Allyn &
Bacon Inc. (1980).
Harmer, Jeremy. The Practice of English Language Teaching. London : Longman Inc. (2001).
Kwon, Changko. "Student Perspectives on Group Work and Use Of L1: Academic Writing in A
University EFL Course in Thailand." Second Language Studies 33.1 (2014): 85-124. Web. 01
Feb. 2016
Muijs & Reynolds. Effective Teaching Evidence and Practice. London: SAGE Publication. (2005).
Nunan, David. Designing Task for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge : Cambridge
University Press. (1999).Storch, Neomy. "Collaborative Writing: Product, Process, and
Students‘ Reflections." Journal of Second Language Writing 14 (2005): 153-73. Web. 1 Dec.
2015.
Steward, Tubs L. A System Approach to Small Group Interaction. Eightth Edition. New York: Mc
Graw-Hill Companies Inc. (2004).
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Abstract
Scientific approach is a learning approach that is designed to make learners work actively in
constructing concepts and principles through the stages observed (to identify or find the problem), to
formulate the problem, propose or formulate hypotheses, collect data with a variety of techniques,
analyzing the data, draw conclusions and communicate the concept. To support the implementation
of the learning with scientific approach, scientific learning tools such as student‘s worksheet is
required. Students‘ worksheet, as one of learning tools that is used to involve the students to work
actively during teaching and learning process, should be developed based on the students‘ need.
Students‘ worksheet with scientific approach in teaching curriculum has not developed well yet. A
good student‘s worksheet must be satisfied criteria of valid, practical and effective. This research is a
developmental research using 4-D, without the dissemination phase. It has been conducted on 32
students of STKIP PGRI Sumbar academic year 2012. In this study, data obtained from Curriculum
syllabus analysis, students‘ need analysis and results of validation. Students‘ need analysis was done
to analyze the students‘ perception about the previous learning materials and to know what kind of
learning material they need. From the results and discussion on this research, it was found that the
students‘ had bad perception about the previous Curriculum learning material in score 58.07. It was
also found that the development of student‘s worksheet satisfies aspect of validity (average total
validity is 75,4). Therefore developed student‘s worksheet in the category of was good.
Keywords: Student‘s worksheet, scientific approach, Curriculum materials.
1. INTRODUCTION
Curriculum course typically refers to the knowledge and skills students are expected to
learn, which includes the learning standards or learning objectives they are expected to meet; the
units and lessons that teachers teach; the assignments and projects given to students; the books,
materials, videos, presentations, and readings used in a course; and the tests, assessments, and other
methods used to evaluate student learning. One of the principles of curriculum is that students are
directed not only to truly understand the concepts being taught but also to create the teaching devices.
Mastering to prepare teaching devices is also one of the competencies that should be had by the
students who will be a candidate of teacher. As stated in the document of the Republic Indonesia
Minister of National Education Number 16 Year 2007 on Academic qualification standards and
competencies of teachers, as for a variety of competencies that must be owned by teachers, among
others, pedagogical, personal, professional and social obtained through professional education.
Pedagogical competencies include understanding the teacher to the learner, the design and
implementation of learning, evaluation of learning outcomes, and the development of learners to
actualize various potentials.
Pedagogic competency of the students can be reached if the learning process is meaningful
for them. Meaningful learning refers to the concept that the learned knowledge is fully understood by
the individual and that the individual knows how that specific fact relates to other stored facts. To
make the learning more meaningful and easily accepted by the students, it needs a learning approach
that is related to the real life experience of students with curriculum concepts. One of learning
approach that allows the connection between students‘ experiences with curriculum learning had
been suggested by National educational curriculum 2013 is scientific approach. Scientific approach
is a learning approach that is designed to make learners work actively in constructing concepts and
principles through the stages observed (to identify or find the problem), to formulate the problem,
propose or formulate hypotheses, collect data with a variety of techniques, analyzing the data, draw
conclusions and communicate the concept. It also focuses on the activities and the provision of
learning experiences directly to the students. Scientific Approach based learning will impact learning
for positive mental development of students, because through this learning, students have
opportunity to explore and discover for themselves what they need.
3. METHOD
This research was a research development because researchers developed student worksheet
by using Scientific approach on curriculum to prepare teaching devices. According to Richey in
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Akker (2006: 222), developmental research is opposed to simple instructional development, has been
defined as the systematic study of designing, developing and evaluating instructional programs,
processes and products that must meet the criteria of internal consistency and effectiveness.
Development of student worksheet on curriculum subject followed the stages of development as a
result of modifications to the development model expressed by Richey in Sugiono (2007) called the
development model of 4-D. This model consists of four phases, namely: a) define, b) design, c)
develop, d) dissemination however in this research, the stages were applied without dissemination.
Based on the description above, researchers then considered that it is important to develop student
worksheet through research with title ―The Development of Students Worksheet Using Scientific
Approach on Curriculum for English Department of STKIP PGRI Sumbar‖ . The purpose of this
research is to describe the process of development of student worksheet by using Scientific approach
on the subjects of Curriculum.
The Procedure of the research
The procedures of the research were done in 4-D steps; Define, Design, Develop and
Disseminate. Finding the problem would be done first by analyzing the objective of the curriculum
syllabus. Need analysis was done as the next point of this research since this research categorized as
developmental research. At this stage, the reseachers did some analysis defining the analysis front
end includes analyzing the curriculum and tools, and worksheets that are used by teachers
Analysis of the student to determine the level of student progress, which generated
worksheets based scientific approaches would be developed for the 4th semester students of STKIP
PGRI Sumbar . The task analysis was an analysis of the content of the material to obtain indicators of
learning. Further analysis to determine the concept of important concepts that would be taught by
standard competencies of curriculum course to be developed and the formulation of learning
objectives based on the analysis performed generated learning objectives would be developed into a
students worksheet.
After learning objectives obtained, performed the design against some students
worksheet-based scientific approaches to be developed. There are several aspects that reconstructed
on the syllabus. Furthermore, the design of the development of students worksheet structures adapted
to the structure students‘ worksheet according to Ministry of Education (2006) is a good students
worksheet structure includes the title, learning instructions, competencies achieved, supporting
information, tasks and work steps. Students worksheet developed structure title, identity, discourse,
tools and materials, ways of working, table observations, and questions about the critical thinking
skills.
Students worksheets have some pictures, guide scientific attitude and critical thinking skills
manual and reference answers. Students worksheets guide students developed requires students to
find their own concepts when doing lab activities and after answering questions in the Students
worksheets. Students worksheets developed will guide students in applying scientific attitude and
practice critical thinking skills. At the development stage worksheets that have been developed
further tested through a validation process.
Problem Identification
Prototype design
Limited trial
no Disseminate
Revision
Practice
yes
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The next analysis was the lecturers‘ need of teaching tool. The analysis was done by
distributing questionnaire to some lecturers who have ever taught curriculum for long times. The
components which were asked to lecturers were about experience in teaching curriculum, experience
in preparing teaching material, the result of need assessment of teaching material of curriculum test
shown that the lecturers and the students were really need a teaching curriculum material which lead
the students not only to understand the theory of curriculum but also create and prepare their own
learning material. The table below would show the result of lecturers need analysis of the teaching
material
Table 1. Lecturers need analysis of teaching curriculum material
No Indicators Score
1 Lecturers‘ experience in teaching curriculum 71.66
2 Lecturers‘ experience in preparing teaching material 72.22
3 Lecturers‘ experience in teaching curriculum 48.15
4 Lecturers‘ perception on available teaching curriculum 40
From the table it could be assumed that the lecturers thought that the available teaching
curriculum material could not filled their need in guiding the students to precede discovering activity.
The result of interview also indicated that the lecturers need appropriate curriculum teaching tools.
Next, the result of students‘ need analysis of the teaching curriculum material also showed that
the students really need a learning tool which leads them not only to understand the theory but also
produce some teaching devices. It can be seen from this following table:
Table 2. Students‘ need analysis of learning curriculum material
No Indicators Score
1 Students‘ perception of curricullum course 71.68
2 Students‘ learning experience of learning curricullum 64.77
3 Students‘ perception of learning material used 58.07
From the table above, it can be concluded that the students had dire perception of the
available learning material used in curriculum and the result of the interview also indicated same
opinion. It means that they need learning tools which helped them in developing their discovery skill.
Therefore, a learning tools in form students‘ worksheet would be developed aiming not only
to help the students understand about the concept of curriculum but also common in doing scientific
activities to dig their knowledge. The worksheet would be developed based on the principles and the
characteristics of Scientific Approach as an approach that guides the students to dig their discovery
skill and their skill in solving problem. It was also in line with the results of the analysis of the
Curriculum theory for the development of student worksheet was about the development of student
worksheet based on the principles and characteristics of Curriculum. Analysis of the students was the
student characteristics examination in accordance with the development design of the student
worksheet. The intended characteristics included knowledge background of students, academic
ability of students and potential students ' ability to construct knowledge.
b. Design and Develop
Based on the need analysis which has been done, the students‘ worksheet was developed
which appropriate with the teachers‘ and students need. The prototype of the students‘ worksheet
consisted of:
1) The cover of the worksheet (before revision)
STUDENTS’ WORKSHEET
CURRICULUM
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ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
STKIP PGRI SUMBAR
2. Sample of worksheet (before revision)
The next validaation came into the sheet of the worksheet. Here is the sample of the
worksheet before revision.
STUDENTS’ WORKSHEET
(LEMBARAN KERJA MAHASISWA)
Program Studi : Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris
Mata Kuliah : Kurikulum
Pokok Bahasan : Instructional Materials
Alokasi Waktu : 2 SKS
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Objectives
After studying this part' you are e,xpected to be able to:
1. Explain about the types and the functions of InstructionalMaterials
2. Mention the criteria in choosing instructional materials
3. Design the instructional materials
Materials
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------
TASKS:
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4. Choose a topic from the syllabus for teaching Listening, speaking,Reading, and Writing then
design the appropriate material byconsidering the criteria of developing materials.
The result of the valuator evaluation about the worksheet was the worksheet did not represent
the activity of scientific approach yet. The implementation of the activity should be based on the
guidance of scientific approach such as constructing concepts and principles through the stages
observed (to identify or find the problem), to formulate the problem, propose or formulate
hypotheses, collect data with a variety of techniques, analyzing the data, draw conclusions and
communicate the concept. The identity of the worksheet was still in Bahasa, therefore it should be
chosen into English.
Based on the suggestion of the valuator, the researcher tried to revise the worksheet mostly in
the part of students‘ activity in implementing the concept and theory of curriculum.
Here is the worsheet after revision,
Objectives
After studying this part' you are expected to be able to:
1. Explain about the types and the functions of InstructionalMaterials
2. Mention the criteria in choosing instructional materials
3. Design the instructional materials
1. Draw the types of instructional media that teachers used based on your analysis result
2. Explain the problem of the instructional media of English that you found
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3. Discover the problem based on your interview result with the teachers
4. Explain the functions of materials for English Language Teaching based on what you found
5. Mention the criteria in choosing materials of English LanguageTeaching based on what you
learned
6. Choose a topic from the syllabus for teaching Listening, speaking,Reading, and Writing then
design the appropriate material byconsidering the criteria of developing materials.
Validation of Student Work Sheet was done by performing validation of the content by a
valuator who wass an expert in the development and application of teaching materials based on
learning curriculum Scientific Approach.
Expert used a checklist to validate the students‘ worksheet. The tests validated based on four aspects,
the first content, language aspects, presentation and display validator also provided some notes for
improvement students‘ worksheet indicator represents the indicator has not been the activities of
designing instructional materials because there was no indicator that directs students to produce
teaching materials. In modeling and strengthens the assessors who think that teaching materials on
modeling and reinforcement parts should be changed due to the activities of these parts were not in
accordance with the activity to produce teaching materials.
Based on the evaluation and recommendation of thet aexper, several revisions were made to
the students‘ worksheet. Researchers analyzed the material used had to be varied to avoid monotony
of teaching materials. Instructions were given also need a slightly revised to further refers to
measures Scientific Approach. The use of language was also slightly revised by taking into account
the grammatical structure of English. Some revisions were also conducted in aspects such as the
appearance of the font used, the empty space available as the characteristics of the students‘
worksheet, some interesting pictures and some colored tables. After the researchers analyzed the
results of the first validation, the researcher revised some aspect of the worksheet based on the
suggestion of the expert.
5. CONCLUSION
The development of learning tools in this research was conducted in three phases: namely define, the
design, develop without dissemination. After doing this research, it obtained that the result about the
development of student worksheet with the scientific approach in the subject of curriculum is the
average value of the validation score provided by experts (75.4). Therefore, the student worksheet
with the scientific approach on the subject of curriculum was valid. In addition, student worksheet
with scientific approach on the subject of curriculum can be said to be theoretically practical because
based on a common assessment of the experts, it can be said that the student worksheet can be used
with little revision. From the above statement, student worksheet with scientific approach on the
subject of curriculum is in the valid. Then, student worksheet developed can be said either. As a
suggestion, in order to achieve a better learning process with scientific approach, it should be
developed not only student worksheet, but also the other learning tools, such as lesson plan, student
books and assessment sheet. In addition, to get the validation result of student worksheet with the
Scientific approach surely valid, all the principles and the characteristics of Scientific approach must
be contained in composing validation sheets in order to explain that the validity criteria shows the
student worksheet in accordance with the principles and characteristics of Scientific approach. The
practicality and the effectivity will be estimated for the next research activity after the disseminate
stage is done completely.
REFERENCES
Akker, Jan Van Den. 2006. Educational Design Research. New York: Rouledge.
Brown, H. Doughlas. 2004. Language Assessment Principle and Classroom Practice. San Fransisco:
Pearson Education, Inc.
Departement Pendidikan Nasional. 2008. Memilih Bahan Ajar. Jakarta : Depdiknas.
Lennidawati. 2009. Penerapan Pembelajaran Berdasarkan Masalah (Problem Based Instruction)
untuk Sub Materi Pokok Transactional text di Kelas VIII SMP Negeri 1 Taman
Sidoarjo. Surabaya: Tesis. Tidak dipublikasikan.
Nieveen, N. Prototyping to Reach Product Quality. P.125-135 from Design Approaches and Tools in
Education Training. Van den Akker, Jan.et. al. Dordrecht: The Netherland Kluwer
Academic Publisher.
Riduwan. 2005. Belajar Mudah Penelitian Untuk Guru, Karyawan dan Peneliti Pemula. Bandung :
Alphabeta.
Sutiasih. 2009. Pengembangan Perangkat Pembelajaran Kooperatif Tipe STAD untuk Pelajaran
Bahasa Inggris di Kelas II SLTP. Surabaya: Tesis. Tidak dipublikasikan.
Tomlinson, B. and Masuhara, H. 1998 Developing Language Course Material: RELC Portfolio
Series 11. Singapore: RELC Publisher.
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Abstract
The research seeks to investigate successful learners‘ motivational changes and learning histories
from the first time they studied English until the achievement of high proficiency in the foreign
language in Riau Province Indonesia. The central research questions are to reveal what
motivational changes and learning histories successful learners display and how these learners have
sustained their learning motivation until they eventually achieved high level of proficiency while
studying in EFL environments. The participants are six adults who have achieved high levels of
English proficiency. The design used in this case study involves both holistic and specifically focused
analyses, by which each participant‘s learning history is collected through individual interviews.
The research reports each participant‘s learning history, and the initial proposition concerning
motivational change and salient motivational sources found in the participants‘ learning histories
are collectively analyzed and discussed. Exploring the data concerning how the participants have
sustained their language learning motivation resulting in the idea that sustained motivation is not
always present in successful foreign language learning. What make these six successful EFL learners
different from other learners in Riau are their perseverance and intensively-prioritized EFL
learning. In other words, they develop a more intentional psychological force, known as
commitment. The results provide new, engaging, and important information to people who are
seriously involved in foreign language learning in EFL contexts, especially Riau Province where the
majority of learners fail to attain high levels of foreign language proficiency after receiving years of
formal education.
1. INTRODUCTION
These are the conditions found in many provincial areas of Indonesia. Government and
international donors have long complained of inadequate levels of English among university
graduates (for example, Sinclair and Webb 1985; Priyadi and Ismuadi 1998). Data from some
universities in Sumatra indicate that about 75 per cent of students enter university with no more than
‗elementary‘ level proficiency even after six years of English at school (Lamb 2000). Universities
themselves rarely provide more than four credits (64 hours maximum) of English instruction for
non-English majors, with the result that students are unable to read the English language textbooks in
their subject areas, are thereby denied access to further language learning opportunities (as well as
contemporary subject knowledge), and finally enter the labor market without the economically
valuable asset of English proficiency.
Despite all the facts mentioned above, researchers have revealed many EFL learners who
have been successful in the histories of their English Language learning. (see for example, Stevick,
1989). These learners, despite the odds, have succeeded in achieving a degree of communicative
competence in English. This similar situation has also occurred in the EFL Indonesian context e.g., in
Riau Province. Although few in number, there are successful EFL learners in the province who have
managed to become competent in the English language.
Researchers attribute the learners‘ success mostly to motivation. As a result, there has been
an increase in research interest for the past four decades on language learning and has important
implications on EFL learning success in both classroom and naturalistic learning environments.
Recent work such as Csizer et. al (2010) emphasizes the dynamic nature of motivation. ―Motivation
not only changes through the different phases of language learning, but it can also fluctuate within a
relatively short time interval due to the influence of external and internal factors‖ (Csizer et. al 2010,
p473). While many studies have examined motivation as a learner trait at one point in time (e.g. Chen
et. al. 2005, Bernaus & Gardner 2008, Dörnyei & Kormos 2000), few studies (e.g. Dörnyei & Csizer
2002 & Gao 2008) have examined changes in motivation over time. The present research, therefore,
aimed at examining in depth the motivation changes of the few EFL successful language learners in
Riau Province Indonesia. The emergence, source, ways, order and time of motivation of their English
language learning histories were examined in depth. If it can be discovered what enabled these few
individuals to transcend the contextual constraints, we may be able to better help the majority who
fail to do so, and who carry the burden of their failure with them throughout their working live.
The objectives of the present research firstly seek to display successful learners‘ dynamic
motivational changes and their learning histories from the first time they studied English until the
achievement of highly proficiency. Secondly, it also aims to examine how these learners have
sustained their learning motivation while studying in EFL environments. While the two research
objectives guide the overall study, several associated specific objectives were pursued The objectives
are associated with when the most intensive learning took place, what learning strategies were
employed, why intensive learning took place during those particular period(s), and other relevant
issues that might have influenced their learning such as their family environment, influential people,
and their interest other than English.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
A study of foreign adults learning Norwegian was carried out by Svanes (1987) in Norway.
She found that European and American students were more integratively motivated than the Middle
Eastern, African and Asian students who were found to be more instrumentally motivated. Swanes
reflects that westerners can have ―luxury motives for coming to Norway to study‖, whereas for
students from developing countries their motivation is ―to get an education‖. In Swanes‘ study there
was also a significant difference in the grades recorded, with Europeans having the best and Asian
students the poorest scores. According to Swanes, and corresponding to Dörnyei‘s findings, this
indicates that integrative motivation rather than instrumental motivation may lead to better
proficiency. He points out that familiarity with the culture and the language will make it easy to
communicate and learn the language. She maintains that such a closeness in culture develops an
integrative motivation towards the target language culture which fits in with Schumann‘s (1978)
theory that the social distance an L2 learner has with the TL community is a major factor in language
learning. Asian women were found to be significantly less instrumentally motivated than Asian men
but no such differences were found among the other groups. Such a low instrumental motivation
could be due to lack of opportunities for women at least until recent times. No survey has been done
which looks at his factor in the Japanese context in particular but there is a good chance that this
difference may exist here also.
In a recent study, Schmidt, Boraie & Kassabgy (1996) investigated learners of English in an
adult EFL setting in Cairo. Egypt would be representative of the developing countries which Swanes
talked about in his research, the difference being that these learners were ―on home turf.‖ The authors
were interested in finding out what ―spurs thousands of Egyptians to exert the effort required and pay
the fees for private instruction in English‖. Schmidt found a significant instrumental motivation
which compares to Dörnyei‘s study (1990). Schmidt argues that instrumental factors are important
for adults who have chosen to study English privately in contrast with young learners who take
English as a school subject and who are not yet faced with career choices or the need to be concerned
with making a living.
The remaining studies deal with younger learners-at the secondary and university level.
Clement, Dörnyei & Noels (1994) looked at secondary level Hungarian students. They found that
although these learners viewed English as an ordinary school subject with few chances for
communication with the target culture on a personal level, they did think that contact with English
was possible through the media and technology and English was widely recognized as the lingua
franca of international communication. They found an instrumental orientation based on the
acquisition of knowledge, rather than on the achievement of pragmatic outcomes and an integrative
one based on expected foreign friendships through travel and an interest n English culture. This
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anticipated contact in the study resembles that of the adult learners in Dörnyei‘s previously cited
study, indicating that adults and younger learners in an EFL context share similar integrative
orientations.
The authors included the instrumental-knowledge orientation in the integrative motive,
putting an end to what they and Oxford (1996) a consider the ―misleading use of a simplistic
integrative-instrumental dichotomy‖. They also found two other motivation components-linguistic
self-confidence and classroom group dynamics. They argue that group dynamics in the classroom
setting have particular relevance to L2 instruction since communicative methodologies stress
interaction between learners. Oxford (1996b) has stressed the need for longitudinal studies in order to
monitor developmental changes in learners‘ motivation. Two studies, one by Teweles (1996) and the
other by Berwick & Ross (1989) are longitudinal in nature. However, although Teweles claims his
study to be part of a longitudinal study, he fails to point out any changes that occurred during the
period of the study and indeed doesn‘t mention how long the study itself was. Teweles found
differences between Chinese and Japanese university students, with the Japanese showing more of an
integrative motivation than the Chinese who showed more of an instrumental motivation. This
difference in motivations between the Japanese and Chinese learners is partly explained by the fact
that English assumes a very specialized role in the Chinese context, with courses offered in
connection with special needs such as ‗Business English‘, but it could also have something to do with
the difference Swanes (1996) found, as Japanese learners are way more affluent than their Chinese
counterparts and perhaps also feel less of a social distance with the west. Teweles quotes Berwick &
Ross‘ comment that there is a considerable decline in ―instrumental interest‖ once the college
entrance exams are over, as the reason Japanese students tended to score higher in integrative
motivation.
Berwick & Ross (1989) assessed the motivation of university students at the beginning and
end of their freshmen year. Their analysis indicated a limited development of an orientation towards
personal growth through widening of their horizons and a desire to study abroad. While they support
the idea that it is difficult to bring students back from the boredom of exam fever they also maintain
that the curriculum is at fault, by not being relevant to learners‘ needs and motives for language
study. They contrast this ‗motivational vacuum‘ with the extraordinary interest in language learning
among adults in Japan and emphasize that universities must do much more to motivate students in
this direction.
Greer (1996) claims that a motivation survey of Japanese female junior college students he
teaches, is a useful tool in curriculum development. By understanding why students learn English, he
uses the results to shape the course of classes he teaches especially when choosing textbooks or
deciding how much conversation practice to do. He has found that integratively motivated students
respond better to texts weighted towards conversation and more instruction. The majority 68�of
students he surveyed were integratively motivated.
In a comparative study, Okada, Oxford & Abo (1996) found that the motivation of American
learners of Japanese was far greater than that of learners of Spanish and concluded that motivation
must be higher when one tries to learn a more difficult language because greater persistence and
determination are needed to cope with the stress of a difficult situation. Conversely one might assume
that for EFL learners in Japan, English is a difficult language to learn and so, such persistence and
determination must also be present in order for language learning to be successful.
However this is rarely the case and unlike the U.S.A. where generally the motivated and able
students choose to study Japanese, in Japan everyone has to learn English so teachers have to search
for ways to motivate these less able students. It could be argued that one way to motivate these less
able students is to offer incentives. Gardner & MacIntyre (1991) studied the effects of both
instrumental and integrative motivation among university students. Results showed that both types of
motivation facilitated learning but that those who were instrumentally motivated studied longer than
those who were integratively motivated. They offered financial incentives for high performance on
vocabulary tests and found that when the incentive was removed, students stopped applying more
effort. Gardner & Mclntryre stress this as being the major disadvantage of such instrumental
motivation, but add that if the goal is continuous, instrumental motivation would continue to be
effective.
Dörnyei (1994) stresses that the question of how to motivate students is an area on which L2
motivation has not placed sufficient emphasis in the past. He points to the lack of research into
extrinsic motives such as grades and praise. Financial incentives such as those offered by Gardner &
Lambert (1991) are not often feasible but other types of incentives such as certificates may work well
especially with younger learners. Access to the Internet and other media such as newspapers and
magazines in schools may take advantage of the ―acquisition of knowledge‖ factor which Dörnyei
(1994) found to be important for the students in his study. Such knowledge can be seen as ‗intrinsic
motivation‘ or motivation brought about by the stimulating or interesting presentation of the subject
of study itself, an area where the teacher has the most influence and is therefore of paramount
importance. However, as Ellis (1994) noted, there has been very little systematic research of the
effects which pedagogic procedures have on motivation.
This lack of focus on intrinsic motivation has been borne out by the studies in this section.
Intrinsic factors have been touched on but have not been the focus of research. As it has been found
by Chihara & Oller, Schmidt, Teweles, Berwick & Ross that intended contact of some nature with the
target culture plays an important role in motivation, a combination of strategies to motivate learners
integratively and intrinsically is probably the key to enhancing language performance. Indeed,
Berwick & Ross (1989) maintain that motivation to learn a language can be expanded by offering
programs that offer attainable short-term goals, exchange programs with foreign colleges, short-term
homestay programs overseas and programs with foreign students in Japan. These would seem to be a
combination of intrinsic and integrative factors.
Oxford (1996b) contends that intrinsic motivation in the form of the classroom experience
can be a big determiner in motivating power and with Okada et al (1996) maintains that it is desirable
to use activities in the classroom that ―engage and enhance the learners‘ motivation.‖ They consider
that learners are not just interested in language but also in culture. Therefore motivation might be
stimulated by weaving culture into classes more effectively in the form of ―content of conversations,
tapes, readings ....sociolinguistic aspects, cultural elements in games, simulations, and role plays
which also reduce anxiety.‖
Dörnyei (1994) recommends 30 different ways to promote motivation among students.
These serve as a very practical checklist for teachers, covering areas related to language, learner and
learning situation plus teacher-specific and group-specific motivational components. As teachers in
the foreign language classroom we have to be aware of the kinds of motivations our students bring
with them but we also have to be aware of our own power to enhance those motivations and/or
introduce different kinds which will further develop language learning.
3. METHODOLOGY
This study employed a multiple case study as suggested by Yin (2009). To this end,
presenting a comprehensive case study protocol is crucial in this case. A case study protocol is
applied in order to describe the process which was followed throughout the study; this includes
aspects of the study that were added and altered as the study proceeded. Specifically, information
concerning the case study design, participants, instrumentation, interviews, follow-up e-mail
messages, case study questions, analyses, and case study report, are presented in the protocol.
The participants were the following six persons using pseudonyms, which were used based
on those participants‘ requests: Dinda, Athalla, Pathia, Ratna, Indra, and Putri. They are highly
proficient in English proved by their TOEFL/TOEIC scores and estimated written receptive
vocabulary sizes. Table 1 presents the backgrounds of the six participants.
Table 1
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Participants‘ Backgrounds
Name Gender Age of Total time Highest Highest Estimated
starting studying TOEFL TOEIC Written
to learn English Score Score Receptive
English Vocabulary Size
Dinda Female 12 26 years 630 NA 12,700
Athalla Male 12 33 years NA 950 12,700
Pathia Female 13 13 years NA 920 11,500
Ratna Female 13 39 years 270 (CBT) 990 13,200
Indra Male 13 40 years NA NA 13,200
Putri Female 10 19 years 283 (CBT) 980 10,000
All the participants are native speakers of Bahasa Indonesia who were English instructors working in
the same English faculty in a state university located in Riau Province. Some of them are lecturers,
and others are part-time university instructors in more than one educational institution. A salient
characteristic of the six participants was their advanced English speaking ability. Some university
English instructors in Riau are unable to speak English well even though they are able to teach
English (e.g., grammar and reading), but this was not the case with the English faculty in the
department. This occurred because of the head of the department had extensive experience teaching
English in a number of language schools before becoming a university lecturer, and he recruited most
of the new instructors utilizing his own personal network when he was put in charge of creating a new
faculty, not through publicly posting the positions. As a consequence of this unique recruiting
process, the new faculty members had advanced English-speaking proficiency. Furthermore, they
came from a variety of backgrounds, which was another advantage of choosing research participants
from this group.
participants in this study; they prioritized acquiring English and they studied intensively for an
extended period of time, both of which differentiated them from most other English foreign learners.
The participants‘ perseverance was a primary reason for their exceptional achievement.
b. Salient Motivational Sources
In this section, seven salient motivational sources in the six participants‘ learning histories
are discussed. Salient means: (a) the motivational source appeared in four or more of the six case
studies, or (b) fewer than four but the issue was important to those participants. Five of these
motivational sources, personal disposition, key people, internally emergent motivation, external
goals, and authentic communicative experiences using English, played generally positive roles. In
contrast, the final two motivational sources, national examinantions and classroom experience,
influenced the participants generally negatively.
c. The Key to Success in Foreign Language Learning
In this section, the key to successful foreign language learning is discussed. In the first half,
the initial underlying proposition of this study—successful learners have experienced motivational
declines at least once, but they overcome such setbacks—is examined over the six case studies. After
reconsidering the notion of sustained motivation, a new assumption concerning the key to successful
foreign language learning is presented. In the charts presented in this section, the dotted line indicate
the times of motivational decline and the solid lines indicate the times when motivational resurgence
took place in the participants.
1. Dinda.
5
Motivational Fluctuatiions
1
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43
Age
1
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43
Age
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Athalla‘s major motivational increase and decrease happened at ages 24 and 26 (See Figure
2). The first motivational decrease took place at age 24 after he graduated from his university. He
abandoned his hope to become a professional musician, but he did not have a specific alternative in
mind for a while. As he was not serious about a future profession, he worked as a telex operator for
two years after graduating from the university. At age 26, his motivation resurged when he ended his
moratorium period and decided to become a fully engaged in mainstream society. When considering
a possible professional goal, he selected an English-related profession and reentered the university to
study English literature. Because his academic and professional pursues were related to English, he
was motivated to improve his English skills.
3. Pathia
Motivational Fluctuations
5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Age
1
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51
Age
5. Indra.
5
Motivational Fluctuations
1
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49
Age
5
Motivational Fluctuations
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
Age
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her motivation was affected negatively when facing the demotivating class atmosphere. She felt that
studying hard was neither encouraged nor appreciated in the class where few students tried to study
hard. If she had experienced the same kind of course next year, her motivation might have been
jeopardized further. However, her motivation resurged to its highest level the next year because she
obtained the qualification to take the intensive English course in the university. The class atmosphere
was entirely different from the course she took the previous year: The students were highly
motivated, and a number of them aimed to study abroad. The course instructors were also
enthusiastic, and hard work was rewarded and valued. In addition, taking the course was an important
step in applying to the study abroad program in her junior year. Therefore, her English learning
motivation returned to its previous high level.
1.1. Applying the Motivation-Commitment Model to the Participants
Finally, let us reexamine the participants‘ English learning histories, this time applying the
motivation-commitment interaction model. The primary focus is on: (a) the important motivational
sources that underlie the formation and emergence of commitment and, (b) when English became
important to the participants, as this provides a clue to the emergence of commitment. In addition, the
participants‘ investment in activities involving studying English, prioritizing these activities over
other alternatives, and the challenges they faced are also discussed. Because the concept of
commitment emerged in the final phase of the data analyses, I have never asked the participants about
their commitment to learning. Thus, the following discussions are based on my interpretation of their
learning histories as viewed through the lens of the motivation-commitment interaction model. In the
figures below, the arrows schematize the formation and emergence of commitment in the
participants. The motivational source(s) in bold are directly and immediately involved in the moment
when English became important to each participant.
1. Dinda
Studying English became important for Dinda when she studied abroad at ages 17, 20, and
25. Her primary motivation was instrumental, as English was a tool for her to achieve her other goals
that always required advanced English proficiency because she was competing with native speakers
of English. When necessary, she exerted a tremendous effort and studied intensively to ―win the
game,‖ or to succeed in the academic programs in which she was enrolled. In particular, in the first
one-year study abroad experience at age 17 and the second one when she attended the undergraduate
program in the United Stated to study journalism at age 20, English was a crucial requirement, given
that she would not have been able to participate in and complete these programs successfully without
achieving advanced English abilities. In the beginning of both study abroad experiences, she faced
linguistic, academic, and cultural challenges, which she overcame with unexceptional hard work. She
prioritized achieving her goals to a degree that resulted in serious health problems. Although her
commitment might not necessarily have been to learning English, I believe that commitment to
achieving her goals likely formed and emerged during these periods of studying abroad (Figure 7).
had valued English to a certain degree since he was a high school student, as he frequently read
English novels and watched western movies, and he was inspired by his reading teacher in the
university, but he studied English primarily to satisfy his own interest. In contrast, the decision he
made at age 26 was more serious and associated with a professional goal, and he has continuously
made an effort to improve his English skills. I believe that his commitment to learning emerged with
this decision (See Figure 8).
Athalla‘s Motivational
Sources
- Independent
- Ability to concentrate English became
- Key people important at age 26 Commitment to
- interest related to English when he considered learning
- External goal with a new academic and emerges.
- career vision professional goal..
Figure 8: The formation and emergence of commitment in Athalla
3. Pathia.
English attained a special value for Pathia when she met and communicated with the
American high school students at age 17 when studying abroad for the first time. Though she had
liked English as a school subject in junior high school and she enrolled in the English course in high
school, the impact she received from the experience in the study abroad program changed her
perception toward learning English. Because her English communicative ability had not developed
yet, participating in the communicative activities with the American students was great deal of
challenging experience for her. After this experience, the American students became role models
whom she perceived in an idealistic way, and acquiring a high degree of English proficiency became
the goal that she most wanted to achieve.
This goal was set autonomously and consciously by Pathia and was not based on
encouragement from other people, such as her parents or teacher. Although it took Pathia several
years to begin seriously pursuing her goal and investing a great deal of time and energy in English
study due to the powerful negative washback from the university entrance examinations, her
commitment to learning likely started sometime around this event (see Figure 9).
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improve her English skills and develop her English teaching career indicate that her commitment to
learning emerged at this time (see Figure 10).
6. Putri.
English became special for Putri at age 15 when she decided that her future career options
related to English were more practical and achievable than the career as a professional pianist, though
she had enjoyed and enthusiastically engaged in both activities since she was an elementary school
student. Because of her family environment and her parents‘ support, she had been exposed to and
had liked English since she was a child; however, her decision at age 15 to select an English-focused
high school course increased the importance of English for her. While playing the piano became a
hobby, increasing her English proficiency became a serious and concrete goal for her. After
prioritizing English over the piano, Putri has invested a great deal of time and energy in developing
her English skills. Thus, it is possible that her commitment to learning emerged after this event (see
Figure 33). The entrance examinations, her commitment to learning likely started sometime around
this event (see Figure 12).
4. CONCLUSIONS
This multiple case study was an investigation of six highly proficient learners‘ motivational
changes and their learning histories. The results illuminate the complex and dynamic development of
the participants‘ motivational fluctuation in the long-term process of foreign language learning. Each
participant‘s learning history vividly shows that each individual‘s motivational development and
learning history was fundamentally unique because a number of motivational sources interacted with
one another at different times, in different orders, and in different contexts. Second, the six case
studies allowed me to confirm an underlying proposition concerning successful learners‘ foreign
language learning motivation I made at the onset of the study: Successful learners have experienced
one or more motivational declines but have overcome such experiences. This indicates that the path
to acquiring high proficiency in a foreign language is a dynamic and challenging one in which
motivational fluctuations are a common occurrence. Third, searching for the keys to the participants‘
sustained motivation revealed seven salient motivational sources in their learning histories: the
learners‘ personal dispositions, their family environment, internal factors, especially interest,
external goals, their communicative experiences, especially those that occurred while studying
abroad, the entrance examinations, and their classroom experiences.
Finally, exploring the participants‘ learning histories collectively led to the emergence of
two new related findings regarding the key to successful foreign language learning. First, sustained
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motivation is not always a prerequisite for achieving high levels of proficiency and in some cases is
insufficient. Second, the emergence of commitment, which is an intentional, enduring psychological
force, is more important in the long term than what has been called motivation and is perhaps
necessary in some learning contexts, such as those in which access to linguistic input and
communicative opportunities are limited. The data gathered in this study suggest that one key to
success in foreign language learning is commitment to learning, a cognitive change that emerged at
some point in each of the participants‘ learning histories through the interaction of several
motivational sources. This change always occurred after the participants perceived that English was
important to them and sometimes involved challenges they had faced previously and wanted to
overcome. Commitment is conceptualized as a key element in the motivation-commitment
interaction model, and the participants‘ learning histories were reexamined using the model. I
propose that the model plausibly explains the tremendous effort and extraordinary achievements the
participants made in their acquisition of English; motivation alone failed to completely explain these
achievements. Centering the analysis on the learners‘ voices and their stories made these new
insights possible.
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Appendix
Table 2. Data: Pre and Post Test
Accountancy Department
Abstract
Class presentation is one kinds of activity that is done by the teacher in teaching and learning. In
class presentation, the students will present the material or topic that will be discussed in the
classroom. In presenting the material, the students get the opportunities to speak English well in their
performance. It also gives valuable experience for them to prepare themselves to use English in multi
society where English is a demanding tool for communication in our today‘s life. This paper is
intended to discuss about students‘ problem in giving presentation in classroom. The data of this
research are collected while teaching and learning process by means of observation, recording, and
note taking. The result of the research are, students have some problems in delivering and content of
presentation. The result indicates that the students need more practice to improve their speaking
performance and take more attention about delivering technique in presentation. While, presentation
skill need to be transferred in the classroom by the teacher to prepare students for their further
academic career as well as future professional surrounding.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the era of information and technology, every people are demanding to master the English
language for communication purpose. Nowadays English is widely used for different purpose such as
academic, business, diplomacy, news and information, entertainment and others. It proves that the
English language has become a basic requirement for students and job seeker in this increasingly
globalized world. In order to meet the needs for international communication, Indonesians students
need to be proficient in English, especially in oral communication skill. Communication skill is
highly needed by students in order to prepare them for their possible further academic career and
future workplace.
Students need a lot of practice the English language to make them able to communicate in
multi-society. To prepare students, teachers should be able to give them a great experience in
learning language and encourage students to have practice of communication in English because
language is means of communication. Students are considered to have language proficiency when
they know how to use the language in a various communication setting.
In developing students communicative competence teacher should be able to encourage
students to get involved actively in learning process. This approach is commonly known as
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). The ultimate goal of Communicative Language
Teaching is the students have the ability to communicate or students learn language through using it
to communicate. To make the students take part actively in learning process and use the language, a
teacher should bring interactive activities into the classroom. Classroom presentation is one of the
activities that can bring about interactivity between students and teacher, students and students.
Giving presentation in the classroom is necessary for the students in order to encourage them
to have intensive practice to use the English language productively, receptively, in unrehearsed
outside the classroom. Students are given opportunities to practice English language in situation
which encourage them to express their needs, ideas, and opinions. Particularly, in global world where
English is high demanding as a tool of communication in multi lingual and multi society. Students are
also hope to be more success in their further academic career and future professional surrounding.
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that discussion is one way of class presentation do by the students in order to deliver the topic
discussion. On the other words, class presentation gives the opportunity to the students to develop
their ability of the materials and share with the peers in the classroom.
Classroom Presentation as Communicative Learning Activities
Realizing the communicative competence, English Department lectures at STKIP PGRI
Sumatera Barat are trying to make their class more communicative. In the class mostly lecturer
encourages the students to use English interactively and consistently. Challenging students to
communicate with other students in term of standing in front of the class to give an oral presentation,
it clear enough will give them great experience exposure that language. It is also the way for students
to improve their English particularly in speaking performance.
It is important that language teachers include task that allows students to use the language
skills that they have learned to communicate with others in the classroom (Apple 286). Means that, in
learning English it is important for learner to use the language that they are learning. It is line with the
ultimate goal of communicative language teaching. Oral presentation in the classroom gives students
the opportunity to communicate their needs, ideas, and opinion by using target language in a
meaningful way and the students will develop communicative competence.
Moreover, it provides opportunities for rehearsal of real- life situations and provides
opportunities for real communication. Then, in class presentation students regularly work in groups
or pairs to transfer and negotiate meaning in situation where one person has information that others
lack (Celce-Murcia 1991).
If the activity is properly designed, participating in class presentation can provide students with an
enjoyable learning experience that allows them to interact with others using only the language that
they are learning. Also, oral presentation where it generally in group allow students to engage in a
cooperative task and in problem solving activities.
The Benefit of Oral Presentation
Oral presentations have been shown to be successful to improve students‘ skill in English,
encourage students become active, and increasing their autonomy. Presentations require students to
use all four language skills in a naturally integrated way; and that presentations have been shown to
encourage students become active and autonomous learners (King 401). Furthermore, Girard, Pinar
and Trapp (77) found that using oral presentations in the classroom lead to greater class interaction
and participation, an increased interest in learning and noticeable improvements in their students‘
communication and presentation skills. Presentations have been also shown to improve students‘
abilities in ways that can be beneficial for their future employment (Zivkovic, 474). Nowadays many
employees are looking for candidates who have the ability to give formal presentations. Experience
with oral presentation in the classroom will give much higher chance for students to show their
abilities in giving presentation. In short, for most language teachers the seven major benefits to using
oral presentation in the classroom are:
1. Improving students skills in English
2. Encouraging students to become active (students-centered)
3. Increasing their autonomy
4. Increasing students interest
5. Improving students communication and presentation skill
6. Collaborative/work together
7. Improving students‘ abilities/ beneficial for future academic career and employment
Communication and Presentation Skills
In presentation, student is doing the performance in order to deliver idea, opinion, feeling,
and tough related to the material in the classroom. This activity is done to help the students to use
their English in learning. Doing the performance means taking an opportunity to converse the idea,
seeking for information, organizing the tough, and distinguishing between fact and speculation
(Barras 22). It means, performance in presentation is how to deliver the message by searching the
information or data then arrange them. Besides, the speaker should know between fact and opinion in
delivering the idea. Hence, (Richards 27) has stated that performance is talking. It means someone is
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trying to communicate a specific topic to others. An oral presentation should never be a monologue,
but an active dialogue in which verbal communication is not the only constituent (Zivkovic 470).
To communicate well, a special skill is needed. Here, communication skills are required by
students whether they are expected to give presentation in classroom presentation, seminar,
conference, symposia or other meetings. The effective and good presentation include the
considering content of speaking, planning and preparation, time management, good communication
skill, and supporting documentation (Chivers and Michael 20). It means in presenting the materials,
the students need to pay attention a carefully planned and constructed guideline of performance,
know the interesting topic and audience. Then, time management and communication skill will
support the performers in presentation class. In short, students should pay attention in preparing,
organizing, and delivering oral presentations.
Before going beyond in speaking performance, it is better to prepare some preparations
(Barras 86). In this case, in preparing the performance, the performers should consider, first think. In
this stage, the performers make sure the topic, purpose, and allocate the time in presentation. Second,
plan, in this part, the performers prepare kind of outline, specific terms, and visual aids for delivering
the materials. Third, write, the performers need to write the points that will be discussed with the
audience. Fourth, check, the performers need to check the preparation from the beginning and
complete the deficiency. And last is practice, the students can practice their performance in
presentation class.
Furthermore, Zivkovic has divided (468) the important aspect of spoken presentation into
introduction, the main body (methods, results) and conclusion (discussion). In introduction part, we
are required to greet the audience, introduce our self, explain the purpose of our talk start by
introducing the topic, and outline the main points. In stating the purpose and announce the outline of
presentation used precise and very simple language. A good introduction will take an audience‘s
attention. The main body (methods and results) is a part we move to a point, outline our talk, state
main ideas clearly and present examples, introduce a visual aids in order to engage the interest of
audience. Notes that, the information in the body needs to be well structured. The last part is
conclusion (discussion), here we require to conclude our talk, summarize the main points, invites
questions and comments.
However, there are other facts that need close attention. They are:
1. Analyzing the audience. It is the first thing that should be done. We have to know the
background of audience, wants and needs, level of English, and knowledge of the subject. To
sum up, different audiences require and are prepared for different amount and depths of
information.
2. Determine the aims of presentation. In this stage, restricting your purpose. What exactly do
you want to do in this presentation (to inform, to persuade, to teach). Depending on these, the
structure and the shape of the presentation will vary significantly.
3. Shape the presentation. Students should gain the mastery of organizing and selecting their
arguments or pieces of information so as to respect the time allotted
4. Introduce appropriate visual aids. The main thing is to encourage students to use support
material and visual aids. It will help students when presentation and vice versa, help the
audience follow the presentation.
5. Gain the audience‘s attention. The introduction to a presentation is especially important
because listeners often decide in the first minute or two whether they want to pay attention to
what you are going to say. Gain the audience‘s attention by connecting their needs/ values/
knowledge to the topic of the speech
6. Familiarize the audience with the aim, content, and the structure of presentation.
7. Prepare a closing summary. The conclusion of your presentation is important because you
want to leave a strong impression on your audiences. An effective conclusion develops
naturally from the structure and content of the preceding material.
c. Look presentable, it means to dress well, appearance says a lot about someone‘s
personality and confidence.
d. Speak in a clear and audible voice
e. Pause periodically, in order to give your audience a chance to digest your
information and it also gives them permission to participate.
f. Be aware that nervousness is to be expected, just should be turned into enthusiasm
g. Engage your audience by pose a question to see how much they know about the
subject you are about to discuss
h. Give the talk a clear, logical structure with an introduction, the main body and a
conclusion.
i. Emphasize Keywords to allow your audience what they really need to pay attention
to; if you speak in the same voice tone throughout the entire presentation, no one
knows what is really important.
j. Make the visual aids clear and easy to understand.
k. Respond to question politely, good-humoredly, and briefly
l. Summarize your main points and give a strong concluding remark that reinforces
why your information is of value
m. Invite questions from the audience at the conclusion of your presentation
Furthermore, Brown and Priyanvada has argued (219) that there two main points can be
assessed from students‘ performance during presentation, content and delivery.
1. Content
Content means the appropriate function of the students speaking in class presentation. It is
also relating to students‘ purpose in presenting. In performance, the performers should decide the
balance content of speaking with the topic of discussion (Chivers and Michael 72). In addition, the
sub indicators in content of speaking performance are purpose, introduction, main idea, supporting
point and conclusion (Brown and Priyanvada 219).
Purpose means the clear objective in speaking performance. The performers demand to have
a clear purpose in speaking to the audience. Introduction means the speaker or performers give the
introductory of speaking in delivering the material to the audience or other group. Main idea means
the speakers deliver the content of speaking by using clear main idea that will be discussed in
discussion. It is important to be considered, by using clear main idea the audience will get the point of
the speaker. Conclusion in delivering the materials is important. It is needed to make a clear
explanation when delivering the material.
2. Delivery
Getting means of how the speaker delivers the paper, report or idea to the audience. In
addition, Brown and Priyanvada (219) have explained the sub indicators of delivery include speaker
gesture, language, pronunciation, visual aids, and respond to the audience. Speaker gesture and body
language are used to attract audience attention. It is line with Chivers and Michael (2007: 39) who
argues that the speaker or performer need to used gesture body language to attract the attention of the
audience while doing performance.
Eye contact with the audience means the speaker attends audience response in discussion.
(Chivers and Michael 41) has stated that ―Eyes are the best tools for involving the audience in what
are you saying‖. It means good posture, gesture, and movement will support by using eye contact
while speak in front of the audience. Notes are kind of visual aids that can be used by the speaker. But
in this case, the speaker did not read it verbatim. It is used for remembering the content of the
material that will be presented to the audience. Language was natural and fluent are very important in
delivering of speaking. The natural and fluent language will give the clear information to the
audience. The audience will understand more about the explanation of the discussion by using natural
and fluent language.
The rate and volume were appropriate used by the speaker. Speaker‘s pronunciation and
grammar were appropriate. In this case, grammar and pronunciation were the parts of speaking
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components. It means the delivering the messages in speaking performance the students need to
consider the components of speaking in order to make the speaking better.
Besides, speaker used visual aids, handout effectively. According to Chivers and Michael
visual aids are kind of the tools that support the speaker to deliver the performance (105). Visual aids
that can be used by the speaker are power point presentation and handout. The speakers are response
audience‘s question. It is need to make clear understanding of the material. The speaker is hoped can
explain the content of discussion clearly. In doing speaking performance the speaker need to
response audience question.
Meanwhile, (Barras 109) has stated that performance can be assessed from the students. In
order to assess students‘ performance it can be done after class discussion. The students can assess
their own performance by considering the audience reaction, students‘ own feeling, comfortable, fit
of the topic, and time allocation. It can be said that performance also can be measured by the
students‘ themselves. The students can know it from the audience feeling and the performer feeling.
Besides, the comfortable in presenting the topic and time allocation are also the consideration of
assessing the performance.
Evaluating speaking performance can be seen from speaker‘s pronunciation and grammar,
accuracy of the time, long pause and repetition, and speaker‘s contribution to topic discussion
(Richards 39),. Speaker‘s pronunciation and grammar can be included to speaker‘s speaking
components. Long pause and repetition is related to speaker‘s fluency in speaking. And speaker‘s
contribution to topic discussion is the knowledge of the speaker of the materials discussed.
3. METHODOLOGY
This study was conducted by using a descriptive research. In this particular work, the
researcher investigated and identified the problems of English Department students of STKIP PGRI
Sumatera Barat in giving classroom presentation. This research was conducted in the English
Department of STKIP PGRI Sumatera Barat. The subject of this research was the sixth year students
in academic year 2013/2014 who take ESP subject and have classroom presentation activity. The
data of this research are collected while teaching and learning process by means of observation,
recording, and note taking.
4. RESULTS
The research project has investigated students‘ problem in giving presentation in the
classroom. The result of the research are, students have some problems in delivering and content of
presentation. The result indicates that the students need more practice to improve their performance
and take more attention about delivering technique in presentation.
Content involved five aspects to be analyzed. First, the purpose or objective of the
presentation was accomplished. Second, the introduction was lively and got the attention. Third, the
main idea or point was clearly stated toward the beginning. Fourth, the supporting points. The last the
conclusion restated the main idea or purpose.
Based on the observation, mostly students introduced the purpose of their presentation, but
only few students could introduce the purpose well. Most of the group just greeting the audiences and
move to the point of discussion. So the introduction was not lively and did not get the special
attention from the audience. Then, the students stated the topic that they want to present in front of
the class, but they did not state clearly to the audience. Moreover, they less in supporting points and
difficult to developing a strong conclusion. Even they wanted to finish the presentation soon. Topic
and purpose of presentation are very important to make clear understanding between speaker and
audiences. In fact, the students seem did not aware the topic, purpose, main idea, supporting idea, and
conclusion.
Delivery is one of performance aspects that were seen from the students. There are ten items
of delivery that was checking from students‘ speaking performance during class presentation. The
aspects included: gesture and body language, eye contact, used notes and did not read the script
verbatim, speaker‘s language was natural and fluent, the appropriate volume, language of speaking
components, visual aids, and respond audience questions.
In delivering the materials, the students did not use good speaking components such as
pronunciation, fluency, grammar, and vocabulary. According to Brown and Priyanvada (129)
speaking components are the important thing to be considered by the speaker in speaking. Speaking
components will show speaker‘s ability to deliver the message to the audience. Moreover, the
students seemed monotonous in speaking. They did not pay attention to the audiences. It can be seen
the performers did not maintain eyes contact with the audience as much as possible. They did not use
natural gesture and body language well in giving presentation. Besides, the students rare engage the
audience by pose a question to see how much they know about the subject are being discussed or to
make it sure whether the audiences are still following the presentation or not.
In question and answer session, the speakers were busy to prepare the answer of audience‘s
questions and take a long time to answer it. But, generally the students as speakers have the ability to
respond the audience‘s questions. Other problem is students cannot use visual aids effectively. They
did not make the visual aids clear and easy to understand. Most of group presents the power point, but
only few of them can explain the material clearly and briefly. Most of them just read the points in
each slide.
Other result that was found during the research is some groups used Indonesia language
more than English during presentation class. It means that the students still cannot use English
maximally in giving presentation. Ineffective English language in speaking performance during
presentation class was a problem by the students in delivering the materials in front of the classroom.
5. CONCLUSION
Classroom presentation in one of the activity that language teachers bring into the classroom
in order to create interactive activity , encourage students to have practice in English language in
classroom in natural way, and to improve students‘ communication and presentation skills. Group
presentations require students to work together to plan and to prepare for their presentation.
English department students of STKIP PGRI Sumatera Barat are used to have presentation in
the classroom. The lecturers are consistently brought classroom presentation activity. Particularly in
ESP Subject, because students will be asked to use English to present in their future jobs.
Unfortunately, there are some students still have problems when giving oral presentation in front of
their friends. They have problems in content and delivery of presentation.
To overcome these problems, it is important for the lecturer of an oral presentation class to
spend time introducing students to both macro and micro skills that they need to give oral
presentation. In short, Presentation skills need to be transferred in the classroom by the teacher to
prepare students for their further academic career as well as future professional surrounding.
REFERENCES
Apple, M. "Language Learning theories and cooperative learning techniques in the EFL classroom."
Doshisha studies in Language and Culture (2006): 277-301.
Barras, Robert. speaking for yourself: a guide for students. New York: Routledge Taylor and Francis
Group, 2006.
Brown, H. Douglas. Language Assesment: Principle and Classroom Practice. New York: Pearson
Education, 2004.
Brown, H. Douglas, Privanda Abeywickrama. Language Assesment: principles and CClassroom
Practice 2nd ed. London: Longman, 2009.
Chivers, Barbara and Michael shoolbred. Students' Guide to Presentation: Making your presentation
Count. London: SAGE Publication Inc, 2007.
Girard, T., Pinar, AM.,& Trapp, P. "An exploratory study of class presentation and peer evaluation:
Do Students perceive the benefits?" Academy of Educational Leadership Journal (2011):
15(1)77-93.
Harmer, Jeremy. Practice English Language Teaching. England: Pearson Education, 2001.
King, J. "Preparing EFL Learners for oral presentations." Journal of Humanistic Studies (2002): 4,
401-418.
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Poorman, P.B. Biography in role playing: Fostering Empathy in Abnormal Psychology: Teaching of
Psychology. 16 March 2002.
Richards, Jack C. Communicative Language Teaching Today. New York: Cambridge University
Press, 2006.
—. Teaching Listening and Speaking: From Theory to Practice. New York: Cambridge University
Press, 2008.
Thonbury, Scott. How to Teach Speaking . Vermont: Longman Pearson, 2005.
Zivkovic, Sladana. "The Important of Oral Presentation for University Students'." Mediterranean
Journal of Social Science (2014): 468-475.
Abstract
The aim of this study is to determine the effects of using the technique named recorded (videotaped)
mini-drama toward students‘ speaking ability. Students‘ speaking ability can be seen from the five
aspects of a rubric used, which are pronunciation, fluency, comprehension, grammar, and
vocabulary. Researchers conducted observations at SMA N 2 Padang in order to see the techniques
applied by the teachers in the classroom that affect to students‘ speaking ability. Researchers found
several weaknesses of the teaching techniques which are implemented in schools. Those techniques
influence students' speaking ability. To overcome the problems, the researchers applied a technique
called recorded (videotaped) mini-drama. In this technique, students performed a mini-drama and
the researcher record the performance. In the next meeting, the recording was showed in front of the
class and then the researchers discussed it with the students by considering the five aspects of the
rubric. After the technique applied in the classroom, the researchers held a posttest to see the effect
of the technique. Posttest assessed by two English teachers from SMA N 2 Padang with reference to
the five aspects previously mentioned. Based on this research, it was found that the technique
recorded (videotaped) mini-drama gives a significant effect on students' speaking ability.
1. INTRODUCTION
In learning English, there are four skills that should be mastered by the learner. They are
listening, reading, speaking and writing. Bailey (2005:2) says that listening and reading are called
receptive skill. Then, speaking and writing are included in productive skill. By speaking, the student
can express messages, information, thought, ideas and opinion to someone else. They can tell their
feeling through speaking. Besides, others will get point and meaning of someone‘s expression.
Speaking is regarded as one of the complicated skills in learning English. However, Bailey
and Savage (1994:7) say that speaking has often been viewed as the most demanding of the four
skills. It is because this skill is the most basic means of human communication. The situation is like
having conversation or may be doing public speaking is called the process of communication.
Speaking is also a verbal language that used by people to communicate in social life. It is a process of
communication where the people take some information from others while speaking.
Speaking can be said as one of the important skills in learning English. One of the linguists
who consider the importance of studying speaking is Scott Thornbury. In this case, Thornbury
(2005:1) said that speaking takes so much part of our life. He expresses the importance of speaking in
everyday life so that he suggests learning it, especially to the learners of foreign language. Since
English is a foreign language for Indonesia‘s students, the teachers have to help them in studying
speaking skill.
However, the process of teaching speaking is not always well. Most of the students in
Indonesia especially in senior high school get problems when they are speaking. Based on the
interview with English teacher and observation which were held at SMA N 2 Padang, there were
some problems faced by students in speaking. The first one is the ability of students; students do not
want to speak because their ability in speaking is low. The second one is lack of self-confident. In
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truth, students can speak fluently, but they do not want to speak since they always feel unconfident.
The next one is they are afraid to make mistakes. This is the biggest problem that students always
have. Students do not want to be ridiculed by their friends if they say something wrong. So, they just
keep silent during speaking class. Last one, the problem that students usually have is they feel that
learning English, especially speaking, is not interesting. Students easily get bored since teacher
applies the monotonous technique in teaching. Teachers teach students by giving them some
dialogues and then ask them to read it. This technique makes students feel that learning speaking is
not interesting.
Due to the problems faced by the students in speaking, recorded (videotaped) mini-drama is
used as a technique in teaching speaking in order to overcome these problems. It is one of the good
techniques that can be used in improving students‘ speaking ability.
an opportunity to use language in operation which is absent in a conventional language class. Drama
also can make the process of learning become fun and the class will not get bored anymore like the
other class.
Based on the opinion above, by using drama techniques to teach speaking, the monotonous
of a conventional speaking class can be broken. The monotonous of speaking class happen since the
way of teaching is still like the usual one. Teachers have to create various techniques in order to break
that. One of the techniques is asking the students to create a role play or drama in groups. Each group
is given a certain theme and plays the role as suitable as the characteristic and situation given.
Students are free using their words and sentences as suitable with characteristics and situation they
role.
Furthermore, based on the experts‘ opinion above, the researcher concludes that drama is not
so different from role play. In drama students are given a freedom to observe the problem of daily life
such as social problems, political problems, economical problems, and others. On the other hand, in
role play students are given a certain characteristic and contexts. Furthermore, students are free to use
their own words and sentences as appropriate with characteristics and contexts.
Since drama as a technique of teaching speaking, the duration will be shorter than the
common drama. It will be called as mini-drama. Mini – drama is brief dialogues that demonstrate the
relationship (s) between ideas. As Education (2007:212) says that mini - dramas are a great technique
to help students to build their visualization skills. Mini-drama allows students in team or pairs to
summarize what they have seen and learned in an interactive way.
Mini – drama is rather similar to drama. The difference between drama and mini-drama is
only in the duration of time. The common drama takes a longer time, but mini-drama runs for 20-30
minutes. The definition of mini-drama is still the same with drama. Drama or mini-drama is a
composition in verse or prose intended to portray life or character. The function of mini-drama is to
tell a story usually involving conflicts and emotions through action and dialogue and typically
designed for theatrical performance. Mini-drama is shorter than drama, but it is quite longer than
role-play. It also has plot, character, theme, genre, and also style like the common drama. Mini-drama
takes 20-30 minutes time to play.
There is also scene inside mini-drama. Duncan (2006: 162) says mini-drama has scene that
should become very clear to the player and the audience that they can never go back to the previous
scene. It means that the events inside the mini-drama are in sequence. It has some scenes just like the
common drama.
As a researcher said before, the duration of mini-drama is shorter than drama. Although it
does not take much time to be performed, the actors could be allowed to use some properties if it is
needed. Zingher (2006: 80) says that students could be allowed to use a few simple props or costume
pieces-perhaps a hat, some kind of fabric, a mask, or a walking stick. It is important since the players
can feel that they are in the real life. The mini-drama seems real and believable to the player and also
audience.
Mini-drama for second language learners can provide an opportunity to develop the
imagination of the students. As Richardson and Jackson (2004: 92) say that one way to encourage
students to extend their imagination is to engage them in the process of creating mini-dramas. By
working in group, students could develop improvised scenes tied to particular themes.
In conclusion, mini-drama is also a great technique in teaching speaking. Since this
technique takes shorter time than the common drama, it can be applied easily during learning
activities in the classroom. The process of learning activity that uses mini-drama is interesting and
makes students interested to do it.
2.2.1 The Advantages of Practicing Drama in Teaching Speaking
Some experts have discussed the advantages of drama activities in teaching speaking.
According to Maley and Duffs (1982:13-14) problem solving tasks and opinion gaps that stimulate
the need to speak are provided by the drama activities. To create a performance, the speakers need to
exchange idea, make decisions, and negotiate the shape of the final product.
Drama activities give valuable contribution to both students and teacher. Drama encourages
students to speak and give them the change to communicate, using nonverbal communication, such
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as body movements and facial expression. The use of drama can reduce the pressure that students
feel, so they become ready to talk. Furthermore, drama can help teachers to prepare learners for the
real world (Davies 1990:97 in Barbu), purely by immersing learners in authentic communication.
Drama provides an opportunity for independent thinking. As Boudreault (2010) says that
students are encouraged to express their own ideas and contribute to the whole. Drama also offers
exercises in critical thinking and the chance for the students to be creative.
2.3 The Concept of Recorded (Videotaped) English Mini - Drama
Videotaped mini-drama is a new technique that can be done by using camcorder. Teacher
can use the camera to record the process of performing mini-drama during learning. According to
Magnusson (1996) using a camcorder can be an effective teaching tool since it can capture the
students' attention in class. It also provides information about the students‘ abilities of speaking. As
Kao & O‘Neill (1998) say that videotape of how a group of students create drama together in the
classroom will provide information about the students‘ abilities.
Doing videotaping is something which is pretty fun. Kita & Kinghorn (2002) state that
videotaping is an activity that always fun, useful, and addictive, but sometimes needs hard work.
Students will love to do it because they like to be ―shot‖ by the camera. They will do it happily since
they know their performance will be recorded. It is like the real drama or movie that has the real actor
and actress. It will be more fun if they wear the costume that is related to the theme of their drama. It
can make the performance ―real‖.
According to Orlova (2009:30) videotaping or video recording provides an objective and
permanent source that can be viewed repeatedly to observe various aspects of classroom practice. It
can be used in speaking class since speaking needs more classroom practices. One of classroom
practices of speaking is through drama. Since teacher adds the videotaped mini-drama technique, the
activities can be funnier than just a common drama.
There are some advantages of recording the drama. According to Wright, Betteridge &
Buckby (2006) recording the drama invites more creativities and participation of the learners.
Students will give their best to the drama by performing it creatively since they know it will be
recorded. The other good thing about the recorded of the drama is student can replay the recorded
easily later.
After recording the drama, the teacher can show it to the students. Teacher and students can
discuss the recorded of the drama. Teacher starts to ask the comments from the students. They can
comment their own performance, and also their friends‘ performance. The comments must be about
how the students pronounce the word, their fluency, the comprehension, grammar, and also
vocabulary that they use in the script. After that, teacher gives her comment to her students. The
aspects of comments from teacher will be the same as the students, e.g. pronunciation, fluency,
grammar, comprehension, grammar, and vocabulary. The comments from friends and teacher will be
the helpful comments to each of the student. If the students said the word in the wrong pronunciation,
they will know how to pronounce the word after the teacher teaches them how to pronounce it
correctly.
3. RESEARCH METHOD
This research was an experimental research which aimed to investigate the effect of recorded
(videotaped) an English mini-drama for speaking ability. It examined the hypothesis proposed to
prove whether using recorded (videotaped) mini-drama method in teaching speaking gave a better
effect towards students‘ speaking ability. As this research is an educational research, the researcher
used Quasi-Experimental Design. It is Quasi Experimental research because it uses intact group and
the availability of participant is limited (Creswell, 2005: 297).
The population in this research was the students in grade eleven at SMA N 2 Padang. There
were 276 students in population. Then, the sample was chosen by using cluster random sampling
method that selects groups, not individuals. It is supported by Ary, Jacobs, and Sorenson (2010: 154)
who state that ―A common application of cluster sampling in education is the use of intact classrooms
as clusters‖. The samples of this research were XI IPA 3 as the experimental class and XI IPA 2 as the
control class. The experimental group was treated by using recorded (videotaped) mini-drama in
teaching speaking while control group was treated by using the usual speaking method that is role
play.
A speaking test was used as the instrument of this research. The form of the test was role play
scored based on the rubric of speaking. There were five aspects in the rubric pronunciation which are
fluency, comprehension, grammar, and vocabulary.
Technique of data collection in this research was done by administering the posttest to both
samples. The data were taken from the students‘ speaking test rated by two raters. The agreement of
score of both raters was used as data that would be analyzed by using t-test formula.
3.1. Procedures of the Research
Table 1. Procedures of the research
Experimental Group Control Group
a) Exploration a) Exploration
1. The teacher built the students background 1. The teacher built the students background
knowledge about the topic by showing some knowledge about the topic by showing some
dialogues which are related to that topic. dialogues which are related to that topic.
2. The teacher showed the expression of the 2.The teacher showed the expression of the
transactional in the dialogue transactional in the dialogue
3. Teacher and students read the dialogue 3. Teacher and students read the dialogue
together together
4.Teacher asked two or more students to come 4. Teacher asked two or more students to
to the front to perform the dialogue come to the front to perform the dialogue.
b)Elaboration b)Elaboration
1. The students were divided into three 1. The students were divided into five
groups. groups.
2. Teacher asked each group to have a 2. Teacher gave an instruction that students
chairman. This chairman was the director of made a role play by using the expression that
the mini-drama later they have studied before.
3. Teacher gave each group a theme of the 3. The expressions of love, anger, and
mini-drama like romantic or comedy, etc. sadness were used in the dialogue.
4. Ask students to make a mini-drama script 4. Ask students to make a role-play script
together. There were some expressions that together.
have been studied together in the previous 5. In the next meeting, students decide their
meeting inside the script. role.
5. In the next meeting, class decided the role. 6. The group rehearsed the role play in front
Make a list of the characters on the board of the class after doing some practices
including the narrator. Assign any "extras" outside the class.
(odd number of students left over, or 7. Show time. This is the time to show the
latecomers as assistant narrators to other first role-play. All of the groups performed
groups.) Tell students they have to memorize one by one.
their lines, except the narrator who can read 8. After the first performance, teacher asked
the lines. If there is more than one narrator to a the whole class about how the performance
group, the narrators should divide up their was. Other group gave their comments about
work. their friends‘ performance. The comments
6. Each group rehearsed in front of the are about pronunciation, fluency, etc.
classroom. Let each group perform the play 9. Students chose the best performer after
from start to finish. Guide students on their giving their comments for all groups.
movements and give them ideas regarding 10. The best group chose the first performer
gestures. (Such as putting hands on hips to for the second role-play.
show anger.) Help them with pronunciation 11. Students made the second role play‘s
and intonation. Masks, costumes, or special script. They are free to use one of the three
props should be used if available. expression(can be love, anger, or sadness)
7. Show time. Call on groups to perform the 12. They performed the second role play in
play. Teacher stands in the middle of the the next meeting.
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classroom and record the play. Use the zoom 13. After one group performed the role play,
lens occasionally. Record each group. others gave their comment, just like the first
8.Students watched their performance, and role play.
teacher told students about their pronunciation
when they say the dialogue, it will be
corrected later.
9.After watching their own performance,
students were asked to perform again in order
to ―make it clear‖, they performed with the
right pronunciation
10. After performing mini-drama, they
watched it again since it was also recorded by
the teacher.
11. After that, teacher gave comment like the
previous performance.
12. Teacher and students shared about the
result, students‘ pronunciation becomes better
than before. They improved their
pronunciation in this performance.
Students also had fun when they studied speaking by using their own videotaped. This
technique makes a new atmosphere in the class. The finding of this research is also in line with the
theory proposed by Kita & Kinghorn (2002) who state that videotaping is always fun, rewarding, and
addictive. Students love doing it. They also like to watch their own performance when the teacher
played at the next meeting. They laughed and enjoyed their own video. They gave their full attention
to the recorded (videotaped) of their performance.
Based on the research findings related to the theories, it can be concluded that recorded
(videotaped) mini-drama technique is strongly suggested to be used in teaching and learning process
especially to improve students‘ speaking ability.
5. CONCLUSION
Based on the research done, it can be concluded that: (1) The mean of speaking score of the
students who were given the recorded (videotaped) mini-drama technique was higher than those who
were not given this technique. By using statistical analysis, it was found that there was a difference in
speaking achievement between the students who were given videotaped mini-drama technique and
those who were not given it .Thus, it can be said that the use of recorded (videotaped) mini-drama
gave a better effect on the students‘ speaking achievement. (2) The students who were given recorded
(videotaped) mini-drama technique got motivated and interested more than those who were not given
it. Furthermore, it avoided the students‘ boredom to study.This technique is beneficial to improve
students‘ speaking ability. It is recommended to the English teacher to use this technique to use
recorded (videotaped) mini-drama technique. This method creates a new atmosphere at the class. The
students love to do it.
REFERENCES
Ary, D., L.C.Jacobs, and C. Sorensen. Introduction to Research in Education (8th ed). California:
Wadsworth. 2010.
Bailey, K.M & Savage, L. New Ways in Teaching Speaking.Teachers of English to speakers of Other
Language.Inc.1994.
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Abstract
Videos are engaging. They teach students to plan, organize, write, communicate, collaborate, and
analyze. This paper reports on a case study of the role of video projects in improving students‘
participation in conversation class. Students‘ low motivation in conversation class is presumbly
caused by their less ideas to maximize the technology they had to draw in and connect them in
innovative ways. This research is aimed at examining whether video projects can better improve
students‘ participation in English conversation. The result showed the improvements in terms of
numbers of exchanges the students could produce in a conversation, students‘ turn-taking, and
students‘ back-channeling. It indicated that video projects is really a great way to encourage
students‘ participation in conversation. As this media further matures, students may need to be able
to express themselves as effectively through moving imagery as with the written word.
1. INTRODUCTION
Obviously, one of the problems in learning a foreign language, particularly English as a
Foreign Language (EFL), has always been providing quality linguistic input to learners. Amongst the
main goals of the English language teaching is enabling EFL learners to communicate in the target
language in real-world situation (Oxford, 1990). It can be said that EFL learners are expected to be a
proficient language users. Nevertheless, in such contexts, real language learning enviroinment does
not always provide EFL learners a natural setting to promote their English language proficiency.
There are a number of limitations associated with EFL classroom. Cziko (2005) identifies several
problems, they are; limited exposure to the target language, limited opportunities to use the target
language, limited exposure to inaccurate forms of expressions produced by both fellow students and
the teacher, limited opportunities for authentic communication, and limited language ability and
cultural knowledge of EFL teachers. Therefore, to compensate the aforementioned shortcomings, an
alternative critically needed to be sought.
As media devices become increasingly portable, this paper argues that integrating video
projects into the EFL classroom may help address the above limitations by providing students wide
opportunities to be exposed to the target language. As educators, our aim is to get students energized
and engaged in the hands-on learning process, and video is clearly the perfect medium for students
because it has greater amount of interest and enjoyment than the more traditional printed material. It
is also assumed as one new approach to emphasizing professional communications skills by
assigning student to make video projects (Genereux: 2014). Without question, today‘s generation
truly is the media generation. Most of them are devoting more than a quarter of each day to media.
For instance, In my classroom, video usually equals instant engagement. Students like to record
anything around them. Many of them get to use their phones for fun and for school purposes. They
like to watch it even more, and if those videos are produced by their peers, their interest skyrockets.
Undoubtly, there are ample of strength of video as communication medium in the classroom. Video
can present visual information that is difficult to convey in other ways. One of the appeals of video is
that it provides a sense of ‗being there‘. A student who sees and hears the eruption of a volcano will
likely be more affected than one who reads simple textual information about it. Moreover, video can
be used to model positive behaviour and to motivate students, they are particularly useful for
introducing a topic, or reviewing material already studied. With a careful concern about critical
analysis of message design, information sources, and the power of video to elicit emotional
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responses, video can be effective for examining many different types of issues and promoting
conversation class.
Every educator has experienced the frustation of a discussion falling flat in class. Even when
they design substanstive and open-ended questions, students sometimes choose not to share their
ideas or engage in conversation with other students. It is hoped by seeing their own video projects,
students can lead to participate actively in conversation and a platform for sharing ideas, even if it is
out of the classroom. This statement is in line with Sherman (1990) that stated that watching
student-made video also can enhance students‘ communal viewing and listening experience. It is felt
to be awkward if the participants of a conversation cannot take their turns to speak smoothly.
Students learn best when they are actively ( physically and/or intellectually) enganged in the learning
activity. A variety approaches can be used to promote active learning during a video viewing
experience (Plowman, 1988). Viewing a video with carefully stop points can greatly enhance
attention and engangement with the topic. On the other hand, affective learning and motivation may
be influenced strongly by the choice of media. This in turn, may influence how enthusiastically and
succesfully student engage in learning activities. Here, before watching the video, student can be
separated into small groups. A single question of a set of questions can be distributed around the
class. After watching their own video, with a face to face conversation, student can create
opportunities for more intimate conversation and discussion. They have time to consider the
question, articulate the response, reply the thoughtfully to their peers, and learn from each other.
Valuable discussion on the video concepts and topics can be fostered in these small group.
(4). Filming: they key to good video project is the actual raw footage. Consider blocking a few times
for recording and having an alternate activity availablefor the rest of the students.
(5) Editing: tools such as Microsoft Movie Maker, Apple iMovie, and Pixorial easily allow students
to add soundtrack, voice overs, special effects, captions, and titles.
(6). Publishing: at the most basic level, a camera can be plugged in to a Tv or projector and shown to
the rest of the class. Online video sharing sites (Youtube amd Vimeo) and class websites provide
students with an even broader audience.
With the availability of video recorders, visual communication using video is becoming
more prevalent. Through video, it is hoped that communication strategies can be taught. Grenfeld and
Harris (1999) suggested that strategy instruction could give learners more of sense control over their
own learning. The strategy training could be beneficial for language learners because it is also
teaching learners how to select turn-taking phrases, request for help, clarification and repetition and
pause fillers.
The quality of discussion improves when more people participate, and because research has
documented what most of us have experienced that only a few students regularly participate in class
conversation. Here is a brief summary of what studies suggest to motivate students to talk more in
class proposed by Weimer (2015), they are (1) establish the expectation of participation by warming
students that will be called. Discuss the importance of participation in class and attach a grade to
participation, (2) provide opportinities for reflecting and responding by giving students time to
prepare. Use appropriate amounts of wait time. Maybe let students write some ideas and/or share
them with another students, (3) skillful facilitate the discussion by setting ground rules. Discuss what
makes the good answer. Do not let a few students monopolize the discussion. Let students look at
their notes or the text, (4) use questions appropriately by asking open-ended questions. Call on those
who might have relevant experience or background knowledge. (5) create a supportive learning
enviroinment by letting the classromm be a safe place where honest attempts to answer are supported
and encouraged, and (6) respond respectfully to students‘ contributions by using wrong answers as
teaching moments. Get others involved in understanding misconceptions and errors. Communication
strategies are employed in order to repair breakdowns in spoken communication and to improve the
effectiveness of communication. So it can be said that learning strategies are used in order to promote
learning, whereas communication strategies are used to promote communication. And it is
reasonable to say that language learning strategies contribute to the development of communicative
competence and communication strategies are one type of language learning strategies.
Although communication strategies are not directly related to cognitive learning of language, they
provide the learners with the input which is very important for the success of learning. In this case,
communication strategies can be employed in conversation in order to allow the learners to maintain
in conversation. So, learners get more opportunities to hear as well as to produce the target language.
Tarone, Fearch and Kasper in Brett (2001) propose that in order to remain in the conversation
learners must: (1) find way to continue producing the target language despite the limitation, (2)
recognize when their production has not been properly interpreted, and (3) indicate their reception of
the speakers‘ intentions. Related to this idea, many academics consider class participation evidence
of active learning or engagement that benefits learning, critical thinking, writing, appreciation of
cultural differences, time management and interpersonal, listening and speaking skills (Petress:
2006).
However, less vocal students may not have an incentive to participate, especially when the
teacher‘s classroom style is autonomous and students set the policies and procedures of the course
(Gomberg & Gray: 2000). Unlike some of the other forms of learning that take place in the
classroom, participation in the small-group environment is not an individual activity. How and what
students learn from listening to a lecture, reading a textbook, doing research, or studying for an exam
is quite different from what students can gain when students have immediate access to approximately
different, informed points of view on a single issue. Playing an active role in discussions involves
volunteering students opinion, asking questions, and listening carefully. The best discussions are the
ones that move beyond the simple questions and answers. Students will be rewarded for bringing up
more chal-lenging ideas and for trying to deal with them collaboratively with their classmates. To do
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this effectively, teachers must have read all of the assigned material carefully. If they haven‘t, it will
become clear quite quickly.
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
In doing this case study research, the case that is the subject of the inquiry will be an instance
of a class of phenomena that provides an analytical frame — an object — within which the study is
conducted and which the case illuminates and explicates. According to J. Creswell (2009) One
approach sees the case study defined as a research strategy, an empirical inquiry that investigates a
phenomenon within its real-life context. Case-study research can mean single and multiple case
studies, can include quantitative evidence, relies on multiple sources of evidence, and benefits from
the prior development of theoretical propositions. As such, case study research should not be
confused with qualitative research, as case studies can be based on any mix of quantitative and
qualitative data.
This research was conducted at STMIK Jayanusa Padang which is located in Jl. Damar
No.69E Padang. The research is administered to the second semester students (63 students). Time
allocation for English course is 2 x 45 minutes per week.
The data were collected by doing direct observation as the main technique to find out what happen in
the classroom during the process of teaching speaking. While observing the teaching learning
process, the collaborator put a tick to the sheets of students‘ activities. After the lesson, the author and
collaborator discussed and took some notes into the research field notes because ideally, the notes
should be written as soon as possible after the lesson. To support the data collection in observation,
the author recorded the students‘ conversation at the end of every meeting.
Of the open-ended questions, twenty-two were completely positive, thirty-two were left
unanswered and nine were mixed, containing both positive and negative thoughts. The negative
responses focused on lack of time and lack of technology skill and inability to coordinate schedules
with group members. It should be noted that prior experience with any outside student project,
especially at a college that is heavily commuter rather than residential, where 90% of the students are
working at least ten hours a week, will typically yield the same comments. A few students also
commented on the project not being relevant to their education and fail to see how this project would
serve any useful purpose in their future career.
On the positive side, the following comments were provided: These comments were
constructed before the students reviewed each other‘s work.
It helped us learn how much actually goes into creating an english conversation
I really enjoyed it, it was fun to do and gave me an opportunity to be creative
It was great. It helped me learn a lot about how to build a real engsh atmosphere from a
storyboard
It was definitely useful to at least see how the process works…
It was a fun way to spend ouside the class
It was extremely funny
It was a fun and a good experience
I like the idea but many of us lacked the equipment
I found the project to be enjoyable and educational
The video project was definitely a great learning experience
It allowed us to put what we learned in class on a real project and experience a real project
I really enjoyed the project….it was pretty fun and really shows what goes into making a
drama.
I enjoyed creating our project, because it is more than memorizing terms, it‘s using
creativity
I really enjoyed making the video with my group, it was a fun experience. It really gives you
an idea
Although not mentioned directly, all students had an opportunity to develop some level of
video technology expertise which is expected to increase in relevance as they go forward in their
education and their work experience.The positive comments support the notions that students
appreciate: having an opportunity to exercise personal creativity; having educational activities that
are: experiential, active, and entertaining; having an opportunity to engage in social learning and
having an opportunity to gain familiarity and comfort with classmates.
The following categories emerged from the result of data analysis. Based on the data
gathered through three instruments; observation sheets, field-notes, and tape recording, the following
categories are the basis to report and understand the picture of the findings.
Students‘ Involvement in Classroom Conversation
The data gathered from observation sheets and the research field-notes were analyzed based on the
categories of; students‘ involvement in classroom conversation and students‘ participation in pair
work. There are three indicators in this category, namely; students‘ responsiveness to the teacher‘s
questions, students‘ initiation to speak English, and students‘ participation in pair work.
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From the data collected, it can be identified that students‘ lack of confidence and inability to employ
certain strategies in speaking are the causes of their unresponsiveness to the teacher‘s questions. They
were also not used to initiate speaking by using English. The author supposes that this condition caused
by their lack of confidence and being untrained to do so. Dealing with their participation in pair-work,
they had begun to show their better involvement the class conversation. They had given their
contribution to their pair to play their role. They seemed to be seriously prepared their dialog. And all
of the pairs performed their dialog in the meeting.
The improvement on students‘ participation in conversation in terms of the number of
exchanges they could produce in a conversation were showed in the tape-recording data. That is why,
before analyzing the conversation, it was important to determine what element of conversation
structure to be observed. Here, the author focused on the numbers of exchanges they can produce
because ‗an exchange is the basic unit of interaction‘ (Sinclair, 1975). So, the more the exchanges the
better the conversation is. This improvement is closely related to the idea of Bachman (1990: 84). He
states that students‘ mental capacity to implement their language competence in contextualized
communicative language use is needed to build their strategic competence. In the analysis, the
strategy appears as acknowledging move in elicit and Inform exchanges, and as eliciting move in
clarify exchange. Most of the students began to be more responsive to the teacher‘s questions, more
had tried to respond the teacher‘s questions, and their participation in pair work had been good. Their
involvement in pair work seemed better than their involvement in classroom activities. They felt free
to show their participation through working in pair. These data indicate that the students‘
involvement in teaching learning process had improved.
Students’ Conversation Exchanges in Classroom Conversation
In last meeting of the mid-term, the author tape recorded the students‘ conversation to be
transcribed and analyzed. The analysis of the students‘ conversation of the first cycle shows that
students had been able to converse with their pair based on the direction in the role-play card
distributed. Since one of the indicators of the improvement of students‘ participation in conversation
is the number of exchanges they could produce, the data can be summarized as follows:
participants should be able to provide responses of not taking turn when one has the opportunity.
There are signals to indicate that back-channel responses.
The students also claimed that learning speaking by using video projects motivated them to
improve and respond to others‘ statement or performance. It could be caused by the activities which
were conducted in the classroom. The students were not only required to think what to be uttered, but
also to understand other‘s utterances. It means that the students gained the opportunity to initiate oral
communication. It is not only conducting a dialog which had been previously prepared, but also
practicing the strategy in any possible situation. This statement is in accordance with Brown (2001)
who mentions that part of oral communication competence is the ability to initiate conversations, to
nominate topics, to ask questions, to control conversation and to change the subject. It means that in
communicative activities, it is important to strive for a classroom in which students feel comfortable
and confident, feel free to take risks and have sufficient opportunities to speak.
Students‘ Back-channeling in Classroom Conversation
Based on the data from the transcript of recorded conversation, few students had e
feed-backs or acknowledgments to their partner. It was also discovered that some students used other
devices as back-channels. It is supposed that the signals students make to give feedback to their
partner are likely to be unconscious. It can be transferred from students‘ L1 back-channeling. Based
on the data from the recording, some students also used back-channels like; okay, yeah, hmm, oh, I
see, no problem, etc. From the data above, it can be inferred that students made video projects can
be additional devices for students in back-channeling. The use of the strategy contributed to students‘
ability in giving back-channels to their partner in conversation.
The students liked if the teacher gave them opportunity to work in pair preparing a dialog to
be performed in front of the classroom. In addition, the students also admitted to use casual language
based on the situation given. Feedback and assessment from the teacher was also another factor that
motivated the students to improve their ability in speaking. It suggests that the teacher was able to
give appropriate feedback since in giving feedback, the adequate way and occasion should be taken
into consideration, how the teacher was able to correct the students without offending them. Even
though, the feedback was not only provided by the teacher, basically it was what the students
considered more. It is in relevance with Willing (1988) as cited in Nunan (1991) who states that in the
major investigation of the learning preference of learners, error correction by the teacher was one of
the most highly valued and desired classroom activities. Therefore, the fact that feedback given by
the teacher could motivate the students to speak indicated that the teacher could deliver her feedback
with proper ways. The increasing of students‘ motivation also influenced their involvement in
learning. From the observation result, it could be investigated that most of the activities were
dominated by the practice of language. It could come from the performance of the students
conducting conversation. In addition, the students believed that in the teaching and learning process,
the teacher had provided two-way communication which could help the students to be more
confident in speaking since this two-way communication could create a relax atmosphere in the
classroom.
In the matter of their oral communication skill, the students mentioned in the interview that
they experienced the improvement in interacting with others, increasing self-confidence, and
showing their cooperation in speaking to others. It was in relevance with Murcia (1991) who states
that language students are considered successful if they can communicate effectively in their second
or foreign language. Therefore, the strategy provided the students‘ need to improve their oral
communication skill.
5. CONCLUSION
Basically, the ability in speaking was not only about the ability in say things a sophisticated
manner, but also to show participation, to maintain and develop conversation. The students claimed
that they appreciate for the video creation experience. The positive aspects about students created
video are; deeper learning; more enganging experience; more active learning; and more personal
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involvment -by taking the ownership of their ability to acquire learning. Some of the students stated
that it helped them speaking because they did not need to get confused about what to say if they find
difficulties in managing conversation, and it could also broaden their knowledge. However, there
were still few students who mentioned that it confused them for its various functions. Since this
students video projects is not enough just to be known, students‘ opportunity to practice it is another
crucial thing to be considered. Therefore, it was kind of challenge for the teacher to improve their
teaching technique in order to avoid students‘ problems in their learning experience.
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Abstract
Language in the field of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is learnt to equip the learners for entry
into a more specific linguistic environment, thus the most prominent feature in ESP course design is
that the syllabus is based on an analysis of the students‘ needs (Basturkmen 2006). The aims of this
study are to explore the needs of nursing students, faculty members in the nursing department and
professional nurses to design an ESP syllabus for Indonesian nursing students; also to discuss the
implications for EFL teachers who teach English for Nurses. The needs analysis were conducted by
distributing questionnaires to and interviewing the respondents. The answers from the respondents
were analyzed based on comprehensive concept of need analysis proposed by Dudley-Evans and St.
John. The findings showed that most students consider themselves as poor in vocabulary and weak in
speaking, listening, writing and pronunciation. Hence, it is crucial to improve their skills to enable
them communicating effectively with foreign patients and avoiding misunderstanding which may
happen when interacting with foreign patients. The innovative ESP syllabus for Indonesian nurses
was then developed based on these findings and the theory of material development proposed by
Harding.
1. INTRODUCTION
Curriculum has been defined as an extensive statement of philosophy, purposes, design and
implementation of a whole language teaching program, whereas syllabus differs in that it refers more
specifically to the essential specifications and ordering of content within a course (Graves, 1996, as
cited in Basturkmen, 2006). Nevertheless, the processes of either curriculum or syllabus design both
involve the embracing of goals, methods and materials which may be specified in a lesson plan, be it
for future intentions or existing practices. The curriculum or syllabus is then designed based on a set
of values and beliefs about what students should learn. In any event, the curriculum or syllabus of a
tertiary institution should be inclusive of and in respond to the university's or college‘s graduate
capabilities framework.
The design of English for Specific Purpose (ESP) course can equip learners for professional
communication. Richardson (2001) stated that the ESP approach to language teaching is a response
to a number of practical matters, such as the need to prepare teaching materials to teach students who
have mastered the general English but then need to use English for a more specific working situation,
in this case, the nurses need to learn English in order to be able to communicate effectively with
foreign patients.
The background of the English course designed for the nursing field in Indonesia is cannot be
separated from the fact of Indonesia, especially Bali as a famous tourist destination. Bali local
government has been trying to improve its services not only by building its infrastructure, but also by
developing its people who involves in tourism and public services. One of its main concerns is the
health services for tourists and foreigners or expatriates who resides in Bali. There are several
international hospitals and clinics have been built for the past ten years, and the need of
English-speaking nurses then become very crucial and immediate.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
English for Specific Purpose (ESP)
ESP is defined as ―an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and
method are based on the learner‘s reason for learning‖ (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987). ESP has a
long history in the field of language teaching, in which it was started in the 1960s when general
English course could not meet the needs of language learners. There are three common to the
emergence of ESP courses: the demands of Brave New World, a revolution in linguistics and focus
on the learner (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987).
Celce-Murcia (2001) claimed that ESP is a movement based on the proposition that all
language teachings should be tailored to the specific learning and language use needs for identified
group of learners and also sensitive to the socio-cultural context in which these learners will use
English. ESP is generally known as a learner-centered approach, since it meets the needs of (mostly)
adult learners who need to learn a foreign language use in their specific fields, such as nursing,
science, technology, hospitality, academic learning, etc. Basturkmen (2006) stated that the most
prominent feature in ESP course design is that the syllabus based on analysis of the students‘ needs,
because in ESP language is learnt to equip the learners to entry a more specific linguistic
environment.
Needs Analysis
Needs analysis is generally considered the cornerstone of ESP course design
(Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998). It is the basis of language learning programs which leads to a
focused language learning course and aid the development and improvement on the programs.
Takaaki (2006) viewed needs analysis as a systematic collection and analysis of all relevant
information which meet the language learning requirements of learners within the context of
particular institutions involved in the learning situations.
A needs analysis includes all the activities used to collect information about the students,
learning needs, wants, etc. However, an issue in the students‘ needs analysis is that sometimes the
students do not know what they actually need. Kavaliauskiene and Uzpalience (2003) pointed out
that students often find it difficult to distinguish between the needs (the skills seen as being relevant
to himself/herself) and wants (the desired competence). One of some ways to find the students‘ needs
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is by taking a survey or interviewing the lecturers involved, as the lecturers are more experienced
than the students and they also know better what the students‘ needs in order to be a professional
English-speaking nurse.
The process of needs analysis may also involves looking at the expectations and
requirements of other interested parties such as administrators, patients, employers and other people
who may be impacted by the language program. Moreover, having an expert in ESP area as a
consultant would also be very helpful to decide which the best is for the students. The information
gained from a needs analysis can be used to help the curriculum or syllabus developer to define
program goals. These goals can then be stated as specific teaching objectives, which in turn will
function as the foundation to develop lesson plans, materials, tests, assignments and activities.
Basically, a needs analysis serves as an aid to clarify the purposes of a language program. The
syllabus which designed based on the students‘ needs will have great relevance of what the students
studied.
Overview of the Current Syllabus
The nursing college has been highly committed to improve its students‘ abilities in using
English for communication. Consequently, several revisions on the syllabus had been carried out. In
2002 the revised curriculum required the students to take two semesters (Diploma program) and three
semesters (Bachelor program) of English as a compulsory subject; and based on the decision of the
Institute Foundation in 2006 English is now taught for three semesters in the diploma program and
four semesters in the Bachelor program. The additional English lesson is required in order to meet the
need for English-speaking nurses in tourist-friendly Bali. General English is offered for one - two
semesters in addition to two semesters of English for Nurses. The teaching-learning process is
conducted through several channels via lectures, seminars, discussions and clinical practice, with a
time allocation of six teaching hours per week (1 teaching hour is equal to 50 minutes).
The current ESP syllabus had been adapted from the syllabus of the School of Nursing of the
University of Indonesia. The syllabus presents a list of topics or themes which are based on the
communicative approach. As a result, English grammar and sentence patterns are not central aspects
of the language teaching and classroom materials and activities are often authentic so as to reflect the
real-life situations and demands present in nursing. For example, on the topic of checking vital signs,
a lesson will involve a series of meaning-based tasks followed by remedial teaching, rather than
being focused primarily on language. According to Richardson (2001), there are two kinds of tasks
which can be claimed as the basis in designing a task-based syllabus: pedagogical task and real-world
task. Real-world tasks are defined as those which are designed for learners ―to practise or rehearse
those activities that are found to be important in a needs analysis and that turn out to be important and
useful in the real world.‖ (Richardson, 2001: 162). A list of real nursing activities can be seen from
the syllabus items, such as Explaining medication, Asking and Showing Rooms in Hospital, Asking
and Reporting Health Problems, and so on.
The syllabus also has a functional/notional aspect. Brumfit and Finocchiaro (1983) stated
that the communicative purpose of a speech act is the major prominence in a functional/notional
approach which focuses on what people want to achieve through speech. This is illustrated within the
theme Establishing Relationship, in which the purpose is to teach students how to develop a
relationship with a patient, and so is taught by focusing on the language functions involved, such as
greetings and self-introductions.
3. RESEARCH METHOD
The research used both quantitative and qualitative methods and was carried out to explore a
learner-centred specialized English curriculum for Indonesian EFL Nursing students. Quantitative
method was used to gain information from all respondents (nursing students, nursing lecturers and
professional nurses); meanwhile the qualitative method (interview) was used to gain more insight
from the professional nurses regarding the use of English in their daily life as a nurse in hospitals or
other health centres.
Participant
The participant of this study were forty-one Indonesian nursing students selected randomly.
Twenty-one students were from the Bachelor Program and another twenty students were from the
Diploma Program in a tertiary institution, STIKES Bali, Denpasar, Indonesia. All students are native
speakers of Bahasa Indonesia, and have been learning English since junior high school for at least six
years. In addition to students, two teaching staffs and five professional nurses were also involved as
participant.
The participants were selected due to convenient accessibility and proximity to the
researchers. In addition, one of the researchers is an EFL teaching staff in this Institute (not involve as
participant of this study) and the innovation was implemented in order to improve the current
syllabus and more effectively to accomplish the goals of English language teaching in this Institute.
Instrument
The data was collected from multiple sources, including the students, teaching staffs and
professional nurses to provide different points of view which enable the researchers to look at things
from a variety of perspectives for more comprehensive understanding on the matters investigated
(Wiersma and Jurs, 2009). For this study, there is one set of questionnaire used and distributed to all
respondents. The questionnaire was divided into four sections: (a) personal information of
respondents; (b) identification of current strength and weakness of their English proficiency; (c)
identification of the degree of importance of nursing skills/activities; and (d) identification of topics
that would interest the respondents.
Their responses on the section about their English proficiency were measured by five-point
scale, ranging from ―very weak‖ to ―very good‖; and on the section about the importance of nursing
activities, their responses were also measured by five-point scale ranging from ―little important‖ to
―highly important‖. On the section about the topics that interesting to them, their responses were
measured by a three-point scale ranging from ―It is not helpful‖ to ―It is important and it‘s interesting
to learn more about it‖.
An additional set of open questions was given to the professional nurses. Each interviewee
was asked five questions. Upon the implementation of the new syllabus, teachers were also given an
open question to gain information on the implication for them in designing classroom activities. All
interviews were carried out in both English and Indonesian to eliminate any possible
misunderstanding.
Procedure
The needs analysis for innovation of the current syllabus was conducted by providing
questionnaires to the students in the classrooms and the questionnaire for nurses and lecturers were
sent through e-mail. The students‘ objective needs (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987), which are defined
as the language-related tasks and activities, was not included since the current syllabus had initially
been designed based on this analysis, through global observation on course lectures, labs, clinical
visits as well as through discussions with the academic staff. Thus in order to bring about innovation
to the current syllabus, the subjective needs (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987) were gathered and
determined by the analysis of student questionnaires, specifically students‘ opinions of the degree of
importance of each lesson topic and whether or not the topic is of interest to them.
In addition, target-situation analysis (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987) was also conducted
through phone and e-mail interview to five employed nurses in public hospital and private
international hospitals in Bali in order to ascertain the real target situation and activities as well as the
frequency of using English for communication in the target environment.
The data obtained from the needs analysis was interpreted to find out what learners would
want to learn from this module as well as their views on the current syllabus which is used in the
nursing college. This includes feedback from experts such as nurses in the hospital as well as
lecturers who teach this module.
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The following section outlines the results from the questionnaire, which is divided into two
parts. The first part presents the participants‘ personal information and English proficiency (table 1
and 2). The second part describes the data about the topics needed and wanted by nurses to be
included in the ESP course (table 3 and 4).
Table 1 shows the personal information of the respondents (students and nurses).
Frequency Percentage
Table 1 provides the personal information of students and nurses. Most of them are female
(80.4%), ranging from nineteen to twenty two years old for students and twenty two to twenty eight
years old for the professional nurses. All of them have studied English for Nurse previously, however
only 78.3% who make efforts to improve their English. Majority also stated that they practice English
outside campus or work (76.1%), ranging from one to more than 5 hours per week.
Table 2 illustrates what the students identified as their strength and weaknesses towards their English
proficiency.
Very weak Weak Fair Good Very
good
The data provided on table 2 describes that majority of students identifying their ability in
speaking and listening, mastering grammar, vocabularies, pronunciation and writing needs to be
improved. The students feel confidence with their English only on the Reading skill, in which 63.4%
identifies themselves as ―good‖ in Reading.
Table 3 ranks the nursing activities / skills that the respondent think as important
Students Nurses Teaching
Activities / Skills Staff
Percentage
Table 3 reveals that skills related to communication are the skills that the students think as
more important compared to others. Social skills, interaction with patients, administering
medication, giving advice and talking about cultural differences are those on the top of the list. These
findings corroborate the findings gained from the professional nurses and teaching staffs.
In addition to speaking skill, interpreting medical terminologies is also considered to be very
important by students, nurses and teaching staffs. On the other hand, inquiring skills which are
considered to be highly important by teaching staffs apparently is not highly important according to
the professional nurses and students. This could be because nurses in hospitals mostly doing the same
routine procedures on a daily basis, thus requiring new skills are something rare to do and then
considered to be less important.
Table 4 illustrates the topics that interesting to them and want to be included in the ESP
course.
Students Nurses Teaching
Topics staff
Percentage
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There are twenty five topics among thirty topics that are considered to be interesting and
wanted by most students to be included in the ESP course (51.2% and above). Topics that seemed to
be less interesting to the students are: obtaining personal data for admitting patients; introduction of
module; ensuring mutual understanding; collecting demographic data and health status; also
description of time, date and doctor‘s schedule. Further investigation is needed to elicit the reason
behind this opinion; however, there is a possibility that students have had enough knowledge on these
topics and poses relatively good English for these topics, thus learning these topics become less
interesting to them.
Result from the Interview
A set of additional questions was given to five professional nurses through e-mail. In
addition, interview through telephone calls was also conducted in order to get more detailed
information. Four nurses reported that they serve a foreign patient every day. Their patients come
from many different countries such as Australia, UK, USA, Holland, Austria, Japan, India and Arab.
The nurses explained that conversation with foreign patients mostly deal with general nursing care
such as obtaining information about the patient‘s personal data and medical history (to fill the
patients‘ record), explaining medications, explaining procedures such as laboratory tests, X-Ray and
checking vital signs.
One nurse who work in a government-owned mental hospital mentioned that she doesn‘t
serve foreign patient every day, because there are not so many foreign patients who are hospitalized
in the mental hospital. However, she have had the experience in handling several foreign patients
previously and during the patients‘ hospitalization, she had to communicate with the patients on a
daily basis for nurse-patient counseling session. The patients came from Bulgaria, Russia and
Argentina. The foreign patients that she had took care of were suffering from bipolar disorder.
All five nurses also reported that they feel excited when communicating with foreign
patients. They enjoy talking to patients and they have enough confidence because their English
proficiency is good enough. The only problem that they have when interacting with foreign patients
is pronunciation. Sometimes, they have the difficulty in understanding the patients due to the
patients‘ pronunciation. Patients who are not the native speakers of English and especially those who
use English as a foreign language (EFL) often pronounce English words incorrectly. There are also
foreign patients who do not speak English well enough and often cannot understand what the nurse
say, thus misunderstanding commonly happen under these circumstance.
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In addition to thirty topics included on the current syllabus, some students suggested that the
topic ―Referring patient‖ should be included in the course. Referring patient is transferring a patient
to another hospital due to some reasons; for instance because of the lack of facility in the hospital or
the availability of specialized doctor for a specific case.
When, this kind of situation emerges, nurses must be able to communicate with the patient
effectively to avoid misunderstanding and bad effect on patient‘s psychology. Therefore in order to
improve their speaking skill, especially concerning ―Referring patient‖, it would be important to add
the topic on ―politeness‖ and ―apologizing‖. These two topics will aid student to express their
apology towards patient who needs to be referred to a different hospital due to the lack of facility in
the hospital or other reasons.
Research findings also show that listening is also one of important skills to be improved.
Listening is essential because communication will not happen as it should when nurses could not
listen to their patients correctly. Nurses have to deal with many patients from all over the world with
different accent. Generally, Indonesians are familiar with American and Australian accents but have
difficulties in understanding other English accents. The teaching staffs currently use the
medical-related audio tape and video to teach English for Nurse. Most of the listening materials only
expose students to American and British accent and the numbers are quite limited. To fulfill the needs
of students, a wide range of collection for audio and video is significantly needed. In order to solve
the accent issues, a specific task will be designed for students. Student are assigned to look for
foreigners whose second language is English and bring them to class. In the classroom, students and
the foreigner will do a role play such as nurse-patient conversation and students will have to take a
note for words they cannot hear well and/or understand. It will be a group task and the student will do
it for 3 weeks (2 meetings per week), in which there will be 3 groups doing the role play each week.
This task will also aid students in practicing correct pronunciation. Integrating the pronunciation
practice with speaking and listening practice through a role play is a good scenario. Students can
directly know whether or not they have pronounce the words correctly when the foreigner cannot
understand them. The foreigner will be the indicator in assessing the pronunciation of the student.
Further, the third English proficiency that needs to be improved is the writing skill. Based on
the result describes on table 2, majority of students identifying their ability in mastering grammar and
writing is not good enough. 12.2% students reported that their grammar knowledge is very weak and
9.8% students said that their writing skill is very weak. In the real working world, nurses will have to
write down patient assessments, such as patient‘s health history and physical assessment; also
writing some reports in English. Students realize that their capability in grammar is weak, thus it is
crucial to improve their ability in grammar. Composing a good writing and using the right grammar
will avoid misunderstanding and minimalize the incident of wrong report and/or diagnosis. In order
to improve the writing and grammar skills, topics regarding writing for description and expositor
writing will be developed. It is expected with this two new topics student will be able to write an
explanatory text describing and providing information not only to patients but more importantly to
their fellow nurses and doctors. Some tasks to fill in some reports will also be given to enrich their
vocabularies, especially the medical terminologies and abbreviations.
Assessment
Assessment is divided into two types of tests, a discrete point test and performance test. The
discrete-point test has a constructed response format, and is conducted in order to assess several
components of English knowledge, such as reading comprehension and listening (McNamara, 2000).
On the other hand, the performance test demonstrates real language performance in writing and
speaking skills. The writing test could be conducted by giving the students a particular task, such as
writing a brief nursing report. The speaking test could be set as a role-play test held in a nursing
laboratory, in order to create a real-world nursing situation, as well as to give the opportunity for the
students to perform and communicate while performing typical nursing procedures.
Implication to teachers and suggested solutions
As with any new development in an already-existing curriculum, it would not be realistic to
assume that a change – innovative or otherwise – would automatically proceed without
complications. After the implementation of the innovative syllabus in the classroom teaching,
teachers were interviewed in order to gain information on the positive sides of the syllabus and
whether they experienced any difficulty in implementing the new syllabus in the classroom setting.
One obvious issue stated by the teachers that a significant problem within the new
curriculum is that concerning the fairly large number of students that will be present within a single
classroom (around fifty per class). Considering that the curriculum is geared towards being one that
is highly communicative in nature in terms of role plays and discussions – among others – it would be
ideal (as it would be in any learning situation) to get every student involved and participating in all
the activities. Given that this is already a problem even with much smaller class sizes, and taking
further into account the cultural context that the curriculum will be implemented in, the practical
concerns are considerable.
Large numbers of learners within a single classroom is not an uncommon issue in any
learning situation. The most common solution is to hold group activities so as to minimise time as
well as effort on the teacher‘s part. The problem with this, however, is that often not all learners get
the opportunity to truly be involved in the class activities, as there will most likely be learners who
are more dominant and will ‗take charge‘ of the task and hence carry out all the work, as well as those
individuals who are more than happy to let the other group members be more actively involved. One
possible method to prevent this, however, is to appoint one student to be the spokesperson of a
particular group on a rotational basis, so that there will be different ‗leaders‘ of a group each week or
class period. This way, by the end of the term or semester, all students will have been actively
involved and interacting with other course-mates. This particular method is really good to be
implemented in the speaking listening class; it will ease the teacher‘s job in assessing the student and
knowing the development of each student.
This will be in contrast when it comes with teaching writing for a large number of students.
The teachers reported that this is a significant issue since writing involved a detail assessment in
order to know the development of the learners‘ writing skill. The assessments include communicative
aims, range of vocabulary, accuracy and organization. The possible method to be applied in the
writing class is by conducting two follow up sessions. The first session will look at the issue
concerning students writing performance in class. Students will be given a topic and hits on how to
compose a good writing. The second session will be conducted by selecting 10 pieces of writing with
different level of mistake as a representation of the works. This session will give the learners the
opportunity to discuss the writing issues further. Applying this method will give a great implication
to teachers; it will show a steady improvement of the writing result.
6. CONCLUSION
The purposes of changing an existing syllabus are many and varied, but two of the more
commonly referred purposes are that of adapting the material to the real needs as well as interests of
both teachers and learners alike, and also to bring the material up to date in terms of current theories
and also degree of authenticity.
McGrath (2002) makes the further point of adapting the material according to what he terms
as appropriacy and also to transform the learning environment into one which motivates the learner
and leads to higher levels of achievement. The innovation developed on behalf of the existing
curriculum at STIKES Bali was developed according to these principles and although the results and
hence true effectiveness of the new syllabus can only be observed upon its overall implementation, it
is hoped that these purposes were indeed met within all aforementioned areas.
REFERENCES
Basturkmen, H. Ideas and Options in English for Specific Purposes. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates Publishers. 2006.
Brumfit, C. & Finocchiaro M. The Functional-Notional Approach: From Theory to Practice. New
York: Oxford University Press. 1983
Celce-Murcia, M. Language Teaching Approaches: An Overview. In Calce-Murcia, M. (Ed.).
Teaching English as a second or foreign language. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. 2001
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STBA Teknokrat
Abstract
Grammatical rule is among other difficulties found in the process of learning other languages. this
truth also applies to those who are studying english in different levels of education. second
language learners usually make mistakes in certain grammatical rules. this research aimed to
identify and analyse such grammatical difficulties in order to give a contribution to the study of
linguistics and help students in identifying grammatical errors commonly made by second language
learners of english. the data taken for the purpose of this research were from second language
students. the writings of the students were copied both from them and from their teachers to be
analysed. reading the papers to find grammatical errors was the first thing to do. after under lining
those mistakes, the next step was to take notes on the kinds of the errors found. this led the
present researchers to group the data into smaller classifications, based on the characteristics the
data showed. the data were then analysed in details in order to answer the research question. the
result of this research shows that the major kinds of errors made by the students are related to plural
markers, articles, verbs, and tenses. hopefully these findings would be beneficial to those studying and
teaching english to l2 learners.
Keywords: article, grammatical error, plural marker, tense, verb agreement
1. INTRODUCTION
As English is taught as a foreign language in Indonesia, it has generally been learned by
students since they were in basic levels of education. Most of the teaching process focuses on
mastering the four language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. All of the skills are to be
improved in the process of learning English. Emmaryana (2010) emphasizes that in the process of
learning English, writing ability is the most difficult and complicated language skill to be learned
almost by the students in every level of education. In addition to that, another author says that for the
most part, within the classroom, any mention of grammar causes the student moments of discomfort
and sometimes even terror (Al-Mekhlafi, 2011).
Because grammar has so far become one of problems faced by second language learners when
studying other languages, the researchers were interested in digging out English grammatical issues
that the students are having difficulties with. The purpose was to pose those difficulties to researchers
and teachers so that further research could be done either to find the factors or to take action to
overcome the problems.
In the effort of language learners studying other languages, there have been problems and
theories found as well as other issues coming therewith (Bhela, 1999; Galasso, 2002; Lekova, 2010).
Thus, dealing with students with this problems at the university level brought the present researchers
to find out specific grammatical difficulties they encounter in their effort to learn English as their
second language.
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difference between errors and mistakes was not addressed specifically in this research. It focuses more
on error analysis theory in its nature.
The data sources were naturally written materials copied from both students and teachers of
third and fourth year students studying at a foreign language college. The writings were about the
students‘ general opinion about what was going on around them in the society. Having the data source
copied, the researchers began to read and collect relevant data related to the mistakes or errors the
students made. After that, the researchers classified the data gathered into similar characteristics they
had. The last step was to analyse the data in order to formulate the findings. having the data processed
systematically, the researchers prepared to report the result in an analytical, descriptive-qualitative
report.
At glance, the clause in [9] is well-formed. However, the context from which the datum was
taken does not show any indication that the noun man being talked about has been previously
discussed. The student here is introducing the person for the first time. It is then obvious that the
presence of determiner the here is not needed. The data presented below are still about determiners but
with another type of mistake.
[10] ... because in the end, the women will have to stay at home.
[11] It is one of the negative culture ....
[12] ... able to make decision in wise way.
In datum [10], the student is talking, from context, about women in general. This means that
there is no any intention to refer to certain group of women. So, the determiner the before the plural
noun women causes the clause to be ill-formed. Datum number [11] is in a similar case with the
previous one. A determiner is used before the phrase negative culture where it is not grammatically
necessary. In addition to that, the phrase‘s head culture has to be in plural form.
[13] I think this is a something bad ...
That in [13] is provided here as it shows another type of mistake made by the students in their
writings. The word something in the construction implies that the article a should not be there. Cases
found during the research process reveal the tendency of the learners to make a lot of mistakes related
to the usage of determiners.
Verbs or Predicates
Grammatical difficulties encountered by the students about verbs seen from the data are often
in relation to other issues like tenses and syntactic categories. The term predicate is employed by the
writers here in relation to terms of Indonesian syntactic function as the learners‘ linguistic
background. Some of errors are brought forward in the data below.
[14] Actually my father tired.
Among typical difficulties encountered by the students related to how verbs are used is the
absence of verbs. This often occurs in nominal sentences or constructions. In [14] above, the possible
verb was or to be is not inserted by the student between the subject my father and the complement
tired. Another case found is demonstrated by constructions [15] and [16] in the following cluster.
[15] I don‘t patient to go there.
[16] I asking to my father, ....
In contrary to the case discussed in number [14], these two data contain linguistic elements
that might be considered by the students as verbs used correctly. However, although [15] contains
don‘t as an element that is usually used with verbs, there is no verb in the sentence. The other
construction in [16] has asking as a word possible to be counted as verb but it is in an incorrect form.
Among possible corrections, putting asking in its simple past form asked is the most acceptable one to
make it a grammatically accurate clause. The following data also contain problems about verbs but it
is more about the agreements between the subjects and the verbs.
[17] Maybe it‘s look silly but ...
[18] These has the same perspective.
[19] It also help Indonesia ....
Datum [17], for example, has its verb look but the letter s, which should structurally be placed
with the verb, was misplaced and attached to the previous word. In this form, it‘s look or it is look is
ungrammatical in the construction. Number [18] and [19] prove that the students sometimes use
incorrect form of a verb or violate the subject-verb agreement rules. In other words, they use has
where it has to be have and help where it has to be helps or helped.
Tenses
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Problems with tenses were also found a lot from the data sources. Most of the time, the
students used present tense to express distinctions of time. Five examples are elaborated in the
following.
In [20], the student made two mistakes related to tense; first with is which should be was and
second with want which should be wanted. The data in [21] and [22] also demonstrate the same issue
in which am and is are used for was. Using simple past form is the right choice here as the propositions
in the clauses refer to the past. The action expressed by the verb learn in [23] should be learned
because it is about a past event but the student used the present form instead.
Related to the notion of tenses, in many cases, students will have to be able to identify whether
certain clauses should be in present or past tenses. That in number [24], for instance, needs a logical
understanding that the action in the clause was in the past, so the verb became is the correct form.
[20] That is me. I always want to ask questions.
[21] When I am a child, ...
[22] Who is the first fisherman?
[23] After I learn to read ...
[24] This thought become philosophy because ...
Apart from the common mistakes above, it is not impossible that the learners will use a past
form where they need to use the present. The sentence below shows this kind of tendency. The verb
knew is used instead of know.
[25] We knew a lot of cultures.
This sentence looks acceptable grammatically at glance, but it is not when the context is
brought into discussion. The researchers looked at the context in which the sentence was used and
found out that the student was talking about the fact that we nowadays know various cultures. Other
data also show the same problem with tenses.
4. CONCLUSION
The representations of the errors elaborated above underline grammatical difficulties
encountered by the students in learning English as their second language. The researchers tend to hold
that the difficulties, like the lack of subject-verb agreement, plural markers, or rules related tenses,
might be caused by the linguistic backgrounds of the learners but as the objective of this research was
to simply identify the difficulties the students face, the researchers would leave the questions related
to factors of and predictions about the errors for further research. English teachers and researchers,
however, have to be aware of the issues brought up here so that solutions might be found or emphases
could be made in order to minimize the mistakes and maximize the learning process.
REFERENCES
Al-Mekhlafi, A.M. dan R.P. Nagaratnam. ―Difficulties in Teaching and Learning grammar in an ElF
Context.‖ International Journal of Instruction (2009): Vol. 4(2), 69-92.
Bhela, Baljit. ―Native Language Interference in Learning a Second Language.‖ International
Education Journal (1999): Vol. 1(1), 22-31.
Fajariani, Emmaryana. An Analysis in the Grammatical Error in Students' Writings. Jakarta: Syarif
Hidayatullah State Islamic University, 2010.
Galasso, Joseph. Interference in Second Language Acquisition: A Review of the Fundamental
Diference Hypothesis. Northridge: California State University, 2002.
Henderson, Michael M.T. ―The Interlanguage Notion.‖ Journal of Modern Language Learning
(1985): Vol. 21, 23-27.
Lekova, B. ―Language Interference and Methods of Its Overcoming in Foreign language Teaching.‖
Trakia Journal Sciences (2010): Vol. 8(3), 320-324.
Lightbown, Pasy M. dan Nina Spada. How Language Are Learned. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2001.
Yu, Weihua. ―A Review of Studies of the Role of Native Language.‖ Journal of Language Teaching
and Reasearch (2011): Vol.2(2), 441-444, March 2001.
Abstract
One of many roles of English teachers in the classroom is facilitating communication. An indication
that communication has been facilitated is the expansion of student talk. Expansion is a type of
clause complex in logio-semantic relation of Systemic Functional Linguistics (Halliday and
Matthiessen, 2014). However, in spite of many theories which promote the importance of student
talk, classroom discourse is still dominated by English teachers. Phenomena which commonly found
are the English teachers use mother-tongue language with the students, talk too much, and do not
provide students sufficient time to response their statements and questions. Consequently, students
use their mother tongue freely and give a single word or phrase in responding the teacher. However,
brighter phenomena happened in two senior high schools in Tanah Datar Regency. Expanded
student talk could be observed because the English teachers applied certain strategies. This paper
aimed to describe strategies applied by English teachers in expanding student talk in classroom
interaction. This paper employed qualitative method. The data were taken from interview result from
14 students 3 English teachers from two state senior high schools in Tanah Datar. To check the data
trustworthiness, the source triangulation was employed. The result of this study revealed that there
were eleven strategies applied by the English teachers: (1) Giving motivation, (2) Stating
expectation, (3) Establishing rapport, (4) Giving meaningful feedback, (5) Holding discussion based
activity, (6) Using interesting material, (7) Using understandable English language, (8) Asking
referential question, (9) Establishing supportive environment, (10) Using body language, and (12)
Extending wait time.
1. INTRODUCTION
Studies on classroom communication and interaction have repeatedly shown that classroom
interaction is often dominated by teacher. Precisely, teacher talk makes up for about 70 % of
classroom talk (Nunan: 1991, Xiao-Yan: 2006). Excessive amount of teacher talk can result some
negative effects on students. If the teacher spends large amount of time for talking, students become
passive and student talk will be restricted (Xiao-Yan, 2006; Kareema, 2014).
Meanwhile, it is crucial for students to get ample opportunity to use the target language in English as
Foreign Language (EFL) classroom. In case of students, since they do not live in an English-speaking
environment, they only use English in the classroom, and the language is not used at their home.
Therefore, students should be provided an environment in which students can contribute to learning
activities and maximize their use of the language. The potential environment and perfect chance to
practice the target language is in the classroom interaction.
However, preliminary research conducted in some senior high schools in Batusangkar has
not yet showed expansion of student talk. Students rarely raised hands to answer teacher‘s question
or even proposed questions to the teacher. If a question was given by the teacher, the question was
translated to Bahasa Indonesia soon without giving students time to think it in English and the
English teacher even answered his own questions. Therefore, student talk that could be observed
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during the class was only chorus answer resulted from teacher‘s close ended question or one single
word or phrase which was resulted from teacher‘s question in Bahasa Indonesia.
Another observation in SMA X in Batusangkar, Tanah Datar regency, showed inverse phenomena.
During an English class, it could be observed that the students could expand their talk. It could be
seen from students‘ willingness to speak English, students‘ frequency in proposing questions in
English to their teacher, students‘ courage to answer questions from the teacher, and students‘
participation which was almost even. The most important thing is they could elaborate their talk by
using conjunctions and details. The most common conjunctions used by the students are: and, also,
but, I mean, for example, and etcetera.
The researcher also had taken note on the students‘ name who have been expanded their talk.
After the class, the researcher interviewed them one by one. The researcher asked them what make
them could elaborate their talk. From the result of interview, the researcher got an interesting result.
The students kept on mentioning the way of their current English teacher in teaching English as a
factor that make them talk more in the classroom. Because of this repeated answer, the researcher is
eager to know about what strategies applied by this English teacher in expanding student talk in
classroom interaction. Therefore, this research investigates strategies applied by english teachers in
expanding student talk in classroom interaction that may initiate students to use English actively in
the classroom.
Learning environment can be conditioned, for that reason teacher can make some efforts to
provide best setting for student learning to take place. The seating best arrangement which
accommodates students for talking is semi-circle, U shape, circle, or anything similar (Haggarty and
Postlethwaihe, 2007; McGraw, 2015; St. Louis, 2013; Garcia, 2012; Chong, 2012). Besides the
classroom seating, teacher position is also important since teacher trying to be ‗with‘ the students.
Teacher can sit with the students to encourage peer-to-peer discussion (Haggarty and Postlethwaihe,
2007: 459), stay centralized (Chong, 2012: 2), seat on the side of the seminar table (McGraw, 2015:
1), or move the chair to the end of the class (St. Louis, 2013: 2). Furthermore, having related
vocabulary or sentence frames where they can be easily accessed is critical to increase student talk
(Garcia, 2012: 3).
2. Stating Expectation
This strategy suggests the teacher to uphold high expectations for student participation
(Mohr and Mohr, 2012: 10). The teacher should make clear from the beginning that he expects
anyone to contribute. The next, the teacher should also consider whether he will assign a grade to
student performance in discussions so that they understand the importance of participating. If the
teacher determines to do so, the important things to be considered is the evaluation of frequency and
quality of student contributions, and the effectiveness of student respond toeach other (St. Louis,
2013: 2).
3. Using Discourse Strategy
Discourse strategy can be defined as verbal strategies that people employ to understand each
other within the context of a particular conversation (Gumperz, 1982). In classroom context,
discourse strategy refers to particular strategy employed by a teacher in their classroom talk which is
used in asking, responding, evaluating, conversing, or discussing with students. There are five major
strategies recommended by Gibbons (2002): (1) Discussion-based activity; (2) authentic questions;
(3) extended wait time; (4) good rapport; and (5) meaningful feedback. In other words, discourse
strategies that can be applied to expand student talk are: conducting a pair work, small group work, or
whole-class work, give extended wait time since it is not realistic to expect every student to reply
promptly and accurately, create warm athmosphere with establishing appropriate relationship with
their students, and give variation in giving feedback: keeping the error correction to a minimum in
oral fluency practice activities (Anderson, 2012: 2), and uptake that involve restating student
response or turning it into questions in order to encourage further elaboration (Aisah and Hidayat,
2012: 45).
4. Using Body Language
Using non verbal strategy in enhancing student talk in the classroom is as important as using
the verbal one. For that reason, teacher‘s body language in the classroom is crucial. This strategy
promotes certain behaviors which can be practiced by the teacher to value, and enhance student talk.
Giving eye contact, smiling, and affirmative nods while interacting with students is strongly
suggested (Haggarty and Postlethwaithe, 2007; Mohr and Mohr, 2012). The teacher can also try
sitting down or squatting to be on the same level as the student when speaking to students on
one-to-one basis. St. Louis (2013: 4) also suggests to move to a part of the room where quiet students
are sitting; smile at and make eye contact with these students to encourage them to speak up. Moving
from the front of the classroom is also encouraged (Watson, 2014: 2). It means teacher should not
stay on the same place, for instance near the board or even behind his desk all day because it will not
encourage student talk.
3. METHOD
Participants
This research was a qualitative research. The participants of this research were students and
the English teachers at two state senior high schools in Tanah Datar Regency. The number of the
participants was 17 (14 students and 3 English teachers). All the participants of this research were the
English teachers who applied certain strategies in expanding student talk in their classroom
interaction and the students who has been taught by these English teachers.
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The student informants were selected through classroom observation. Therefore, the first informant
in this research was the students who had been observed in the classroom and were known to be able
to expand their talk in the classroom interaction. Then, the first teacher informant was the English
teacher who taught these students. Other teacher informants were decided by the use of snowball
sampling. For applying this method, the researcher asked the current informant at the end of the
interview to suggest the researcher another informant who applied certain strategies in expanding
student talk in their classroom interaction.
Procedure
The data were collected over one week on February 2016 through interview. The interview
was done in students‘ mother tongue (Minangkabau Language) and Bahasa Indonesia. To check the
data trustworthiness, source triangulation was employed. Furthermore, in order to check the
credibility of the data, the researcher compared the result of interview from both teachers and
students. The data of this research were analyzed by using three activities: data reduction, data
display, and data conclusion and verification.
Informants Excerpts
I.3 ―Karena I.5 itu terus memberikan motivasi. Dia bilang kalau ingin
diterima di perguruan tinggi itu nilai Matematika sama Bahasa Inggris
harus tinggi. Ee, yang pertama kali dilihat oleh universitas itu nilai
Bahasa Inggris sama Matematika.”
It was shown in the result of the interview above that the student could expand his talk
because he was given motivation verbally. The English teacher reminded the student about the
enrollment of a university. She said that if they did good jobs on English subject, they would get a
better chance to enroll to a university. By giving motivation, the student will feel motivated in
expanding their talk. Motivation can be given orally during classroom interaction. The English
teacher can remind students about the importance of English, promise a better grade, or tell students
that English will ease their way to enter a university.
2. Stating Expectation
This strategy suggests the teacher to uphold high expectations for student participation
(Mohr and Mohr, 2012: 10). The teacher should make clear from the beginning that he expects
anyone to contribute. The result of interview with I.5 on Monday, February 15th 2016 in Vice Head
Master Office of SMA X at 03: 05 a.m. revealed:
Informants Excerpts
I.5 ―Yang pertama, supaya mereka lebih aktif, walaupun nanti mereka disuruh
untuk kerja kelompok, tapi penilaiannya tetap, kalau untuk berbicaranya
tetap seseorang, personal”.
[The first, to make them more active, even though later they are asked to do a
group work, but the assessment for speaking is for individual].
It is clear from the result of interview that the English teacher stated her expectation at the
beginning of the learning process. She clearly stated that she would assign grade for individual. For
example, even though the students had a group task in doing presentation, she would grade them
individually. Consequently, the students should make their best effort in participating in the
classroom and expanding their talk. In conclusion, in applying expectation strategy, the English
teacher can make learning contract at the beginning of the semester, assign grade for individual, and
assign grade for each participation.
3. Establishing Rapport
To expand student talk, english teachers should also create good relationship with the
students. Some excerpts of interviews which promote the strategy are displayed in the table below:
Informants Excerpts
I.1 ―Gurunya itu gak seluruhnya serius, diajaknya bercanda kak, jadi nggak
terlalu tegang sama guru itu.”
[So what we expect form them is they alredy have willingness to speak in
English and there is no feeling of shy and fear that their English will be heard
by other people in making mistakes in English. That is the goal. So we should
be closed with them]
From the excerpts of interview, it can be concluded that rapport can be achieved with some strategies.
When the English teachers knew their students‘ name, listen to students, give the same chance for
each students to talk, use proper amount of joke to reduce rigid atmosphere, it means the English
teacher already had rapport strategy.
4. Giving Meaningful Feedback
Previous research has focused on some variety in giving feedback: keeping the error
correction to a minimum in oral fluency practice activities is to reduce interruption and ‗maintain the
flow‘ (Anderson, 2012: 2), and uptake that involve restating student response or turning it into
questions in order to encourage further elaboration (Aisah and Hidayat, 2012: 45). Some excerpts of
interviews are displayed in the table below:
Informants Excerpts
I.5 ―Setelah mereka selesai presentasi baru diterangkan, dikasih tahulah oo
pronunciationnya itu seperti ini, tapi tidak selalu fokus ke pronunciation, kita
lebih fokus kepada speakingnya kalau ada hal yang seperti itu”
[After they do presentation, the students are informed the correct presentation,
however, we do not always focus on pronunciation, we more focus on the
speaking activity]
I.12 ―Kalau dia salah, tetap saja kita beri ‘very good’, ‘very good’ itu tujuannya
untuk mereka sudah mau bicara dan sudah mau mengungkapkan. Nanti
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[If the student is wrong, we still say very good‘, ‗very good‘ is meant to their
willingness to talk and express their ideas. Later, the errors will be corrected
together]
I.13 ―I.17 tu apresiasinya ke kami itu bagus kak. Hampir gak pernah I.17 itu
menjatukan muridnya, I.17 itu selalu mengasih semangat kepada
muridnya.‖
[I.17 gives good appreciation to us. It almost never I.17 makes the students
down, I.17 always gives spirit to his students]
To sum up, one strategy which was applied by English teacher in expanding student talk is
using meaningful feedback to students. Ways to give meaningful feedback is to focus the correction
on the message of student talk rather than their grammatical error or mistake and give positive
attitude or words given by English teacher even though the student had talked something wrong.
5. Conducting Discussion Based Activity
Discussion-based activity is an activity which sets the classroom as social interaction and
ensures all students are given opportunities and support to speak and think (Moore, 2013; McGraw,
2015, St. Louis, 2013, Pesce, 2014).
Informants Excerpts
I.5 ―Sebetulnya yang pertama mereka disuruh bekerja dalam kelompok, mereka
diskusi kelompok, itu juga berbahasa inggris dan setelah itu semua siswa
secara bergantian disuruh presentasi dan menjawab pertanyaan yang
diajukan oleh temannya tentang presentasi tersebut‖.
[Actually for the first the students are asked to work in group, they have a
group discussion, that is all in English and after that all students are asked to
do presentation and answer the question which is proposed by their friend
about the presentation.]
In conclusion, one strategy which was applied by English teacher in expanding student talk is
holding discussion based activity such as asking the students to do presentation, having discussion
with their chair mate, having group discussion, and etcetera.
6. Using Interesting Material
This strategy suggests English teachers to use interesting material in expanding student talk.
The interesting materials can be defined in many ways; it can be something that is close with
students‘ life, something new, something peculiar, or something that they like.
Informants Excerpts
I.4 ―Guru tu ngajarinnya pandai. Trus materinya tu menarik dan nggak
membikin ngantuk dalam pelajaran.‖
[The teacher is good in teaching English. Then the material is interesting, and
it it doesn‘t make us become sleepy in learning].
I.5 Kalau mau menarik, jadi mungkin gerakannya ada, kemudian materinya juga
dicarikan yang lebih menarik.”
[So, to become more interesting, there is certain movement, but the materials
should be given the interesting one]
7. Using Understandable English Language
This strategy encourages English teachers to make their language in English understandable
enough for the students so that they can expand their talk in responding what the teacher has said.
Informants Excerpts
I.8 ―I.12 itu memberikan suatu kalimat, kalimat itu terkadang siswa itu nggak
mengerti, nggak tahu apa yang harus dijawab, jadi I.12 itu memberikan
contoh lain, jadi siswa itu terpancing, menjadi lebih mengerti, dan
mengeluarkan pendapat mereka.‖
I.13 ―Karena kosa-kata yang digunakan tidak terlalu tinggi, udah biasa
diucapin jadi udah biasa aja gitu‖.
[Then I.17 asks us to search English vocabulary, so I.17 don‘t tell us. We
should search it. If we don‘t get the meaning, I.17 dictates something which
indicates to the sentence. For example, the word buku in English is book, isn‘t
it? I.17 says: what is thing that we can write? What is sold in student‘s shop?
So we were dictated first. He don‘t show us the meaning directly. So we can
understand.]
I.17 ―Menggambar itu karena teksnya, karena sebahagian anak tidak mengerti
sehingga membantu anak. Oh ini yang namanya collision namanya,
tabrakan. Ada anak yang lemah, ada anak yang cepat, jadi agar lebih mudah
diberi gambar. Itu juga agar anak lebih mengerti”.
Therefore, using understandable English language emphasizes the use of comprehensible language in
interacting with the students. There are some ways to make English teacher‘s language can be
comprehensible, which are: using examples, using picture, using familiar vocabulary, and giving
series of question.
8. Referential Question
There are two kinds of questions: display questions are questions that teachers know the
answer, and referential questions are the questions that teachers do not know the answers to. Asking
referential question will require longer answers, while asking display or close-ended questions the
teacher basically will get yes, no, or maybe answers (Faruji, 2011; Chong, 2012; Darn, 2009; Pesce,
2014; Walsh, 2006; Moore, 2013; Mohr and Mohr, 2012; McGraw, 2015).
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Informants Excerpts
I.3 ―Who, why juga, how kadang-kadang”
[At the front of the class, it is projected to the white board, then the students do
the presentation by using in focus]
The strategy above is supported by (Garcia, 2012: 3) which states that having visual aid where they
can be easily accessed is critical to increase student talk. Here, the students could easily see the slide
even though they sat at the back row. Therefore, they could use the visual to talk about the material
being discussed.
10. Using Body Language
Body language strategy in verbal interaction with students is important. Giving eye contact,
smiling, and affirmative nods, try sitting down or squatting to be on the same level as the student
when speaking to students on one-to-one basis, moving from the front of the classroom are some
body language suggested by experts (Haggarty and Postlethwaithe, 2007; Mohr and Mohr, 2012;
Louis, 2013; Watson, 2014).
Informants Excerpts
I.6 Gerakan tertentu? Mungkin agar murid berbicara, I.12 akan
menghampiri bangku murid tersebut. Sehingga dengan gerakan
seperti itu siswa merasa lebih wajib untuk menjawab pertanyaannya.”
[Yes, for example with hand movement and also winking eye]
―Bicaranya itu gak loyo, pakai mimiknya itu enak juga‖
[The way of speaking is not weak, the facial expression is good too]
I.17 ―Gerakannya tidak, hanya I.17 berusaha untuk lebih ceria saja,
sehingga anak pun menjadi lebih bersemangat. Tadi kita kan belajar
jam dua, kan jam mengantuk, jadi gimana caranya berkeliling dikelas,
kadang pegang bahu, kadang nunjuk tangannya, kadang
menggerakkan meja, gitu caranya agar mereka bersemangat”.
Informants Excerpts
I.9 ―Menunggu dulu. Paling lama tu sekitar 10 menit kak. Pernah
dihitung, hehe”.
[Wait first. The longest wait time is about ten minutes. I have ever
counted it, hehe]
From the result of interview above it can be concluded that the english teacher waited for students‘
answer so that they have time to think and can elaborate their talk.
6. CONCLUSION
Based on the data collection, it was found that there were eleven strategies applied by state
senior high school English teachers in expanding student talk in classroom interaction. They are: (1)
giving motivation, (2) stating expectation, (3) establishing rapport, (4) giving meaningful feedback,
(5) conducting discussion based activity, (6) using interesting material, (7) using understandable
English language, (8) asking referential question, (9) establishing supportive environment, (10) using
body language, and (11) extending wait time.
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Abstract
Until recent decades, the effort on diminishing students‘ feeling of anxiety and less self-efficacy
toward the writing activities in academic writing course still becomes a great concern for the
teachers or practitioners of writing skill especially when dealing with students from multilingual
society. These students, who learn English as a foreign language, often demonstrate the influence of
their first language when composing a writing, even in a simple paragraph. Facing this situation, the
teachers are forced to give attention more to students‘ grammatical composition, and as a result of
this most of the students give excessive attention only to revise the grammatical mistakes. Based on
this situation, they develop ―mental block‖ towards writing and have less interest in writing. To deal
with this situation, many studies suggest that teachers need to foster students‘ motivation since it is
as crucial as developing students‘ writing skills through practice. Hence, this paper aims to describe
the effectiveness of giving journal writing task and providing comments to students‘ writing in the
task as a simple but useful way to ignite students‘ motivation in writing. The object of the research is
the students of academic writing course in Faculty of Cultural Studies of Mulawarman University
Samarinda. List of questions were given to the students after they experienced the task to figure out
how much the task and the comments influence students‘ motivation in writing.
1. INTRODUCTION
Teaching English in multicultural society always encounter with a dilemma that the learners
who typically have insufficient knowledge about English have to master English in limited period
and inadequate environment that can support the learning. Particularly when learning writing skill,
the condition of being a part of multicultural society with limited English background cause the
leaners to demonstrate the influence of their first language when composing a writing, even in a
simple paragraph. Facing this situation, the teachers are forced to give attention more to students‘
grammatical composition, and as a result of this most of the students give excessive attention only to
revise the grammatical mistakes. Based on this situation, they develop certain level of anxiety that
lead to the construction of their own ―mental block‖ (Liu; MacIntyre & Gardner in Shang, 2013)
towards writing and have less interest in writing. To deal with this situation, many studies suggest
that teachers need to foster students‘ motivation first in learning second or foreign language since it is
as crucial as developing students‘ writing skills through practice.
Although motivation is described as individual interest or internal drive, in fact there are two
main division of motivation: extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation is
the kind of motivation which is influenced by the outside factors of an individual, for example the
need to pass a test, the possibility to study abroad, and the hope of financial reward. On the other
hand, intrinsic motivation is a kind of motivation which comes from within the individual such as
individual enjoyment of the learning process to make themselves feel better. The division of
motivation provides information that motivation is not always the conscious interest which comes
from inside, but it can also be influenced by some factors outside the individual. However, most
researchers on motivation point out that intrinsic motivation is seen as the more important for
encouraging success (Harmer, 2007)
Researches to examine the influence of motivation in learning EFL have been conducted for
a long time and have come to a crucial conclusion related to the influence of motivation in learners.
One of the most well-known studies is from Gardner in 1985 which is noticeable by the invention of
AMTB. Regarding the role of motivation in learning second language, Gardner claims that students
who has higher levels of motivation will do better than students with lower levels, and if they are
motivated, they will have strong reasons for to make themselves involved in the relevant learning
activities, show desires to achieve the goal, and enjoy the activities (Gardner in Al-Tamimi and Suib,
2009). In addition to this view, Dörnyei points out that motivation has an important role in language
learning consequently without appropriate motivation, students‘ achievement cannot be realized
(Dörnyei in Ghenghesh, 2010). These views are also in line with Harmer‘s view which proposes the
idea that for most field of learning, motivation is essential to success because the basic thing is we
have to want to do something to succeed at it and without motivation, we will almost certainly fail to
do the necessary effort (Harmer, 2007). The latest study was conducted by Anjomshoa and Sadighi
(2015) who suggested that in EFL setting, without students‘ motivation, the class can be less
attractive and even boring. Motivation is one of the important aspects of second language acquisition.
Motivation is a kind of desire of learning. It is very difficult to teach a second language in a learning
environment if the learner does not have a desire to learn a language. The strategy that the teachers
use in teaching strategy will have an effect toward motivation, in which an enthusiastic approach is
more effective to motivate than a gloomy approach. The importance of the teacher factor in having a
high level if motivation in SLA cannot be ignored. Therefore, teachers need to know the type of
motivation and the sources of motivation to meet the students‘ particular needs.
B. Teachers’ role in developing students’ motivation in learning writing
Writing is similar to speaking in terms of its kind as a productive skill. However, contrast to
speaking, writing is rather complex since it is less spontaneous and more permanent. It is also
obvious that in writing, unlike in conversation, we cannot interact with the listeners and adapt as we
do the process of writing. It makes writing less flexible than conversation, and the language used in
writing is more standardized (Broughton et al., 2003). In addition to this complexity, Cheng points
out that writing is an emotional as well as cognitive activity, in which we think and feel at the same
when produce particular writing. (Cheng, 2002). Since writing is a complex activity, Bruning and
Horn claim that it requires close attention to the conditions for developing motivation and skill
(Bruning and Horn, 2000). This view is confirmed by the view of Brinton, Snow, and Wesche who
emphasize that motivation plays a role in learning complex language structures, hence students with
low motivation may have problems in language acquisition because it blocks language stimulation
from reaching the brain. On the other hand, high motivated students result in an increased ability to
learn and use a new language (Brinton, Snow, and Wesche in Hill, 2006) Consequently, the role of
teachers in writing is not only to teach the skills, but it is more important that teachers can act as
motivator where the teachers create the right conditions for the generation of ideas, encourage the
students of the usefulness of the activity, and boost the students to make as much effort as possible
for maximum benefit. This effort, therefore, should be carried out as a sustained effort on the part of
longer process-writing sequences (Boscolo and Gelati, 2007).
According to Broughton et al. (2003), language learners are best motivated when the learners
experience the language learning truly communicative, in which the learning is appropriate to its
context and involve the teachers‘ skills to move them to a fuller competence in the foreign language.
The importance of teachers‘ role in raising students‘ motivation is related to several matters. The first
matter is motivation is related to teachers‘ beliefs about writing which can influence the ways in
which the teachers organize the writing setting and instructional practices. The second one is
motivation is related to the following aspects: interest, collaboration, and evaluation. Therefore,
writing instruction requires the teacher to choose tasks, activities, and strategies carefully and focuses
in particular on the aspects. As a result of this, teachers as motivator become the dominant aspect that
determine the motivation that the student will develop when learning.
The importance of the teacher factor in having a high level of motivation in second language
acquisition is very important. The way that the teacher implement in teaching strategy will give an
effect toward motivate, that is an excited approach is more likely to motivate than a gloomy approach
(Anjomshoa and Sadighi, 2013). Related to motivation in learning writing, Graham (2007) suggests
that to successfully engaged the students to have motivation in writing, teachers are required to have
appropriate believe in writing. Teachers have to believe that writing is not only an important subject
or ability in the curriculum, but an important experience that enable the students to find a personal
meaning in learning practices through teachers‘ guide. It is also important that teachers‘ view of
writing also influences students‘ motivation to write. When teachers view writing as a basically
individual ability, they tend to stimulate motivation mainly through assigning interesting topics when
possible.
When motivation is viewed and considered as an attitude to be developed and improved
through meaningful activities, the setting of writing tasks will be clearly different. It is obvious that
writing tasks sometimes can be boring, predictable, and the results of doing the task sometimes are
not noticeable. Therefore, to help the students become a competent writer, it requires both students‘
involvement and teachers‘ authority in setting up the exercises. While students view writing in the
classroom as consisting of meaningful experiences, they may also view less challenging tasks as
important, not necessarily boring aspects of their becoming writers. This balance should also
characterize the use of group versus individual writing in the classroom. The meaningful writing
activities that teachers arrange to promote and sustain students‘ motivation to write may be isolated
moments of classroom life for students, interesting and enjoyable but not sufficient to create a
continuing attitude toward writing. It is teachers‘ responsibility to create continuity among these
moments, such as by pointing out the contributions of individual students, showing the value of the
results accomplished, and inviting students to find new and challenging writing tasks (Boscolo and
Gelati, 2007).
Regarding the role of motivation in learning writing, it is obvious that the students with high
motivation are those who value and are willing to use writing as a valuable activity or means of
expression, communication, and elaboration. This kind of students are realistically self-confident
about their ability to use writing successfully, and by having this self-confident, they develop the
source for feeling satisfied and engaged when writing. Therefore, the problem of having lack of
motivation is not always triggered by unattractive writing task, but it is more about how students are
assisted during the learning to develop their self-confident on their writing so that they are able to
raise their motivation to write. Together with beliefs about writing, students also develop
self-perceptions and beliefs about themselves as writers, their writing competence, and their ability to
manage writing tasks. (Boscolo and Gelati, 2007)
Bruning and Horn (2000) suggest four groups of activities that should be established by the
teachers to develop students‘ motivation to write. These groups are interrelated to each other and
teachers are responsible to create activities that can cover the four groups of activities. The groups
include the activities to promote students‘ beliefs about writing as a useful activity for the students,
raise students‘ interest toward writing through authentic writing goals and contexts, provide a
supportive context for writing, and build a positive emotional environment. For each groups of
activities, Bruning and Horn also offer the details of the activities, which of course not only limited to
the following offers, but also are possible to be developed by the teachers. The details of the activities
are as follow:
1. When promoting proper beliefs that writing is a useful activity for the students, teachers
may begin with:
a. Creating a classroom community that can support writing activities
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journal writing. According to Oshima and Hogue, journal writing is an activity that can allow the
students to expand their vocabulary in writing through constant repetition, trial, and may error in
nonthreatening environment. Journal writing facilitates the students to develop the language that they
need in your everyday life (Oshima and Hogue, 2007). There are some reasons why journal writing
can help the students in acquiring a level of fluency in written language without having anxious on
the result of their writing as follow:
1. In journals, quantity is more important than quality. Writing everyday will help the
students become fluent
2. In journal, students can write about topics that are interesting and relevant to their life.
Students are practicing to express their ideas and feelings
3. Journals can help the students develop their ideas that can be used later in their paragraphs or
essays.
4. Writing a journal can be a very enjoyable activity because students do not have to worry
about using a dictionary or checking grammar or organization, and students do not have to
write several drafts. Students just need to concentrate on the content. (Oshima and Hogue,
2007)
Although journal writing is seen a simple task that can be done by the students, it can be a
great way that can help students to practice elaborating their ideas in the form of structured writing.
Undeniably, the success of using journal writing in developing students‘ motivation in writing
depend on how the teachers can provide appropriate comments or feedback to the students. Teachers
should express enthusiasm and positive opinions about writing since positive feedback on the content
of learners‘ writing can do a lot to increase the amount of writing that learners do and to improve their
attitude to writing. (Boscolo and Gelati, 2007; Nation, 2009). When teachers provide comments to
students‘ writing, they tell the students that their work is being read, is understood, and interests the
reader. Nation points out that especially with younger learners, it is important not to discourage
writing by always giving feedback that show the errors in the writing. There should be a place in a
writing course for feedback on errors but this kind of feedback needs to be very carefully balanced
against the positive encouragement to write more, and these two kinds of feedback need to be
separated. The motivation to write is most helped by learners doing a lot of successful writing
(Nation, 2009).
Particularly when learning writing in EFL context, Lee suggests that it is important to
consider what kind of comments would help students most and how students can be helped to use
teacher comments. Lee also emphasizes that students‘, no matter how proficient they are, need for
more written comments because they like to have more information about their written performance,
separately from feedback on errors (Lee, 2008).
3. DISCUSSION
This paper aims only to describe particular phenomenon using qualitative approach. There
was no statistical data used in this research, and the way the writers draw conclusion is based on the
information gained through the responses from the participants toward some lists of enquiries. The
use of qualitative approach in this research influence the way the writers present their discussion and
draw the conclusion in descriptive style. Therefore, the elaboration in this part will be presented in
the form of describing the detail condition of the participants.
In this research, the participants were selected based on the situation that they were given the
task and comments by the lecturer. Through the questionnaire, they responded about their own
experience of doing journal writing task and receiving the comments from the lecturer. The
participants were taken from two different classes who are the students enrolled in academic writing
course in semester four at the faculty of Cultural Sciences Mulawarman University. The two classes
were chosen as the participants because in these classes the lecturer asked the students to do journal
writing task and give comments to their writing. The total number of the participants was sixty-one
students from two different classes. The students in this class were asked to write on their journal
writing about the topic that had been determined by the lecturer and they had to submit the journal
every week on the day of the course. The lecturer was responsible to give different topics every week,
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read the students‘ journal and provide comments and motivation to the students‘ writing. The
comments from the lecturer are only related to the content of students‘ writing and motivation to the
students to keep practicing writing through their journal. The positive comments were directly
assigned to what the students wrote in their journal, such as ―I like your idea about…‖, ―I agree with
your opinion that…‖, ―It is interesting to know about your story‖. The lecturer also provided
responses to the questions that the participants enquired through their journal.
After 6 weeks of completing the task of journal writing, students are asked to answer the
questions related to the influence of journal writing and lecturer‘s comments in increasing their
motivation to write. Six questions were developed in the questionnaire to know whether the students
have motivation to write after they complete the task and read the comments from the lecturer. The
list of questions enquire how students feel when learning academic writing in terms of the feeling of
interest and motivation, how are their motivation in doing the journal writing task, their opinion
towards the way the lecturer gave comments and whether the comments are able to rise their
motivation to write, and what kinds of comments that they expect from the lecturer to be given in
their writing.
The result of the questionnaire showed that all of the students have positive attitude about
learning academic writing. They emphasize that the course is really important to develop their skill in
writing by learning how to write appropriately and correctly. In relation to students‘ motivation to
learn academic writing, one student responded that she needs more attractive learning activity in
order to rise her motivation. However, all participants generally responded that they feel motivated
because they want to know the right thing to do in their writing, particularly because they feel that
they still have some problems in their grammar. In addition to this respond, some students point out
that they feel motivated to learn academic writing because the lecturer was able to give clear
explanation about the materials in the class and the lecturer keep providing supporting motivation in
their task.
Towards the journal writing task, almost all of the participants responded that they were
really interested with the task because the task helps them to practice writing. Only a few of the
participants point out that sometimes the task made them stress out because it was hard for them to
brainstorm the ideas about what to write even the topic of the task had been determined by the
lecturer. Most of the participants also like the way the lecturer gave comments toward their writing
and they pointed out that they were really appreciated by the lecturer because their writing was read
and given comments. Some students even cannot wait to read the comments from the lecturer
because the comments make them feel motivated to write the next journal. One student however
responds differently that he thought that the teachers comment is similar to one another therefore he
expects that the teacher provides diverse comments. In the questionnaire, the participants also point
out their expectation to what kind of comments that they expect from the lecturer. The following
items are the responses from the participants regarding the kinds of comments that they are expecting
from the lecturer:
1. Detail comments about their grammatical error in their writing since they have doubt about
their grammar skill
2. Comments that contain more motivational words because they find the source of their desire
to write from such comment
3. Some students chose not to be given bad or critical comments on their writing because they
felt it can lower their motivation to write. On the other hand, it is not a problem for some
students to have any kind of comments, either positive or critical comments since they can
use the comments to motivate them to make more writing
4. Comments should be different between one student to another student.
Apart from the kinds of comment that the students expected from the lecture, there is also an
expectation that the lecturer can provide more interesting activity in learning process, such as
learning through games activity and give more challenging topic to the students. In addition, lecturer
is also expected to be more enduring with the students in the class because of the diversity of
background of the students.
4. CONCLUSION
Motivation as the crucial factor that influence a person in doing something must be seen as
primary aspect that needs to be developed and maintain, especially when discussing about the way to
help the EFL learners to be successful learners. The findings of this research is only the brief
evidence that to build students motivation can be done through simple task, but the point is that the
feedback or comments from the teachers are the crucial factor that can raise students‘ motivation to
write. It is definitely not a generalization to only use single task, that is journal writing, as a media to
develop students‘ motivation to write. Yet, it is worthwhile to try giving positive and motivational
comments in every students‘ task as Nation‘s view that positive feedback on the content of learners‘
writing can be very useful to develop the amount of writing that the students do and to improve their
attitude toward writing (Nation, 2009).
REFERENCES
Al-Tamimi, A. & Shuib, M. (2009). Motivation and Attitudes towards Learning English: A Study of
Petroleum Engineering Undergraduates at Hadhramout University of Sciences and Technology.
GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies, 9(2), 29-51
Anjomshoa, L. & Sadighi, F. (2015). The Importance of Motivation in Second Language
Acquisition. International Journal on Studies in English Language and Literature (IJSELL),
3(2),126-137
Boscolo, P. & Gelati, C. (2007). Best Practices in Promoting Motivation for Writing in S. Graham,
C.A. Macarthur, & J. Fitzgerald (eds.) Best Practices in Writing Instruction (pp.202-221) NY:
The Guilford Press
Broughton, G., Brumfit, C., Flavell,R., Hill, P., and Pincas, A. 2003. Teaching English as a Foreign
Language. NY: Routledge
Bruning, R. & Horn, C. 2000. Developing Motivation to Write. Educational Psychologist, 35(10),
25-37
Cheng, Y.-s. (2002), Factors Associated with Foreign Language Writing Anxiety. Foreign Language
Annals, 35 (5), 647–656.
Ghenghesh, P. (2010). The Motivation of L2 Learners: Does It Decrease with Age? English
Language Teaching, 3 (1), 128-141
Harmer, J. (2007). The Practice of English Language Teaching. NY: Pearson Longman ELT
Hill, J.D. & Flynn, K.M. (2006). Classroom Instruction that Works with English Language Learners.
Virginia: ASCD
Lee, I. (2008). Student reactions to teacher feedback in two Hong Kong secondary classrooms.
Journal of Second Language Writing, 17 (2008), 144–164
Nation, I.S.P. (2009). Teaching ESL/EFL Reading and Writing. NY: Routledge
Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. (2007). Introduction to Academic Writing (3rd ed). NY: Pearson Education
Scrivener, J. (2005). Learning Teaching: A guidebook for English language teachers (2nd ed).
Oxford: Macmillan Education
Shang, Hui-f. (2013). Factors Associated with English as a Foreign Language University Students
Writing Anxiety. International Journal of English Language Teaching. 1 (1). 1-12
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Abstract
Since English is not used as a means of communication in daily life interaction, students usually get
difficulties to use it which could possibly trigger their language learning anxiety. This case leads
them to use certain strategies in order to keep the conversation going on which so-called
communication strategies. In relation to this issue, this survey study aims at investigating
communication strategies employed by EFL students pursuing Speaking I course. It attempts to find
out whether high-anxiety students employ different communication strategies from that of
low-anxiety students. Questionnaire is used to measure the students‘ level of anxiety and identify
their communication strategies. Identification of communication strategies could train the students
to be a strategic learner which is required in foreign language learning.
1. INTRODUCTION
In performing oral-related activities, students are required to be spontaneous in expressing
their thought. The problem might arise when it comes to speaking by using the Second Language
(L2) due to limited linguistic repertoire as well as limited exposure toward the language. Students
have to understand what the interlocutor is saying and how they should respond to it. In other words,
it requires them not only to understand the input (comprehension) but also to produce the output
(production). Once the speaker and listener realize that they do not share a mutual understanding, and
need to repair problems or modify the conversation, they have to use tricks which so-called
communication strategies. Thus, speaking and communication strategies are interrelated.
Communication strategies have caught the researchers‘ interest since they were introduced
by Canale and Swain (1980) as part of communicative competence (Dörnyei, 1995). Thereby,
communicative competence could probably be gained by developing an awareness to employ
communication strategies. Furthermore, Nakatani (2006) proposes that fluency in speaking depends
not only on knowledge about the language but also on ability to make use of communication
strategies. In a nutshell, language competence only is not sufficient to be competent in
communication. Interestingly, communication strategies also contribute positively to the students‘
willingness to communicate. A study conducted by Yousef, Jamil, & Razak (2013) found that the
regression coefficient of the use of communication strategies and willingness to communicate was
significant which means that the students willingness to speak improved as they used communication
strategies, particularly, negotiation of meaning strategy. Research evidence has shown the beneficial
role of enhancing the students‘ awareness of communication strategies (Brown, 2007; Dörnyei,
1995). Willems (1987) cited in Mirzaei and Heidari (2012) argues that familiarizing the students with
communication strategies assists them to ―develop a feeling of being able to do something with the
language.‖
Nevertheless, students are mostly not aware of the communication strategies they use. In
fact, awareness of communication strategies facilitates them to cope with the difficulties they
encounter in speaking. Besides, it is believed that successful language learners are those who use a
wide range of strategies in learning. Thus, teachers are expected to familiarize the students with
communication strategies.
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This part describes the review of related literature consisting of the notion of communication
strategies and language learning anxiety.
Communication Strategies
The term communication strategies were firstly proposed by Selinker in 1972, which refers
to the approach that a learner employs for communication with another speaker (Dörnyei, 1995). The
insight came up with the recognition that the difference between the speakers‘ linguistic repertoire
and the intended message leads to a systematic language phenomenon which aims at solving
communication difficulties or breakdowns (Dörnyei & Scott, 1997). Following Selinker‘s definition,
Corder (1978) in Dörnyei (1995) defines communication strategies as ―a systematic technique
employed by a speaker to express his [or her] meaning when faced with some difficulty.‖ Færch and
Kasper (1983) cited in Brown (2007) defined communication strategies from a psychological
perspective as ―potentially conscious plans for solving what to an individual presents itself as a
problem in reaching a particular communicative goal.‖ Therefore, it could be implied that
communication strategies are any techniques used to help the participants of the conversation solving
communication difficulties.
There are various taxonomies of communication strategies. Surapa and Channarong (2011)
state that the taxonomies of communication strategies have been classified differently following the
principles of terminology and categorization of different researchers. Despite the varied taxonomies,
they actually refer to similar thing which means that they are overlapping one another. What makes it
differ is on the terminology used (Bialystok, 1990, in Dörnyei & Scott, 1997).
Broadly speaking, communication strategies are divided into two categories, namely achievement or
compensatory strategies and reduction or avoidance strategies (Dörnyei & Scott, 1997). The
categorization is based on how the students‘ deal with difficulties that they encounter during
speaking. Achievement or compensatory strategies are considered as effective strategy in which the
students try to maintain the conversation for the sake of achieving communicative goals. In contrast,
reduction or avoidance strategies refer to strategies for avoiding the communication difficulties,
which in turn affects the interaction negatively.
In 2006, Nakatani (2006) developed Oral Communication Strategy Inventory (OCSI) based on the
students‘ self report questionnaire on communication strategies. Besides, it combines features from
many of the previous taxonomies making it more comprehensive. Due to the interactive nature of
speaking which takes form not only in expressing ideas but also in comprehending the message, the
OCSI is divided into 2 main parts, namely strategies for coping with speaking difficulties and
strategies for coping with listening difficulties.
The followings are strategies for coping with speaking difficulties:
- Socio-affective strategies
- Fluency-oriented
- Negotiation for meaning whilst speaking
- Accuracy-oriented
- Message reduction and alteration
- Non-verbal strategies whilst speaking
- Message abandonment
- Attempt to think in English
getting the gist, non-verbal strategies whilst listening, and word-oriented) are classified as
achievement strategies. Some others, such as message reduction and alteration, message
abandonment, less active listener belong to reduction strategies.
Language Learning Anxiety
Language learning anxiety is a common phenomenon experienced by foreign language
learners. It stems from the students‘ fear of being failed to achieve their goals making them feel
uneasy, frustrate, self-doubt, apprehension and worry.
Anxious students tend to feel insecure, and uncomfortable to the learning environment. This
phenomenon leads to students‘ discouragement, loss of ability, and have less willingness to use the
target language. In fact, students‘ active involvement is required in language learning context. Since
anxiety interferes with the students‘ ability to process information, it influences both fluency and
accuracy of speaking. Students could probably get difficulty either to learn the language or to speak
by using the language. It indicates that language learning anxiety has debilitating effect on learning
by preventing the students using the language which in turn limits their participation. It, therefore,
could be safely deduced that language learning anxiety is one of the plausible reasons why some
students are more successful in learning a language than the others in spite of learning in a same
environment.
Horwitz, et al. (1986) classified language learning anxiety into communication
apprehension, fear of negative evaluation, and test anxiety. Difficulty in speaking to others is the
symptom of having communication apprehension. Communication apprehension seems to be
increased in relation to the students‘ negative self-perception caused by their inability to understand
others and make themselves understood (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1989). Fear of negative evaluation
refers to afraid of being judged negatively by others. Young (1991) argues that students who are
experiencing fear of negative evaluation are more concerned about how their errors are corrected
than whether the errors should be corrected. Finally, afraid of being failed is the manifestation of test
anxiety. It is considered as one the components of negative motivation. Students might likely feel
more pressure when asked to perform in a second or foreign language. Such feeling is augmented by
the fact that they need to recall and coordinate many points at the same time during the limited test
period.
To sum up, both students and teachers play a crucial role in either raising or reducing
language learning anxiety.
3. RESEARCH METHOD
This study primarily aims at finding out whether students with different degree of anxiety
employ different communication strategies. To obtain the answer of the research questions, a survey
study was conducted toward 51 students of Halu Oleo University pursuing Speaking I course. Their
age ranges from 18 years old to 19 years old. They have been learning English for about 8 years. The
students were firstly divided into high-anxiety and low-anxiety group based on their response to the
language learning anxiety questionnaire. The maximum score is 100 indicating the highest degree of
anxiety and the minimum is 25 indicating the lowest degree of anxiety. The students whose total
score were above the average were considered as having a high degree of anxiety and those below the
average considered as having a low degree of anxiety. Based on the computation, there were 24
students considered as having high degree of language learning anxiety, and 27 others belonged to
low-anxiety group.
In order to get the answer of the research question, a close-ended questionnaire was
distributed. It is a 4-point Likert scale consisting of 37 items for communication strategies
questionnaire, and 25 items for language learning anxiety questionnaire. OCSI developed by
Nakatani (2006) was used to identify the communication strategies the students use, while language
learning anxiety questionnaire was adapted from Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale
developed by Horwitz, et al. (1986). Those two questionnaires were used because they have been
used widely in many different contexts. The students were required to choose one of the options
ranging from ―always‖ to ―never‖ for OCSI, while language learning anxiety ranges from ―strongly
agree‖ to ―strongly disagree‖.
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Before taking the real data for the purpose of this study, the questionnaires were tried out first
toward 13 students who were not belonging to the sample of this study. It aims at ensuring the
reliability of the questionnaires. After computing the raw data, it was found that the score of
Cronbach‘s alpha for language learning anxiety questionnaire is .831, while the OCSI is .806 which
suggest that the questionnaires were reliable enough and could be used to collect data for this study.
The questionnaires were distributed before the Speaking class was ended. It took around 45 minutes
for them to complete those two questionnaires. The questionnaires were, then, collected by that time.
The data of the questionnaires were then analyzed by using Ms. Excel. The score of the questionnaire
range from 4 indicating ―always‖ or ―strongly agree‖ to 1 indicating ―never‖ or ―strongly disagree‖.
For language learning anxiety questionnaire, the score of some items was reserved when the
statement is negative. The answer of the research questions were based on the mean score of the
strategies. The highest the mean score, the most frequently the strategy is used.
As could be seen from the above table, of the eight strategies used for coping with speaking
difficulties, the most frequently used strategy by high-anxiety students is negotiation for meaning
whilst speaking indicating by the highest mean score (M = 3.40). It indicates that those students more
concern about the accomplishment of communication. They tend to focus more on speaking
comprehensively rather than speaking fluently. They also attempt to increase their participation by
conquering their weaknesses through negotiation with the interlocutor, for instance, by repeating
what s/he has said or by checking the listeners‘ understanding. Al-Mahrooqi and Tuzlukova (2011)
state that negotiation of meaning plays a role in reducing the students‘ anxiety and providing them
with an enjoyable learning environment as students have to work with others to achieve mutual
understanding. While the least frequently used is message abandonment indicating by the lowest
mean score (M = 2.68). Grzegorzewska (2015) reports that high-anxiety students also tend to use
reduction strategy, but, in the form of topic avoidance. As the name suggest, message abandonment
means that the students cannot continue the conversation. They have no choice besides ending the
conversation, for instance, by giving up when s/he cannot make her/himself understood or by leaving
the message unfinished. Since this strategy ceases the communication, it is not recommended to be
used. Nakatani (2006) proposes that message abandonment is commonly used by low-proficient
students.
As shown in Table 2, of the 7 strategies used for coping with listening difficulties, the most
frequently used by high-anxiety students is word-oriented strategy (M = 3.58). Word-oriented
strategy could be in the form of paying attention to the words which the speaker slows down or
emphasizes or trying to understand every word that the speaker uses. Students who use this strategy
seem like ―have formed the habit of using words to get the meaning of speech‖ (Nakatani, 2006).
The least frequently used strategy is fluency-maintaining (M = 2.92). Paying attention to the
speakers‘ pronunciation and intonation is one of the manifestations of fluency-maintaining strategy.
Communication Strategies Used by Low-Anxiety Students
The tables below illustrate communication strategies used by low-anxiety students.
Table 3. Communication strategies for coping with speaking difficulties
Order of
Kinds of strategy N Mean
usage
Socio-affective strategies 27 3.21 7
Fluency-oriented 27 3.48 1
Negotiation for meaning whilst speaking 27 3.46 2
Accuracy-oriented 27 3.43 3
Message reduction and alteration 27 3.26 5
Non-verbal strategies whilst speaking 27 3.22 6
Message abandonment 27 2.70 8
Attempt to think in English 27 3.37 4
The above table shows that the most frequently used strategy for coping with speaking difficulties
used by low-anxiety students is fluency-oriented (M = 3.48), and message abandonment is the least
frequently used strategy (M = 2.70). Fluency-oriented strategy could be in the form of paying
attention to the pronunciation and intonation, and taking more time to express what the speaker wants
to say. It means that low-anxiety students focus more on the flow of conversation and clarity of their
speech for the sake of enhancing the listener‘s comprehension. This strategy is found to be one of the
most frequently used by high-proficient students (Nakatani, 2006).
Table 4. Communication strategies for coping with listening difficulties
Kinds of strategy N Mean Order of
usage
Negotiation for meaning whilst listening 27 3.17 5
Fluency-maintaining 27 2.90 7
Scanning 27 3.31 2
Getting the gist 27 3.19 4
Non-verbal strategies whilst listening 27 3.22 3
Less active listener 27 3.15 6
Word-oriented 27 3.54 1
As shown in Table 4, the most frequently used strategy for coping with listening difficulties
for low-anxiety students is word-oriented (M = 3.54). Moreover, the least frequently used strategy is
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fluency-maintaining (M= 2.90). Surprisingly, this finding is similar with that found in high-anxiety
students.
In a nutshell, having analyzed the data, it was generally found that the communication
strategy used by high-anxiety students for coping with speaking difficulties and listening difficulties
were similar from that of low-anxiety students, except the most frequently used strategy for coping
with speaking difficulties. Further, the finding of this study shows that regardless their different
degree of anxiety, both of the groups regarded message abandonment as the least frequently used
strategies for coping with speaking difficulties. It turns out that the students try to maintain their
conversation no matter whether they are anxious or not.
It is interesting to note the strategies used for coping with listening difficulties in which case there is
not any difference in the most and the least frequently used strategy by both of the groups. Both of the
groups regarded word-oriented strategy as the most frequently used strategy suggesting that the
students tend to focus on the word the interlocutor uses.
5. CONCLUSION
Communication difficulties are inseparable part of L2 communication which could be
tackled through the use of communication strategies. Due to the important role of communication
strategies in foreign language learning, teachers are supposed to familiarize the students with the
communication strategies. For the students, especially those who suffer from a high degree of
language learning anxiety, they are expected to make use of communication strategies in order to
improve their speaking performance. Based on the research findings, it could be concluded that
language learning anxiety could likely influence the strategy used for coping with speaking
difficulties, but not for coping with listening difficulties.
Since this study only relies on questionnaire to collect the data, it is advisable for future research to
conduct a similar study by using multiple data collection procedures for further validating the
findings of this study.
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Abstract
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the teaching material of English subject at Vocational High
School by referring to ESP approach because, theoretically, teaching English in Vocational High
School should relate and support the specific skill which is studied by its students. This is descriptive
research by using qualitative inquiry. This study was conducted in SMK N 2 Sijunjung where the
sources of data is the teaching material that be given by the English teachers to their students in
academic year 2014/2015. After analyzing the data, it was found that English teaching material in
SMK N 2 Sijunjung does not follow of ESP approach for each specific study in that school yet. The
data show that most of content and context of teaching material are still too general for Vocational
High School students. It can be concluded that the implementation of ESP in Vocational High School
could not run well yet. Hence, the practitioner and English teacher are expected to develop English
teaching material for Vocational School students that relate and support their certain skill in order to
make their English competence could help their career in the future. In addition, it also stimulus them
in learning English because teaching material which given in the English class relate to their topic in
their specific study in the workshop or laboratory.
1. INTRODUCTION
Teaching English for Specific purposes in Vocational High School becomes a crucial issue at
the present where the students are expected to master the English subject in order to support their
career in the future. By using English for specific purposes approach, it can help students to
understand the language very well. In other words, it makes them more enjoyable when studying
English because the teaching English is designed appropriately with their study. In addition, teaching
English in Vocational High School should refer to English for specific purposes where the students‘
needs focus on communicating in their field study as universal.
According to Tomlinson (2003:306), English for Specific Purposes is an umbrella term that
conveys the teaching of English to students who are learning the language for a particular work or
study-related reasons. Moreover, teaching English for Specific Purposes is more emphasized to
students who learn specific skill in their study and gives significant contribution in learning English
toward students who learn in specific skill. It can be very useful for the learners because the teaching
English refers to their specific studies and help them to realize the language. it is also given to the
learners who need English for their work or their specific studies.
In Teaching English, one of important point is teaching material. Teaching material becomes
crucial issue because it gives significant impacts toward reaching of teaching and learning objectives
by the learners. Its purpose is to reach the objectives of teaching learning so that the learners get
benefit of teaching learning process. Hence, teaching material in ESP should relate to students‘ needs
in their workplace such as: Automotive engineering, Building engineering, Electrical engineering,
and so on. Inappropriate of teaching material will not help them to reach the objectives of
teaching-learning. In other word, teaching material becomes one of the main problems faced in
teaching learning process at Vocational high school today. Therefore, the English teacher needs to
create interesting materials for student in order that they can enjoy to study especially learning
English. Meanwhile, the teacher sometimes could not apply their role as materials developer so that
the materials that are given to students become monotonous and inflexible. In addition, English
teachers just use one textbook without using the current sources as reference in teaching materials.
Because of the importance of teaching material in teaching English, especially in English for
Specific Purposes, the researcher interested to study it. The researcher tried to explore the English
teaching material which is applied in a Vocational High School, SMKN 2 Sijunjung, as source of
data for the research. In this chance, the researcher focuses to the question,―How is English teaching
material development for first grade at SMK N 2 Sijunjung in the first semester academic year
2014/2015?‖. Therefore, the researcher would try to investigate the teaching material which taught in
the school. It was analyzed by referring to the theory of the English for Specific Purposes itself. Then,
this research gave the factual information about the English teaching material in the Vocational High
School.
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relate to their specific needs. In addition, teaching English for Specific Purposes has its own teaching
methodology to help teacher and students in teaching learning process.
Then, it is also supported Knapp and Seidlhofer (2009:517) who state that teaching English
for Specific Purposes is to be more expected on the process of social learning that take places when
people cooperate and communicate in specific or professional contexts. Teaching English for
Specific Purposes is way to acquire language which will be needed by learners in their workplace,
especially English. Process of teaching English for Specific Purposes should be more expected to
social learning. For example, teaching English is built from cooperative and communication in
specific contexts such as; in doctor-patient communication, shopkeeper-costumer communication,
and Technician-costumer communication.
In addition, teaching English for Specific Purposes also relates to process of getting language
experience in students‘ workplace. The teacher is expected to do communication with people who
have a large knowledge about students‘ specific skill. For example; English teacher who teaches in
automotive subject should often interact with a teacher who teaching automotive skill. Its purposes
create synchronizing between English learning and students‘ need in their specific study. As Byram
and Hu (2013:225) explain that teaching English for Specific Purposes makes a numerous of demand
for language teacher. One of them, English teacher should make a good relationship with people who
have knowledge about students‘ specific study because the teacher has to develop an understanding
values of communication in the disciplinary area such as workplace for the students.
From the experts‘ statement above, the researcher cites the a view that teaching material in
English for Specific Purposes more expect to the synchronizing between the language learning and
the students‘ field studies. It should bring a context that related to the their field. Besides they study
about language, they also study how to use the language in their field study. It would be useful for
their future and carrier. In addition, it also stimulate them to learn English better because the context
in the teaching material is suitable with their specific study.
2.3 Teaching Material Development in ESP
Teaching material development as an aspect in teaching English for Specific Purposes has
purpose to analyze the students‘ need and conduct teaching material in order to get synchronize
between students‘ need and teaching material itself. Byram (2000:286) argues that teaching material
development is a process to find out of students‘ need and to tailor of design material to fit those
needs. It means that teaching material development in English for Specific Purposes not only focus
on providing material but also analysis of students‘ need. Hence, the material which is given will fix
and support students to reach their needs in workplace.
Then, teaching material development is known as one of main part of teaching learning
process such as; learning material. Especially, teaching English for specific purposes, it is more
complexity responsibility for ESP teacher. According to Mishan and Chambers (2010:1), teaching
material development in teaching English as foreign language is one of important part in teaching
learning process. In other word, it is not an extra option that can be skipped by the English teacher.
Therefore, teaching material becomes significant aspect in teaching learning process. It should get
much attention from English teacher when develop teaching material.
In addition, teaching material development is also a process to compile a field of study and a
practical undertaking. First, a field of study refers to principles and procedures of designing teaching
material, implementation, and evaluation of language teaching material. Second, a practical
undertaking is anything which is done by the ESP teacher to provide sources of language input for the
students. As Tomlinson (2011:2) points out that teaching material development is a process which is
built up from a field of study and a practical undertaking by the teacher.
Based on experts‘ explanation above, the researcher concludes that teaching material
development is an activity in English teaching learning process to find out the synchronizing between
material and students‘ needs. It should be done by the teacher because teacher is a person who has
closed relation with the students and teaching material. Hence, teacher should create a suitable
teaching material that generates English competence of students toward their specific subject because
by giving material which relate with their field-study, it will stimulus them to learn English well
In this case, there are many experts who state about the principles of teaching material in
English for Specific Purposes. All of them expect to the synchronizing between the context in the
material and the students‘ field study. The first one comes from Raman (2004:65) who states that
there are several regulations of developing teaching material in English for specific purposes. They
are:
a. Specified objectives of teaching
Material loads of objectives of teaching that are specified. Objectives of teaching become crucial
attention when teacher design teaching material. The material should be a bridge to reach the
objectives of teaching and stimulus students to be interested in teaching learning process.
Therefore, the objectives of teaching must be specified in order to make clear the material.
b. Clearly purpose of teaching
Material also consists of purpose of teaching English that should be clearly identified. In teaching
learning process, students are expected to realize the purpose of learning. It means that they can be
more interested to study hard, because they know that it is important for their perspective in the
future. Thus, teacher should begin the teaching process by giving information about purpose of
teaching. In other word, the purpose of learning is delivered at the beginning of learning
c. Consist of communication needs
Material should consist of communication needs of the learner. It means that the material is
designed by need analysis of workplace demand. Its purpose is to find out the suitable material for
the learners who need English that related to their field-study. Thus, ESP teacher is expected to
collaborative with experts in specific subject of students to create suitable teaching material.
d. Stress to language as communication.
Teaching material should be stressed to put on language as a communication system and not as a
grammatical system. ESP material is more focused on communication system that uses language
to deliver information or feeling than grammatical system that emphasize to master language by
exploring the regulation of the language. In other word, teaching material is built from language
used in the workplace so that students become attractive in teaching learning process.
e. Stimulus students‘ activities in teaching process.
The preoccupation should be built in teaching material. Teaching material should interest for the
students in order that they become comfortable in teaching learning process. In addition, the
teaching material also challenge for learners. It can be done by providing topic material that
makes learners enjoying on discussing it. For example, teacher gives brainstorming about current
issue with relate to students‘ field-study.
f. Using learner-centred approach.
Material is designed by learner-centered approach because learner-centered approach is suitable
for teaching English for specific purposes. Its purpose is to make students more active in teaching
learning process and gives contribution to improve the students‘ critical thinking. Thus, teacher
should design material which can be applied in learner-centered approach in the classroom.
In addition, Dudley and Jo also suggest several points to develop teaching material in
English for specific purposes. Its aims help the teachers when they are writing English materials.
Dudley and Jo (2007:185) mention that there are several points in developing teaching materials in
English for specific purposes such as:
a. Flexibility
Material is more flexible. It is indicated that the material that is given by the teacher in teaching
learning process should be acceptable by the learners and makes them to be comfortable in
progressing. In addition, material is suited by students‘ knowledge level. For example, average of
learners in secondary school generally has language competence in intermediate level because
they have learned English when they were in junior high school and elementary school or they
have taken an English course. Giving hard or simple material will make students feel boring in
teaching learning process.
b. Clear explanation
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Material is expected to provide clear explanations. As we know that English for Specific Purposes
has discourse meaning based on the context. Thus, the material is prepared as well as possible to
help learners more understanding. The material also forces ESP teacher should have a large
knowledge about the material. It hopes the teacher can give clear explanation in the material along
teaching learning process. Hence, learners are expected to realize the material as well as possible
and they will reach the objectives of teaching very well.
c. Practice of communication needs
Material should consist of much practice about their nature communication in workplace. It will
give them language experience to communicate in their workplace future. In addition, giving
much practice will make students become active in teaching learning process because a good
material never makes students to be passive in teaching learning process, but it expects to make
students more active in teaching-learning process.
d. Supported by relevance references.
Material is emphasized from good supporting references. It is important to keep validation of the
material. Available of sources books now days have been maintained by school and government
to support teaching learning process. In addition, Searching and browsing teaching material from
internet is permitted. Nevertheless, it should come from a valid sources and it should be adapted
by considering social-culture of students.
e. Consider the sociological or culture of learners.
Material should consider the sociological or cultural of the students because English as foreign
language comes from different culture. ESP teacher should be able to provide a good material
without giving negative impact toward students‘ sociological. It is important for ESP teacher to
maintain the pure culture of students and give understanding about cross-culture.
f. Relate to learners‘ knowledge.
Material is founded from learners‘ knowledge. Knowing learners‘ knowledge becomes important
in developing material because the materials should be suitable with the students‘ level. The
purpose is to increase students‘ skill continually. It also make them relax and comfortable to
study.
g. Building knowledge and awareness
Core of material should build a large knowledge and awareness which is then applied in more
specific material. Thus, the students will think that English is crucial aspect in reaching their
career. For example, giving motivation about the advantages of English for their future in
teaching learning process will increase their awareness in teaching learning process. It can be
done by providing current issue and information which relate with students‘ field-study and
English application. In other word, it will make students have awareness that English is important
for them.
Then, the principles of teaching material in ESP are also proposed by Hutchinson and Water
(2006:106),they mention teaching material becomes the most characteristic form of English for
specific purposes in teaching learning process. Hutchinson and Waters recommended several
principles in defining objectives of teaching material development such as:
a. Provide a stimulus to learning.
The materials are expected to give good effect in encouraging students‘ motivation to learn. Good
material will consist of interesting text, enjoyable activities, and opportunities for learners to use
their background knowledge. In other word, teaching material should be synchronized with their
field-study and it can create a warm interaction whole teaching learning process. For example,
teacher gives brainstorming which relate to student‘s field-study and making a warm interaction
while teaching learning process.
b. Help to organize teaching learning process.
Materials help to organize the teaching-learning process by providing a suitable way to learn
complex language. The material should be a brige for learners to reach the learning objectives.
Material is also arranged structurally to help teacher in delivering the material. Avoiding the
difficulties and confusing in developing material should be done by the teacher in order to create a
3. RESEARCH METHOD
The design of this research was descriptive research because the researcher wanted to
describe about English teaching material in English teaching learning process by English teacher at
SMK N 2 Sijunjung in academic year 2014/2015. It is supported by Parse (2001:57), qualitative
descriptive research is to study intensely a phenomenon to discover pattern and themes about live
events, social sciences, and discipline-specific theoretical perspective in education. In other word, by
conducting this descriptive research, the researcher described deeply the factual information about
English teaching material development in English teaching learning process by English teachers of
SMK N 2 Sijunjung.
Source of data in this research were document which consisted of teaching material in lesson
plan in the first semester of tenth grade students. The data were divided into three kinds of text such
as: transactional, functional and monologue. The researcher focused to analyzed the content and
context in the data and used the principles of teaching material which proposed by the Hutchinson
and Waters.
The researcher used document checklist or form as instrument to help the researcher in
analyzing the data. It should be prepared as well to get the validity information. According to Yusuf
(2007:252), the form should be prepared as well and refers to the study demand in order to get the
truth finding. It means that researcher created a form or document checklist as well before analyzing
the document as the data in this research. It would be synchronized with the topic which investigates
before doing analysis.
The example of form could be generalized as a follow:
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B. ........... 1. ..........
...........
Then, the data was analyzed by referring to Gay and Airasian theory in analyzing the data.
According to Gay and Airasian (2000:239), there are several steps in analyzing qualitative data. They
consist of data managing, reading/memoing, describing, classify, interpreting, and representing the
finding or writing report. To support the validity of the information of this research, the researcher
also did interview to the English teacher who taught in the school. The questions referred to the
teaching material which was analyzed by the researcher. In other words, the researcher did
triangulation in this study by doing interview to the English teacher there
Figure 1
b. Help to organize teaching and learning process
Referring to document checklist‘s result, the indicator about help to organize teaching and
learning process was not also reached completely. Although most of points which related to the
indicator were available for each field-study such as; the teaching material referred to objectives of
learning. It could be shown in document checklist‘s result and the data were collected. Nevertheless,
the context of text did not show the specific context to students‘ field-study. It means that the
teaching material did not suitable with the concept of ESP. It become useless for students in their
workplace later. It was supported by the finding below:
Figure 2
c. Embody a view of nature of language learning
After analyzing the data, the researcher found there were many inappropriate contents and
contexts in the teaching material. The researcher stated that teaching material which was applied in
the school did not fulfill to embody a view of nature of language learning. It was caused all of points
supported the indicator were not reached by teaching material. It showed that there was a long gap
between the students‘ field study and the teaching material in teaching learning process. It related to
the research finding in the data analyzing as follow:
Figure 3
d. Provide nature of learning task
This indicator could not be available completely. In analyzing the data, the researcher found
that some points could not exist in the teaching material. Some of the points were available because
they were also found both of general English and English for Specific Purposes. In other words, this
indicator was not valuable in the English for Specific Purposes because it just referred to the General
English not to English for Specific Purposes. It can be showed in the following document:
Figure 4
Figure 5
f. Provide correct and appropriate language use
From the data analysis, the researcher could state that teaching material did not provide
correct and appropriate language use. It was caused there was not point which related to the
indicators reached in teaching material. It caused teaching material did not stimulus the students.
They would think that language learning could not give beneficial to their specific study so that they
became lazy and underestimate toward English.
Figure 6
From the discussion above, the researcher concluded that there was no principle of developing
teaching material could be fulfilled completely. Most of them indicated that teaching material was
not suitable with the principles of developing teaching material in English for specific purposes. This
data showed that teaching material which was applied in the field of this research did not refer to the
teaching material in English for specific purposes. It also was supported by the interview‘s result to
triangulate the data. Thus, the researcher was surely confident that It could give scientific answer to
the research question about how the English teaching material in SMK N 2 Sijunjung at the first
grade students in the first semester, academic year 2014/2015.
5.2 Suggestion
After doing this investigation about the English teaching material, the researcher states
insightful suggestions toward elements of educational at the following points. Firstly, the researcher
suggests the English teacher who taught in Vocational High School in order to introduce English in
their specific skill because it is very useful for them when they come to their workplace in the future.
Introducing English through specific approach will make students interested in learning English. It
helps them to synchronize what they had done in the workshop and what they have learned in the
English subject.
Secondly, the researcher also recommends a teaching approach for Vocational High School
in English subject to the curriculum developer. The researcher hopes the curriculum developer could
consider about the recommendation. It is caused the researcher has known from the experts‘
statement about English for specific purposes. ESP is not a product of teaching learning process but it
expects to an approach in teaching learning process. In other word, the government should revise
about the teaching guiding book in order to make it more specific for Vocational High School.
Overall, this research informs to the readers about the factual information of English teaching
material for Vocational High School, especially in SMKN 2 Sijunjung and gives the useful insight
about teaching material which related to the ESP concept. The researcher also asks additional
information from the others about the issue above in order to enrich our insight in English for specific
purposes. Therefore, it could be very useful for the readers and enrich our understanding in teaching
English.
REFERENCES
Byram, Michael. Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning. New York:
Routledge, 2000.
Byram, Michael and Adelheid Hu. Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning.
New York: Routledge, 2013.
Dudley, Tony Evans and Jo, Maggie ST Jhon. Developments in English for Specific Purposes A
Multi-Disciplinary Approach. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Print
Gay, L.R. and Airasian, Peter. Educational Research Competencies for Analysis and Applications.
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,Inc, 2000. Print
Hutchinson, Tom and Waters, Alan. English for Specific Purposes A Learning-Centred Approach.
New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Print
Knapp, Karlfried et al. Handbook of Foreign Language Communication and Learning. Berlin:
Hubert&co, 2009.
Mishan, Freda and Chambers, Angela. Perspectives on Language Learning Material Development.
Bern: Peter Lang AG, 2010.
Parse, Rosiemarie Rizzo. Qualitative Inquiry the Path of Sciencing. London: Jones and Bartlett
Publisher, 2001.
Raman, Meenakshi. English Language Teaching. New Delhi: Atlantic Publisher and Distributors,
2004.
Satya, R.K. Modern Methods of Teaching. New Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation, 2008.
Tomlinson, Brian. Developing Material for Language Teaching. New York: Cromwell Press, 2003.
.Material Development in Language Teaching Second Edition. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 2011.
Yusuf, A Muri. Metodologi Penelitian. Padang: UNP Press, 2007.Print
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Abstract
This paper is aimed at getting a deep understanding of the process and results in improving grammar
mastery in learning English through problem solving technique. It reports the action research
involving 30 students of English Education Study Program at Language and Arts Faculty in State
University of Padang who took Structure I Subject. The instrument used were questionaire, students‘
portofolios, observers‘ and reseacher‘s journals, pre-test and post-test.The data were analyzed by
using descriptive statistics in the form of mean and percentage, and the validity of the data was
checked by using triangulation technique.The result shows that (1) The process of using problem
solving technique is chalanging, and it makes the students active, thinks critically, improves the
students‘ learning result, and gradually makes the students become autonomous learners.(2) The
result of grammar mastery varied within the three cycles of different instructional activities
conducted. The indicators are seen from the pre- to post-test results of each cycle. The results of
grammar mastery through classical instructional activities improved from 28.53 to 67.0. In group
discussion activities the improvement is from 69.53 to 77.13. Meanwhile, the improvement is seen
from 77.06 to 83.23 in pair work instructional activities. Based on the result, the learning process
through problem solving technique improved the learning result of grammar mastery.
1. INTRODUCTION
English learners are demanded to be able to use English well in the four language skills
(Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing). There are several language components to master when
the learners want to use good English. One of them is mastering grammar beside mastering other
language components. Without having knowledge about grammar, it is imposible for someone to use
the language well. If English instructors/teachers want their students to be able to use English well,
they have to pay attention to students‘ grammar mastery.
Related to the the ideas above, English instructors/teachers have tried to use many kinds of
techniques in teaching English grammar. In English Education Study Program of English
Department at Language and Arts Faculty in State University of Padang, although the instructors
have tried many efforts in teaching grammar, their result is still unsatisfied. Based on the writer‘s
empirical observation, The students‘ mastery in using grammar is still low. This fact can be seen
through the students‘ performance in using English in writing. After trying to investigate the
students‘ mastery in using grammar in writing, it was found that among 10 students‘ thesis, 80
percents of them still have mistakes in using grammar. This fact is also stated by Syarif (2014). In her
research, she concludes that the students of English Education Study Program at Language and Arts
Faculty in State University of Padang find difficulties in using correct grammar in writing English.
The dominant difficulty is related to syntaxt.
Related to the above fact, most of English instructors/teachers believe that learning language
components should be done integratively in listening, speaking, reading and writing which is called
Communicative Language Learning (Murcia, 2001, Amato 2010). In conrast to this idea, Nassaji and
Fotos (2011), dan Ur (2012) have the conclusions of their research that the students who are taught
English grammar explicitely, their grammar mastery is better than those who are not taught English
grammar ecplicitely.
In relation to that condition, in order the students of English Education Study Program at
Language and Arts Faculty in State University of Padang have good matery in grammar, one of the
demands in teaching English is the needs in using the appropriate techniques that can motivate the
students to learn grammar. One of them can be problem solving technique. English
instructors/teachers should try to practice the appropriate technique in teaching grammar explicitely
when they want their students to master grammar well. In other words, in order to make grammar
class interesting, effective and beneficial, an instructor/teacher has to use well-developed and
fascinating technique in the classroom. It is common to hear that the students‘ success in learning
grammar also depends on the creativities of the intructors/teachers in choosing the appropriate
technique in teaching grammar.
As mentioned above, problem solving technique is one of the techniques that can motivate
the students to learn. It is a technique in which learning and teaching process are done by involving a
certain problem and how to solve it which needs students‘ cooperativeness in small group or large
group (Brown, 2001). Then, problem solving technique makes the students have self confidence in
learning. Learning through problem solving technique, make the students try to solve the problems
until they are able to solve them and they are sure with the grammar concept of what they have
learned. Besides, Moore, (2005), said that problem solving technique is an effort to eliminate the
sudents‘ doubtness through teaching and learning process. Since grammar consists of many rules,
and the rules also have exception, it makes the students find difficulties or confused in learning
grammar. Using problem solving technique is helpful to the students to avoid their doubtness. In this
paper, problem solving technique activities are provided.
2. DISCUSSION
1. The Concept of Grammar in Learning English
Grammar in a simple definition is a knowledge about language. Someone‘s knowledge that
enable him to use a language is called grammar (Veit,1986). In learning and teaching process, when
the students master grammar well, it will enable them to understand what they read, and listen, and
make them able to speak and to write. Besides, Callerson (1995) states that grammar is the way to
arrange a certain language. Related to this, Ur (2012) also says that grammar is the arrangement of
words to make correct sentence.
The above ideas can be concluded that the grammar of a language is the feature of rules to
create a sentence in a certain language. It is the way of how to arrange words to produce the correct
sentences. The grammar mastery is needed in language skills (Listening, Speaking, Reading and
writing), because there is no language skills which can be developed without mastering grammar. In
this research, grammar is limited to marphology and syntaxt.
a. Grammar Learning
Murcia (2001) states that grammar learning is the learning process that make learners
understand the way to analyze the rules, meaning, function and grammar form. By understanding the
rules, the sudents are able to use or to apply the rules in creating good English sentences. When the
students can produce good sentences they can use them in speaking or writing English, and help them
to understand what they read and what they listen.
Based on the ideas above, it can be said that grammar mastery is very important in learning
English. Lack of grammar mastery can make the students find difficulties in the four language skills.
Their understanding about what they read and listen will be far from adequate. Their speaking and
writing ability will be in low grade. So, teaching grammar explicitly can be one of the ways to learn
English grammar.
Related to the mentioned ideas above in teaching English, Hadley (1993) states that grammar
teaching can be done through two approaches, namely, deductive and inductive. Through deductive
approach, grammar teaching is initiated by the explanation about the rules of grammar, then, in
teaching and learning process the students are asked to create their own sentences. In the other ways
around, through inductive approach, the teaching and learning process is done by giving enough
examples to the students first. Then the students and the teacher formulate the concept about the rules
of grammar. He also says that inductive approah is more preferable, because it is more suitable for
language acquisation in natural way, it is suitable with the development of concept among languages,
it enable the students to get comunicative feeling, and it increases intrinsic motivation. Besides,
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Harmer (2007) also suggested the same approaches in teaching grammar, namely, 1) deductive
approach, in this approach the students are given explanation about the rules or grammar rules, based
on these rules the students are asked to to create their own examples; 2) inductive approah, in
contrast, teaching and learning process is begun by giving enough good examples, it can be through a
text, then the students are requested to formulate the rules. At the end, the students are asked to create
different examples, and discuss their examples.
Related to the above approaches in teaching grammar, Harmer (2001) states two models in
teaching grammar, namely: 1) Task, Teach, and Task Model (TTT Model). 2) Presentation, Practice,
and Production Model (PPP Model). In the TTT Model, the teaching and learning process is initiated
by the task, it is continued by the teaching and learning activities, and finally by giving the task again.
In the PPP Model, the lesson is begun by presentation, then the students are asked to practise the
rules, at last, the teaching and learning activiy is continued to production activities. In this research
the writer combined TTT Model with the last part of PPP Model. The model used was Task,Teach,
and Task combined with Production. It can be called TTTP Model (task, teach, task, and production
model).
Based on the model discussed above, the activities in teaching grammar by using the TTTP
model are as Follows:
a. The students are given two texts or dialogs. Text/dialog A contains sentences with grammar
problems. Text/dialog B contains sentences with correct grammar. The students are asked to
compare the two texts/dialogs. By comparing them, the students are suggested to identify
and to know whether the sentences in text A have gramatical problems, if there is problem in
the sentences, they are asked to identify in which part it is found. After identifying and
knowing the problems, the students are asked to find out the corect grammar form of the
sentences with grammatical problems by comparing them with sentences in the text which
contains correct sentences (text/dialog B). This is called task stage.
b. Then, the instructor discusses them with the students in order the students understand the
gramatical rules or gramatical concept until the students master the rules or concept and
know how to use it. This is called the teach stage.
c. After the students are sure with the concept of grammar rules and and know how to use them,
or after they are able to identify which part of the sentence has problem, and know the correct
form of that parts, the students are asked to do the task again. In this stage the task consists of
the text/dialog which contains sentences with gramatical problems only without giving the
text/dialog which contains sentences with correct grammar as the comparison. This step is
aimed at training the students in order they can solve the grammar problems in the sentences
given, and simultaniously to check whether the students have mastered the grammar being
taught. This step is called the task stage.
d. After the instructor is sure with the students‘ mastery of grammar, the students are asked to
produce or to create sentences. It can be orally, or written. This step is called production
stage.
By doing such activities repeatedly and continuously in grammar teaching and
learning process, from cycle 1 to cycle 3 in this action researh, they will be challanging to the
students, and they will make the students able to use correct grammar in writing or speaking.
Besides, they also help the students to understand what they read and what they listen. So
that, in this research the writer used inductive approach and TTTP model (Task, Teach, Task
and Production model) in teaching grammar.
b. Grammar Evaluation.
The grammar evaluation is done by giving the grammar test. The grammar test used is taken
from Harmer‘s ideas. Harmer (2001) divides grammar test into two categories, namely, 1) descrete
item test, and 2) performance test. Descrete item test means the test to check the students‘ matery in
grammar or the students‘ grammar knowledge. Performance test is the test to check the students‘
performance in using the language. The two kinds of the test were given to the students.
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3. RESEARCH METHOD
This research is an action researh, namely, the research which is started from the information
about the problems happen in teaching and learning process currently. Action research approach
supports the instructors/teachers in teaching. it improves the instructors‘/teachers‘ competence and
proffesional autonomy in evaluation, because the action research point is the development of
instructors‘/teachers‘professional in evaluation, Hopkins (2002). The essential point of this research
is the intructors‘/teachers‘ development in teaching and evaluating. The objectives of the research are
to get a deep understanding about the process and results in improving grammar mastery in learning
English through problem solving technique. The instruments used in collecting the data were
questionaire, students‘ portofolios, observers‘ and reseacher‘s journals, pre-test and post-test. The
data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics in the form of mean and percentage, and the
validity of the data was checked by using triangulation technique. Problem solving technique was
implemented in three cycles. In cycle 1, the learners were taught classically, in the second cycle they
were taught in group, meanwhile in the third cycle they were taught in pairs.
4. RESULT
Research results are as follows:
1. The process of teaching and learning grammar which can improve grammar mastery through
problem solving technique implemented in this reserch is challanginng, makes the students
active, think critically, and gradually make the students become autonomous learners, and all
of these process give impact to improvement of the learning result.
2. The results in grammar mastery improve. Based on the action which has been done from
cycle 1 to cycle 3, it is seen that the results of students‘ mastery in teaching grammar through
problem solving technique varied within the three cycles of different instructional activities
conducted. The indicators are seen from the pre- to post-test results of each cycle. The results
of grammar mastery through classical instructional activities improved from 28.53 to 67.60.
In group discussion activities the improvement is from 69.30 to 77.13. Meanwhile, the
improvement is seen from 77.06 to 83.23 in pair work instructional activities. This result can
be seen in the following table.
Table 1
The Comparison of the Mean in Grammar Post-Test in Cycle I, Cycle II, and Cycle III
Diagram 1
The Comparison of the mean in Grammar Post-Test in Cycle I, Cycle II, and Cycle III
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5. CONCLUSIONS
Based on all of the above illustrations it can be concluded as follows: Teaching and
learning process that can improve grammar mastery of the students in Education Study Program at
Language and Art Faculty in State University of Padang can be done by implementing problem
solving technique. In brief, from process point of view, this technique is challanginng, makes the
students active, think critically, and gradually make the students become autonomous learners, and
all of these process give impact to improvement of the learning result. From the result point of view,
the results of students‘ mastery in teaching grammar through problem solving technique varied
within the three cycles of different instructional activities conducted. The implementation of problem
solving technique which is done classically, in groups, and in pairs give good effect in improving
learning result.
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Abstract
Students of multilingual speakers need a good course book to help them improve their performance
in English language. A good course book means a book that can fulfill student‘s needs as well as
relevant with the curriculum of the course. From need and situation analysis, it was found that,
Politani students need a book which is interesting and communicative. Unfortunately, the present
course book does not fulfill their needs. Aside from that, the present course book was also not
relevant with the curriculum used. As the result, most of students have a poor performance in
English. They have difficulty in using English as means of communication. On the basis of these
phenomena, an R and D research was conducted by using four-D model. This model consists of
define, design, develop and disseminate stages. Due to limited time, in this research, disseminate
stage was not conducted. The aim of the research is to produce a new course book which was
designed by using Task-Based Approach. This approach is considered to be one of communicative
approaches. The book was designed to be used by semester II student of Food Crops study program.
The result of the research shows that the book is valid and practical to be used for students of
semester II Food Crops study program at Politani.
1. INTRODUCTION
Course book continues to play an important role in English language teaching. For teachers,
it helps them control teaching and learning process. Meanwhile, for students, it becomes a valuable
tool in guiding them learning English language. Therefore, the use of course book in a language
classroom is something obligatory. There are three kinds of course books commonly used in a
language classroom. The first kind and which is globally used is commercial or global course book.
Another kind is adapted course book. Then, the last one is teacher made course book. Any kind of
course book will be possible to be used in a language classroom so long as it fits with the curriculum
of the course, students‘ level, age, need and interest.
In Polytechnic of Agriculture, teacher made course book is used in their English course. The
book is expected to help Politani students as multilingual speakers to communicate in English.
Unfortunately, the use of the book does not seem to be effective in increasing students‘ performance
in English. Data from 2009-2010 showed that more than 50% students from four study programs in
Food Crops Department got C for English subject. In addition to it, based on the interview conducted
to the students and the English lecturers at Politani, it was found that both the students as well as the
lecturers did not satisfy with the old course book. The students expected for more helpful, interesting,
communicative, and easy to learn course book while the lecturers were unsatisfied with the content
and the way the materials were presented in the course book. Besides, the course book was felt to be
irrelevant with the curriculum of Politani.
In support of this, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) assert that course book or material
encourages learners to learn, helps organize teaching and learning process, and provides models of
correct and appropriate language use. It implies that when the course book used does not encourage
learners to learn, does not help lecturers organize teaching and learning process, and does not provide
students with appropriate models of language use, students may have poor performance in English
language.
In the case of fulfilling the students‘ expectation for having a communicative course book, a
Task-Based approach is going to be used. Task-Based Approach (TBA) is a teaching framework
which promotes the use of authentic materials by focusing classroom activities around the
completion of tasks. The focus of this approach is on exposing students to real life communication.
Richards and Rodgers (2004) state that in Task-Based Approach, task are used as the main unit for
planning and instruction. It implies that by using TBA, teacher plans kinds of tasks that will foster
their students to a better comprehension on English language and uses tasks as a mean to deliver the
language features ought to be learned as well.
Furthermore, the use of Task-Based Approach is to enable students to communicate fluently
in the target language in real life communication. Hongkong Ministry of Education (1999:41) states
the more specific aim of Task-Based Approach as giving opportunities for learners to negotiate
meaning through speaking and writing activities by using authentic, practical and functional features
of language. It is obvious then that the ultimate objective of TBA is to guide students to have a
meaningful communication through their performance on some tasks which at the end will have
effect in increasing their speaking, reading, listening and writing skills.
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Since course book is one of elements in English language teaching, it tends to cover many
things. Cambridge University Press (1996) proposes some things to be covered by a course book.
They are pronunciation practice, introduction of new vocabulary and practice, grammar explanation
and practice, recordings for listening practice, listening and speaking communicative tasks,
mixed-skills communicative tasks, short and long reading texts, dictionary work, review of
previously learnt material, and some entertaining or fun activities. Although a course book can cover
things mentioned above. Some of the book might reduce some things such as pronunciation practice
and previously learnt material as well as add another thing if necessary.
2.Course Book Development
The procedure of materials development, in this case course book development, includes the
design, implementation, and evaluation of language teaching materials. Before designing materials,
course book developer needs to do need analysis and situation analysis (environment analysis). Need
analysis is related to the student‘s needs meanwhile situation analysis concerns the environment
where the course book is going to be used. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) divide needs into target
needs and situation needs. Target needs can look at necessities (what is necessary in the learner‘s use
of language, lacks (what do the learner‘s lacks), and wants (what do the learner wish to learn). The
target needs can be analysed by using interview, questionnaire and checklist.
Besides need analysis, environment analysis is also of importance to be conducted in the
process of materials development. In Tessmer words (1990), environment analysis involves looking
at the factors that will have strong effect on decisions of the goal of the course, what to include on the
course and how to teach and assess it. Environment analysis includes student‘s background,
lecturer‘s profile and facilities in the college.
The procedure of materials development is usually reflected in the framework used. There
are many frameworks offered by researchers related to materials development. Dick and Carey
(1990) suggest ten components of the system approach model namely identify an instructional goal,
conduct an instructional analysis, identify entry behavior and characteristics, write performance
objectives, develop and/or select instructional materials, design and conduct the formative
evaluation, revise instruction, and conduct summative evaluation. Unlike Dick and Carey,
Hutchinson and Waters (1989: 90-94) offer four approaches of course design process. They are a
language-centered approach, a skill-centered approach, a learning-centered approach, and post hoc
approach.
For this research framework from Jolly and Bolitho is going to be used. This framework is
proven to be useful, easy to follow because it gives a step by step process of material‘s writing. Jolly
and Bolitho (1998) formulate the framework in a diagram as follows:
First, teacher identifies the need of the students and the problem they face in teaching and
learning process. Then, teacher explores and decides what kind of language function and skills that
the learner is going to need. After that, the suitable material or context is looked for followed by
finding appropriate exercises and tasks with. After the exercises have been decided, the performance
of the course book should be considered, the lay out, the type size, and the visuals are also important.
As soon as the book is fully written, the use of it is observed and evaluated whether the book has met
the instructional objective or not and whether the course book is practical enough to be used or not.
According to Sukardi (2009:52), practicality of a course book has some indicators such as easy to be
used, easy to be understood by other lecturers and easy to get. By using the criteria, it will be easy to
determine whether the course book is effective enough to be used or not.
3. Task-Based Approach
Task-Based approach is an approach that promotes the use of task in assisting students
acquiring English language. Through task students are encouraged to communicate in English.
Richards (2001), specifically defines Task-Based approach as an approach which is based on the use
of tasks as the core unit and planning instruction in language teaching.
As an approach, task-based has certain characteristics. Nunan (1991: 279) outlines five
characteristics of a task-based approach to language learning:1) an emphasis on learning to
communicate through interaction in the target language. By studying through interaction, students
will get some benefit such as proposed by Nation (1989). The benefits are group work provides
opportunity for learners to get exposure to English, allow students to develop fluency in the use of
language features that they have already learned and help them to learn communicative strategies,2)
the introduction of authentic texts (teaching materials) into the learning situation, 3) the provision of
opportunities for learners to focus not only on language, but also on the learning process itself, 4) an
enhancement of the learner‘s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to
classroom learning, 5) an attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation
outside the classroom. Clearly, when classroom activities posses the characteristics, the teacher can
be said to have applied task-based approach in their teaching.
There are some perspectives about task. Nunan (1989: 10) views the task as ―a piece of
classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting
in the target language while theirattention is principally focused on meaning rather than form. The
task should also have a sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act on
its own right‖
In line with Nunan, task is defined by Willis (1996:23) as activities where the target language
is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve outcome. Meanwhile,
Ellis (2003) proposes task as a work plan that requires learners to process language pragmatically in
order to achieve outcome that can be evaluated in terms of content rather than language. In short, task
can be regarded as an activity which is designed by teacher to be completed by learner in a language
classroom. The focus of the task is not on the language being used or the form of the language but on
how and in what context the language is used or the meaning of the language. Furthermore, the aim of
the task is to help learners achieve their communicative purposes or to help learner convey their
message in certain communicative setting.
4. The Design of Task-Based English Course Book
The design of task based English course book adopts Willis‘ framework (1996) as the
framework is complete and systematic. All language skills are to be included with more emphasis on
speaking skill. The following is the phases of Willis‘ framework in course book design.
Pre-task
Introduction to topic and task
Teacher explores the topic with the class, highlights useful words and phrases, helps
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students understand task instructions and prepare. Students may hear a recording of others
doing a similar task
Task cycle
Task Planning Report
Students do the task, in pairs or Students prepare to Some groups present their
small groups. Teacher monitors report to the whole class reports to the class, or
from a distance (orally or in writing) exchange written reports,
how they did the task, and compare results
what they decided or
discovered
Students may now hear a recording of others doing a similar task and compare how they all
did it
Language Focus
Analysis Practice
Students examine and discuss specific Teacher conducts practice of new words,
features of the text or transcript of the phrases and patterns occurring in the data,
recording either during or after the analysis
To make it more practical, this study is also going to adopt the model of unit structure which is
used by Jianbin and Yue (2013) in designing their task-based course book.
a. Small story/eye-catching
pictures/interesting video or
Section A-1
records…
Lead-in
b. Aim: introduce background, arouse
interest
Repetition/matching/sentence
Section C-2 completion/memory challenge…
Language Practice Aim: consolidate knowledge,
reinforce language forms
5. RESEARCH METHOD
The type of the research is Research and Development (R&D). Borg and Gall (1983) explain
Research and Development or Educational Research and Development as ―a process used to develop
and validate educational products‖. Educational product to be developed in this study is a course
book which is based on Task-Based Approach.
1. Research Procedure
For this study, four-D is used as a model of instructional development. Four-D model is a
model proposed by Thiagarajan (1994). This model comprises of four stages namely (1) Define, (2)
Design, (3) Develop, and (4) Disseminate. This study only focuses on define, design and develop
phases meanwhile disseminate is not going to be conducted as it takes a long time and requires lots of
sample. The procedure by using this model is as follows:
1. Define
In this phase, two kinds of analysis were conducted. They are need analysis and situation
analysis.
a. Need analysis
In need analysis, a questionnaire was distributed to semester II students of Food Crops study
program at Politani and English lecturers. According to Nation and Macalister (2010), need analysis
is conducted to find the answer to the students‘ necessities, lacks and wants. In this study, need
analysis were conducted to find out the needs of students and lecturers‘ on English teaching material.
b. Situational analysis
In situation analysis, a questionnaire was also distributed to students of semester II and
English lecturer. The purpose of the analysis is to find out the situation or environment where the
course book is going to be used. This analysis covers analysis of student‘s profile, analysis of English
lecturer‘s profile, analysis of facilities at Politani related to English teaching, analysis of syllabus,
analysis of course book, and analysis of literature.
2. Design
The result of defining phase is going to be used in designing phase. The course book is
written for 16 (sixteen) meetings. Each chapter is described in a theme and each meeting focuses on
certain language function. Classroom activities are organized based on Task-Based Approach by
using Willis framework and model of unit structure proposed by Jianbin and Yue.
3. Develop
This phase concerns with validation and practicality of the course book.
a. Validation
There are two kinds of validation used in this study. They are:
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1. Content validation, whether or not the course book designed is relevant to the syllabus of
English for semester II and to Task-Based principle
2. Construct validation, whether or not the component of the course book is relevant to the
indicators stated
To validate the course book, expert judgment in related field is needed. In this study, the Task-Based
course book is going to be validated by Dr. Desmawati Rajab, M.Pd, and Dr. Lely Refnita, M.Pd.
Their opinions are obtained through discussion and the activity of filling in the form of course book
validation.
b. Practicality
To find out the course book‘s practicality, observation and interview are performed in try
out. The try out itself was conducted to one class of semester II students of Food Crop study program
in Politani for 3 (three meetings). Revision is conducted when the course book has not been
considered to be valid and practical. Some aspects of course book practicality are listed in the
following table:
3. Data
There are two kinds of data in this study:
1. Qualitative data
Qualitative data are obtained from observation sheet, interview result, and textbook evaluation
checklist.
2. Quantitative data
Quantitative data are obtained from the questionnaire of need analysis, situation analysis and
validation form.
4. Instrumentation
There are 4 (four) kinds of instrument used in this study: (1) questionnaire (2) interview, (3)
observation, 4) validation, and (5) textbook evaluation checklist.
1. Questionnaire
Need analysis questionnaire measures student‘s needs on English teaching materials
through three indicators namely student‘s perception, problem and expectation. Meanwhile, situation
analysis questionnaire measures situation of English teaching at Politani from lecturer‘s profile,
student‘s profile and facilities of English teaching.
Both questionnaires contain close and open-ended questions. The respondent of the
questionnaire was 50 students of Food Crops study program.
2. Interview
In this study, semi structured interview was conducted. Two students were interviewed
after try out. One student is representing students with high academic achievement in English subject
while the other one is representing students with low academic achievement. There are 4 (four)
indicators of the interview guidance namely the materials of the course book, the presentation, the
language use, and the writing mechanics of the book. The purpose of the interview is to find out the
practicality of the course book in the classroom.
3. Observation
Observation can be used for research data collection. In this study, the kind of
observation used was a non-participant observation with in-class observation notes technique.
Observer observed classroom activity in try out by filling in observation form. The observer for this
study was Fadilla Taslim, M.Pd. from STKIP Abdi Pendidikan Payakumbuh.
4. Validation
Validation was conducted by experts in English language teaching. Validators in this
study can be seen in the following table.
Table 5: List of validators
No. Item Validators
1. Questionnaire Dr. Desmawati Rajab, M.Pd.
Dr. YenniRozimela, M.Ed,
Phd.
2. Course book Dr. Desmawati Rajab, M.Pd.
Dr. Lely Refnita, M.Pd.
3. Interview guidance Dr. Desmawati Rajab, M.Pd.
4. Observation form Dr. Desmawati Rajab, M.Pd.
The purpose of validation is to see the validity of the instruments and the course book before
used.
1. Textbook Evaluation Checklist
Textbook evaluation checklist is used to see the quality of the old course book. The
criteria used in this checklist were adapted from the criteria of textbook evaluation checklist
developed by Dr. Montasser Abdul Wahab checklist. The book was evaluated from four aspects
namely its performance, learning objectives, learning teaching content, and language skills.
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P = _f_ x 100%
N
Then, data were presented in the form of chart. Meanwhile, quantitative data from
validation checklist was first presented in table. Then, the following formula was used to
count the mean:
(Muliyardi, 2006:82)
with
R = mean of validator judgement
Vi = score of validator judgment
n = number of validator
to decide the validity of the course book, the following criteria is used :
a. If mean is > 3,20 then course book is very valid
b. If 2,40 < mean ≤ 3,20 then course book is valid
c. If 1,60 < mean ≤ 2,40 then course book is valid enough
d. If 0,80 < mean ≤ 1,60 then course book is not really valid
e. If mean ≤ 0,80 then course book is not valid
2. Qualitative data
Data from interview were analyzed by following step by step data analysis proposed by
Miles and Huberman (1994). First, the recording is listened and transcribed. Second, transcript
is read several times to get familiar with what is being said. Third, coding is conducted by
identifying some themes. Fourth, a summary of coded data is written. Fifth, a memo is written
which ties together the themes.
Data from observation are analyzed descriptively. Student‘s and lecturer‘s activity
in try out were described based on the observation form filled by the observer. Meanwhile, data
from textbook evaluation checklist were presented in the form of table based on each indicator
of textbook evaluation checklist.
4. DISCUSSION
From situation analysis it was found that majority of the students prefer to study through
interaction. Unfortunately, the old course book did not really engage students to interact with each
other. Learning activities in the book are grammar exercises which do not require student to do
communication with their friends. Aside from that, lecturers come from non-educational
background. That is why the course book they produced did not fulfill students and lecturer‘s needs.
The findings also show that the structural syllabus which is used in English II course does not help
students to possess communicative ability. In structural syllabus, the materials are organized without
giving the social context where the language will occur. As the result, students only memorize certain
grammatical pattern without understanding where and when to use it for communication. Unlike
structural syllabus, Task-Based syllabus encourages students to do active communication. In this
syllabus, materials are organized in a series of tasks which should be accomplished by the students.
The tasks itself simulate real-life communication that can help students to communicate in real-life
situation.
From need analysis the findings show that Politani students need English a course book
which can help them improve their speaking skill. This skill is believed to help them get a good job
after graduating. In addition to it, they also need a book with materials that can connect them with
their life experience. Unfortunately, the old course book does not improve students‘ speaking skill.
Learning activities in the book do not require students to speak a lot. Even though students are
provided with speaking activity, the activity does not resemble real-life communication. In other
words, the book does not connect students with their life experience as individual or as agricultural
students. As the result, students have difficulty in communicating which is admitted by the students
themselves. However, having difficulty in communicating may limit their chances to get a good job
which becomes their ultimate goal of learning English. To make it worse, the old course book is not
interesting according to the majority of the students because it lacks of interesting visuals in it.
The needs of the students above can be met by applying Task-Based Approach in designing
the new course book. This approach offers students opportunity to improve their speaking skill
through the completion of series of tasks. In each phases of TBA students are required to speak, to
reason and to express their opinion. Not only that, they also have to write their opinion before
conducting presentation. The ability of speaking and writing are sufficient enough to support their
job searching after graduating.
In terms of the materials, TBA promotes the use of materials that are closely related to the
students‘ experience. In line with this, Nunan asserts that TBA attempts to link classroom language
learning with language activation outside the classroom (1991:279). In other words, the language
which is learned in the classroom is the language which is closely related with their daily life and
their life as agricultural students.
In terms of the performance of the course book, TBA promotes the use of many visuals in
order to attract students‘ attention or trigger students to think before coming to discussion. Students
are also stimulated to use visuals to support their presentation.
Based on the findings, the form of English course book needed by the students has the
following criteria. First, the performance is interesting, the objective of each unit is practical and
applicable, the content of the book combine general and agricultural knowledge and the focus of the
language skill is speaking and reading. Since the old course book does not fulfill those criteria, the
Task-Based course book fulfills those criteria in the following ways.
Task-Based course book uses interesting pictures related to Politani and agriculture as the
cover of the book. Visuals are provided in the content of the book to support students‘ understanding
on the material. Language functions are used as the objective of each unit. At the end of each unit
students are expected to be able to use certain language function such as ‗offering help‘ instead of
being able to make ‗simple sentence‘. This kind of objective is more practical and can be directly
applied in their life. Although their environment does not require them to speak English,
understanding language functions and when to use it will help them to understand communication
performed by native speakers in media such as television and internet. Thus, it helps building their
speaking skill.
In terms of the content of the book, TBA course book uses reading materials which are
related to Politani students. Since agriculture covers horticulture, animal husbandry, agribusiness,
food crops and management food production, the materials are not far from those fields. At the end of
the course book, students are provided with materials which are not related to agriculture. The
materials are how to do public speaking and how to make application letter. Those materials are
expected to prepare them to get a job after graduating.
In terms of language skill, learning activities in TBA course book engage students more on
speaking and reading. Below is the description of how activities are organized around each phases. In
pre-task, activities are started with speaking for example in the form of brainstorming, then reading
and vocabulary. Activity in pre-task is then ended up with speaking in which students do simulation
of how to conduct the task or how to use the expression that they will use in task phase. Meanwhile,
in task phase, the activity is started with writing activity followed by speaking in which students do
presentation in front of the class in group or in pairs. In post-task, students are given grammar
exercises which are accompanied by speaking or reading activities. The organization of learning
activities in this book shows that TBA also pays attention to grammar as the basic knowledge for
communication.
Findings related to the expert judgment on the design of Task-Based English course book
show that the book is very valid in four components of validation namely the content, the language
understanding, the presentation and the writing mechanics. The book was designed by considering
the needs of the students as well as taking consideration of the situation where the book is going to be
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used. This is in line with Hutchinson and Waters‘ (1987) opinion that in ESP all decisions as to
content and method are based on the learner‘s reason for learning. Thus, the design of Task-Based
English course book is also based on the learner‘s reason for learning.
Findings about the practicality of Task-Based English course book show that the book is
practical to be used for semester II students of Food Crop study program at Politani. Both students
from high level and low level of competency in English subject share the same opinion that the book
is interesting, easy to be used and easy to get. This is in line with Sukardi criteria of a practical course
book (2009:52). Although students consider the book interesting, student from low level of
competency still have problem in task phase because they are lack of vocabulary to do presentation.
5. CONCLUSION
Based on the findings and discussion, several things can be concluded. First, the situation of
English teaching at Politani shows that lecturers did not have sufficient educational background,
students did not have a good achievement, and the curriculum did not support students to have
communicative competence in English. Second, students as well as lecturers need a course book
which is focused on improving student‘s communicative skill in this case speaking skill. In other
words, a course book which requires them to have interaction while communicating. Third, a new
course book has been developed by using Task-Based Approach in which all activities in the book is
organized around tasks. The book has been tried out and positive feed-back has been elicited from the
students. Fourth, expert judgments on Task-Based course book have proven that the book is valid in
four components in validation checklist. And the last one, the book is considered to be practical based
on the observation and interview conducted to the students.
REFERENCES
Borg & Gall. Educational Research, An Introduction. New York and London: Longman Inc.
1983.
Dick, W and Carey, L. 1990. The Systematic Design of Instruction.Third Edition. Tallahassee:
Harper Collins Publishers.
Ellis, R. Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford: Oxford University
Press. 2003.
Hutchinson and Waters. English for Specific Purposes. A Learning-Centred Approach. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. 1987.
J Huang, Y Zhao. The Design of Task-based College English Coursebooks: A study from the
perspective of task-based language teaching. Retrieved February 13th, 2014, from
http://www.r-cube.ritsumei.ac.jp. 2013.
Jolly, D., & Bolitho. R. A Framework for Materials Writing. In Brian Tomlinson (Ed.)
Materials Development in Language Teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press.
1998.
Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. M. Qualitative Data Analysis: an Expanded Sourcebook.
Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage. 1994.
Muliyardi. Pengembangan Model Pembelajaran Matematika Menggunakan Komik di Kelas 1
Sekolah Dasar. Disertasi tidak diterbitkan. Surabaya: Universitas Negeri Surabaya. 2006.
Nation and Macalister. Language Curriculum Design. New York and London: Routledge. 2010.
Nunan, David. Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Sydney: Cambridge
University Press. 1989.
Nunan, David. Language Teaching Methodology. Prentice Hall. 1991.
Prucha, J. Modernipedagogika.Praha: Portal. 1997.
Sukardi. Metodologi Penelitian Pendidikan (Kompetensi dan Praktiknya. Jakarta: Bumi
Aksara. 2009.
Tomlinson, Brian. Materials Development in Language Teaching. United Kingdom: Cambridge
University Press. 1998.
Ur, Penny. A Course in Language Teaching: practice and theory. United Kingdom: Cambridge
University Press. 1996.
Willis, Jane. A Framework for Task-Based Learning. Italy: Longman. 1996.
Abstract
Coherence is one of the characteristic of good abstract that represent the whole content of research
article in order to be able to show what messages want to be expressed. This study investigated the
English abstract International conference in applied linguistisc written by Indonesian speaker in its
coherence by analyzing the theme and rheme. This study focuses on (1) identifying thematic
progressions which are dominantly used in 2015 International conference article abstracts written by
non-native speaker of English (2) finding out coherences‘ quality of the research article abstract
section in 2105 International Conference article abstracts in applied linguistic based on thematic
progression. This study was designed by using descriptive qualitative with content anlysis approach.
The results show that Zig Zag (Simple Linear) pattern in thematic progression is dominantly used in
International Conference Article Abstract then followed by reitaration (Constant) theme, and the last
Multiple (Split) pattern. None of the abstracts use Derived TP pattern. Most of the research article
abstracts section in International Conference abstracts in applied linguistic have fair quality, just a
few included to less quality, none of them was catagorized as good and poor quality. It can be
concluded that 2015 International conference article abstracts in applied linguistisc written by
Indonesian speakers can be catagorized as good abstract based on their coherence.
1. INTRODUCTION
Abstract is one of the important parts or sections of an academic writing due to the fact that it
is a kind of short condensed text to represent the whole text or overview of a research article it is
located in the first section of research article. This is the point that determines whether readers will
continue to read the next section or not. It is important for the researcher to write the abstract
interesting in order to make the reader want to continue to read the abstract (Belcher, 2009).
Therefore, a good abstract must be created by the writers as worth as the whole content of research
article in order to be able to represent what messages want to be expressed in the abstract. Abstract
lets the readers who may be interested in the paper to quickly decide whether it is relevant to their
purposes and whether they need to read the whole paper.One the characteristics of good abstract is its
coherence. Writing an abstract with its coherence is not only difficult for university student but also
hard for lecturers. Creating a coherent and cohesive academic writing is also complicated for students
at the tertiary level. In fact, most university students would agree that academic writing
particularly writing a research thesis is the hardest task to complete (Evans & Gruba, 2002;
Emilia, 2008). Meanwhile, several well-established researches recommends that analyzing students‘
writing with the emphasis on meaning and function, Theme-Rheme, and textual metafunction of
text have provided an effective framework for identifying coherence in students‘ texts (Vande
Kopple, 1991; Bloor & Bloor, 1992; Eggins, 2004; Schleppegrell, 2004, 2009; Christie & Dreyfus,
2007; Wang, 2007). As a result, it has been suggested that analysis on textual coherence using
Theme Rheme progression can be useful for academic writing
Many researchers had analyzed about abstract in many aspect. Safnil (2014) conducted the
Rhetorical of abstract. According to Safnil (2014) reviewed clearly about many researchers‘ ideas
about rhetorical of abstract. In his Research Article stated that there are four possible moves of
abstracts (problem, aims, method, and results), only three are considered compulsory (aims, method
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and results) while problem is optional. In his research article, he focused to analyze social-humanity
field. On the contrarty, the researcher takes another field, non-native speaker of English, to analyze in
this research. Similar idea, Bathia suggests that an abstract consist four aspect of research; they are
1) the purpose, 2) the method, 3) the results, and 4) the conclusion. In addition, it should present the
purpose of the work to the reader and also to encourage the reading of the complete work. Scientific
texts (papers, reports, theses, etc.) have a well-defined structure that can be categorized as:
Introduction, Development, and Conclusion (Safnil, 2014; Swales, 1990)
Another researcher had conducted the coherence analysis in another section of research
article. With regard to students‘ ability to create a coherent and cohesive writing, several studies have
been conducted to investigate the coherence and cohesiveness in students‘ academic writing. One of
them is conducted by Emilia et al (2008 and 2010) that reports students‘ difficulties in writing discussion
chapter of a research thesis coherently and critically. To overcome the problem, Emilia proposes a
teaching program with a view to nurture students‘ ability in writing a discussion chapter so that they
have the capability in writing a thesis critically and coherently.
Another study which focuses on coherence and cohesiveness in students‘ academic writing is
also conducted by Watson, Khongput, and Darawasang (2007). They found that student‘s essays
lack coherence and cohesion and suggested to write comments, feedback, or side notes on students‘
academic essay particularly to guide the students in recognizing the lack of coherence and
cohesion in their essays.
The relevant study by Souza and Feltrim (2011) which was conducted an analysis of textual
coherence in academic abstracts written in Portuguese. The main purpose of their work is to propose
four dimensions of analysis concerning textual coherence in academic abstracts. These dimensions
take into consideration the rhetorical structure of abstracts, as proposed by Feltrim et al (2003).
abstracts from Bachelor theses written in Brazilian Portuguese were analysed according to the
proposed dimensions and the results for each of them were presented. By taking into account the
manual analysis performed on the corpus, Feltrim observed that from the four proposed dimensions,
at least three can be automated by means of computational resources: Dimension Title, Dimension
Purpose and Dimension Gap-Background. In these three dimensions, he have observed the existence
of patterns concerning the rhetorical structure and aspects of coherence, he differently from the
fourth dimension, Dimension Linearity-break. He observed in Dimension Title that the sentences
with a higher semantic relationship with the title of an abstract were the sentences of Purpose
category. Moreover, he observed problems of coherence in abstracts in which the relationship of the
title and the sentences of the Purpose are low. Both categories of sentences, title and Purpose,
summarize the main purpose of the work, each in its proportion and, therefore, a high relationship
between these sentences is expected to led to a greater level of coherence.
The importance of academic writing in International conference is important for the
researchers because it is a medium for research article publication in academic writing. It is also a
medium for them to convey their ideas and to share with another researchers. One of them is
Teaching English as a Foreign Language in Indonesia (TEFLIN). TEFLIN publish the research in
international area, so it must be have some characteristic to pass the selection of TEFLIN itself, one
of them is the coherence of the text. Thus, based on the previous study had been done, there are many
researchers had conducted the research about the analysis of abstract in other aspect and conducted the
coherence analysis in other aspect of research article. So, it is the main reason for the researcher to
analyze coherence in abstracts especially in International conference article in applied linguistisc
written by Indonesian speaker espeially in TELFIN.
generic coherence and the inner context of text is known as situational or registerial coherence (Butt
et al, 2000; Eggins, 2004). Context of culture or generic coherence refers to a possible meaning that
represents and is influenced by its broader socio-cultural environment, such as ethnic group,
institution, ideology, or social convention or in other words a generic coherence occurs in a
particular communicative context, event, or genre. This means that generic coherence is used to
identify its social purpose from the clauses or the coherence properties included in the text (Butt et al,
2000; Eggins, 2004).
The latter term, situational or registerial coherence refers to the language use in a more
specific situation or the situation where the text occurs, accordingly; the situation shapes the
function and the meaning of the text (Butt et al, 2000; Eggins, 2004). In terms of the situational or
registerial context of coherence, Eggins (2004: 29) describes three different systems of grammar: field,
mode, and tenor system. Field system is used to point out the language used to talk about what is
happening, what will happen, and what has happened. Mode system reflects the role of language that
is employed in the interaction, and tenor system associates with the role of relationship between the
interactants (Butt et al, 2000; Eggins, 2004).
As explained above, the three parameters of context of situation (field, tenor, and mode)
affect linguistic choices of the speaker or writer in the sense that these parameters reflect major
functions of language and these functions manifest in different grammatical features of text (Butt et al
2000, Eggins, 2004). The three parameters above are instilled in the three distinct modes of
meaning:1) ideational, 2) interpersonal, and 3) textual. These three functions are then known as the
linguistic system of metafunctions which represent different purposes in the development of the
text ( Butt et al, 2000; Eggins, 2004; Halliday and Matthiessen, 2004; Emilia, 2010).
Theme and Rheme system is a basic form, a source for organizing and constructing the
clause message, and also for assigning textual prominence to elements within the clauses in
textual organization (Halliday, 1983; Matthiessen, 1992). Thus, by organizing and examining the
patterns Theme and Rheme, the meaning of the whole text and how clauses are organized or
combined can be understood. With regard to Theme and Rheme as the clause message system, Halliday
and Matthiessen (2004) define the practical implementation of Theme and Rheme in the sentences.
Sentence may be divided in terms of given information (Theme) and new information (Rheme) which
means Theme typically holds several old or given information and provides particular setting as a
mean to keep the contextual unity in the sentences. Furthermore, Halliday (1994: 39) elaborates that
Theme is what the speaker has in mind to start with and also organizes the clause as message,
but the position is not what defines the Theme: it is a mean which realizes the function of the
Theme.
In addition, McCarthy (1990: 55) explains that Theme is noun (phrase) that signal the
topic in the sentence, yet, do not tell about the rest of clause or topic, and what comes after Theme
or the rest of the clause is known as Rheme or comment that develops the topic or Theme. Gerot
and Wignell (1997: 103) also define Theme as an element which comes first in the clause and
commonly immediately precedes the main verb of the clause and Rheme as the element which
includes the main verb and all other remaining constituents of the sentences.
There are three different types of Theme: topical (experiential), interpersonal, and textual
element (Emilia, 2010). Topical element of the clause is to which a transitivity function can be
assigned or the first element of transitivity in the clause (Gerot and Wignell, 1994: 132; Eggins, 2004:
32). According to Martin, Matthiessen, and Painter (1997: 22), topical (ideational) Theme can be
recognized as the first element in the clause which expresses kinds of representational meaning that
attaches a transitivity role such as actor, behaver, senser, carrier, or circumstance. In other words,
topical or ideational Theme is technically a function from the transitivity structure of the clause and
it might be a participant, process, or circumstance in the first element of the clause. Thus, to consider
whether the first Theme is topical, it should fulfill the slot that functions as participant, process, or
circumstance (Butt et al, 2000: 136). .
Interpersonal Theme is when a constituent is labeled as a mood in the beginning of a
clause Interpersonal Theme deals with modal/comment, adjunct, finite verbal operator in yes/no
interrogative, mood, polarity or any combination of vocatives or personal names The constituents
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that can function as interpersonal Themes are: The finite, Modal adjunct as in Mood Adjunct and
Comment adjunct, Mood Adjunct, Vocative Adjunct, and Wh Elements or Polarity Adjunct. (Martin,
Matthiessen, and Painter, 1997; Eggins, 2004; Emilia, 2010).
Textual Theme is the constituents which do important cohesive work in relating clause to its
context (Eggins, 2004). The Textual Theme covers continuatives (small set of discourse items
which signal that a new move is beginning such as: yes, no, oh), structural elements (coordinates
and subordinates), conjunction, and conjunctive adjunct which relate the clause to the preceding text
(e.g., in other words). In addition, the use of Textual Theme such as conjunction and the like indicates
that the text is highly written (Emilia, 2010). In particular, Textual Theme is important in structuring
the texts because the Theme operates at sentence or clause complex level (Gerot and Wignell, 1994).
According to Martin, Matthiessen, and Painter (1997: 25), Textual Themes are: Structural
Conjunction (Linking two clauses in a coordinating relation or marking one clause as dependent on
another), Conjunctives (Providing a cohesive link back to previous discourse), Continuative (continuity
adjunct as Theme and the commonest continuity items).
Thematic progression (TP) as a theory was first propounded by Frantisek Danes in1974, who
argue that ‗the paragraph is a content unit delimited by its boundaries and its inner coherence‘. Thematic
progression is Theme Rheme development employed in the text to organize the ideas through the
Theme which is employed in the clauses (Butt et al, 2001: 134). Thus, how thematic elements succeed
each other can be observed through its development pattern (Eggins, 1994: 324). Furthermore, thematic
progression is a important aspect to trace the global flow of information throughout the text. In
addition,Eggins (2004:326) divided them into three patterns are Theme reiteration, Zigzag pattern, and
Multiple Rheme pattern.
In the reiteration pattern, the same element appears repeatedly and is used frequently as
a starting point of message in the sentences, but is rarely used to develop the Rheme. However, the
Theme reiteration is used to create a strong topical focus (Eggins, 2004). The Zigzag pattern ties a
text with a sense of continuous development because new information in the preceding clause
becomes the starting point of the following clause (Vande Kopple, 1991; Eggins, 2004; Emilia, 2005;
Christie and Dreyfus, 2007). The third pattern is multiple - Rheme pattern. This pattern occurs when
the Theme of one clause introduces a number of different pieces of information then the different
pieces of information are written as the Theme in following clause in sequence paragraph in the text
(Eggins, 2004: 325). The multiple Rheme pattern can be used to organize a paragraph, but this pattern
can also occur across paragraphs.
Additionally, Danes in 1974 divided Thematic Progression into four main patterns: first, Zig
Zag theme contains two or more sentences in which each rheme becomes the theme in next sentence.
Second, constant theme which he also referred to as theme reitaration. In this, (theme reitaration or
constant theme) pattern is picked up and repeated at the beginning of next clause, signaling that each
clause will have something to say about the theme. Thus, it consists of two or more sentences with the
same theme. Third is Multiple (Split) pattern. It has a certain rheme which is divided or split into two or
more parts, each of which is developed separately as the theme of the following sentences. The last is TP
with derived T‘s which is ―hypertheme‖ develops individually different theme of each sentences. The
last,to know how coherence‘s quality in International Conference abstract, the researcher use The
Parameter of Coherence Proposed by Eggins.
This research will reveal 2 questions. The first is the types of thematic progression pattern are
dominantly applied in 2015 International conference article abstracts in applied linguistisc written by
Indonesian speaker. The second is the coherence‘s quality of the conference abstract section in 2015
International conference article abstracts in applied linguistisc written by Indonesian speaker.
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This research used descriptive qualitative method. The researcher will describe the
coherence of abstract written by Indonesian author‘s research article. According to Gay (2009), a
descriptive research involves collecting data in order to answer questions concerning the current
status of the subject of the study. Moreover, it determines and reports the way things are as the
representative about current condition.Thus, descriptive research is a method to collect the data in the
group of people, an object, a set of condition and other in order to answer questions concerning the
current status of the subject of the study. The analysis of thematic progression is used to answer the
questions in this research. The quality of abstract will be analyzed by using parameter of coherence
proposed by Eggins.
Table 2 presented the data of Thematic Progression was used in International conference of English
abstracts in applied linguistics written by Indonesian writer. In the first position, Zigzag (Simple
Linear) Pattern as the basic pattern of Thematic Progression was applied 89 times or it is about 55%
from 100%. In the second position of single pattern is Continuous (Reiteration) Pattern. It is applied
62 times from 100 abstracts or it is baout 38 %. The last and the less of Thematic Progression was
applied is Multiple (Split) Pattern. It was only appeared 12 times from 100 abstracts. None of
researchers use Derived TP in their abstracts
The example below is the example of Theme Reiteration in the abstract section:
C1 T1 R1
Children are easier to interpret the meaning of a sentence without having to
understand the meaning of each word
C2 T2 R2
children are very creative in using the language
C3 T3 R3
they like to repeat the words
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C4 T4 R4
they do not understand and put these words in their sentences,
C5 T5 R5
children have a good capacity in learning indirectly
C6 T6 R6
and they also have a strong ability to play.
From the example above, the researcher use the same Theme in his abstract. The word ―Children‖
appears three times. It is from T1 to T6. He used the same Theme continuously in his abstract.
Moreover the researchers use ―they‖ as the pronoun or personal reference of children as the subject.
If the Rheme of the abstract have different one to another, the Theme always repeat again and
again. It means the researcher attempted to provide a focus in his/her writing in order to be clear with
the topic being discussed.
Zig Zag pattern can be. Here is the example of zigzag pattern from the International
conference of English abstracts in applied linguistics written by Indonesian speaker.
The example of Zig Zag Pattern.
Clause 1 T1 R1
There are many ways to promote the students to have fun in speaking
class.
Clause 2 T2 R2
One of them is travelport.
Clause 3 T3 R3
Travelport is the collaboration of two words, namely travelling and report.
Clause 4 T4 R4
It needs students to go to the tourism destination at their region.
The example above is taken from abstract 29. It is indicated that the researcher use Zigzag (Simple
Linier) Pattern. It can be seen in the example above that T9 is same with T11. ―lack of knowledge
which part of the articles should be underlined ― as R11 become Theme in clause12. While R12 that
is ― provide some suggestion‖ is become T in clause 13. It is happened again in the next sentence.
The words ―should receive more attention‖ as R13 become T in clause 14. It is important to use
Zigzag pattern in research or academic writing because this is a way make their writing have a
consistent flow of information and to provide logical connection between their writing.
There are new information in the beginning of every clause. Clause 2 shows that the element which is
introduced in the Rheme of first clause is established as a Theme in the following clause 2.
Multiple or Split pattern can be found in International conference of English abstracts in
applied linguistics written by Indonesian speaker. Here is the example of Multiple or Split pattern
from the International conference of English abstracts in applied linguistics written by Indonesian
speaker.
Clause 6 T6 R6
The improvement
of vocabulary significantly comes from noun, adjective, and verb category.
Clause7 T7 R7
The improvement
from pronunciation aspect can be seen from the correct pronunciation of /
ʃn /and / r /.
Clause 8 T8 R8
The improvement of structure can be seen from the use ofadverboffrequency
and past tense verb (V2).
Clause 9 T9 R9
The improvement
of comprehension, student is able to understand some of the
teacher‘s expressions which could not be
understood before.
From the example above ( taken from abstract 7) , it can be described that R5 ―are used as indicator in
assessing the development are vocabulary, pronunciation, structure, fluency, and comprehension‖
introduces a number of different pieces of information, the R5 are written as the Theme in clause 6
until clause 9. ―The improvement of vocabulary ― be the Theme in clause 6, ―The improvement of
pronunciation― becomes the Theme in clause 7, ―The improvement of structure― be the Theme in
clause 8, and ―The improvement of vocabulary ― becomes the Theme in clause 9.
Coherences’ Quality
Coherences‘ quality of the research article abstract section in International Conference
abstracts in applied linguistic is based on thematic progression. The result showed that there are two
coherences‘ quality is indicated in this research. They are fair and less quality. The table below shows
the result of coherences‘ quality of the research article abstract section in International Conference
abstracts in applied linguistic based on thematic progression.
Table 3. The level of coherence in abstracts section
Coherence Quality Frequenc Percentage
y
Good 0 0
Fair 94 94%
Less 6 6%
Poor 0 0
Total 100 100%
In table 3, it is shown that from 100 number of abstract, none of them can be categorized as
good coherences. About 94 abstracts or 94 % of theme can be categorized as fair coherences‘ quality
and only 6 abstracts are included as less coherences‘ quality. None of the abstracts can be categorized
as poor coherences‘ quality. It can be concluded that the coherence quality of 2015 International
Conference article abstract can be categorized as fair coherence quality. Here are some examples of
abstract in the level of fair quality
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Clause 2 T2 R2
Clause 3 T3 R3
Moreover, the way teachers keep abreast with the demands of curriculum and the
test and will be revealed.
From the example above, the researcher use two thematic progressions; Reiteration Pattern
and Zigzag Pattern. This abstract is included in fair quality of abstract because the researcher use
inconstant thematic progression, he change his pattern from Reiteration patter to Zigzag Pattern.
Clause 2 T2 R2
In English for Specific
Purpose (ESP), for example, Internet does not only provide materials that are ready
for use for teaching and learning,
Clause 3 T3 R3
but it also offers such a facility as e-learning into which the
teachers of English can insert or upload their teaching
materials and from which the students can learn those
materials.
Clause 4 T4 R4
To be concerned with
ESP teaching, this paper addresses its discussion on teaching Legal
English (LE) for law students via e-learning provided by
Information Technology Centre at the University of
Jember in the program of Integrated Information System
The example above, is taken from the abstract 4, it can be categorized as less quality of abstract because
the researcher use thematic progression in the middle of the sentences. He used Zigzag pattern in the
second clause. It can be seen that R2 becomes T3 in the third clause.
Zigzag pattern is the dominantly applied by researchers in abstract section. The use of
Zigzag pattern in this abstract may be show that the researchers can built a new Theme based on
the Rheme in the previous clause. This by using Zigzag pattern means the researchers
acknowledged the function of this pattern and have an effort to develop new information in. The
Rheme in Zigzag pattern is developed and became the Theme in the next clause. Butt (2000) also
stated that this Theme can provide focus and moving the topic forward The high usage of this
theme found in the abstract may be equal to what Danes (1974), argues about simple linear pattern is
the basic pattern of thematic progression.
Furthermore, the use of Zigzag pattern is a way to maintain and develop the information in
writing. It is important to use zigzag pattern in research or academic writing because this way make
their writing have a consistent flow of information and to provide logical connection
between their writing. By applying Zigzag pattern, the researcher showed capability to ―build newly
introduced information in its Theme which is derived from the previous Rheme‖ (Eggins, 1994:
325).
Reiteration pattern is the second thematic progression which was applied. This theme used
thematic development that repeatedly make uses the same Theme in the Clause. The repetition
word perhaps indicates that the researcher attempted to provide a focus or subject in his/her writing in
order to be clear with the topic being discussed. However, this strategy prevents the topic development
in the text. The researchers repeatedly use the same unmarked topical element. If the same topical
element is used frequently, it means that the researchers cannot develop the idea. Eggins (2004), said
that the text will not be developed and this makes the information in the text under developed if the
repetition word always appear.
Using different elements or the combination with other elements indicates that the student avoids
―the monotonous repetition‖ (Eggins, 2004). Over usage of this theme may lead the lack of deep
explanation of the ideas introduce as the writer does not expand the information contained in the
Rheme. Multiple or Split pattern can be found in International conference of English abstracts in
applied linguistics written by Indonesian speaker but just a few researchers used this theme. Derived
theme never applied in abstract section. It possibly happened because this Theme is difficult to judge.
The reason for this is still debate on whether derived theme is one type of thematic progression or not.
(McCabe, 1999)
The inconstant or change of using thematic progression in each sentence probably indicate
that the researcher have fair quality of abstract because the use of thematic progression in abstract is
the basic way to indicate how is the coherences‘ quality of the conference abstract section in
International conference of English abstracts in applied linguistics written by Indonesian speaker.
The result showed that there are two coherences‘ qualities are indicated in this research. They are fair
and less quality. By using thematic progression, the writer can analyze the quality of abstract. Fair
quality of abstracts is the most quality in abstract section. It perhaps, the researchers used more than
one thematic progression in one abstract. They did not use constant thematic progression in each
sentence of their abstract. While, less quality happened because of using thematic progression in the
middle of the sentences. Eggins (2004) also stated that there are level of coherence of abstract. One of
them is fair quality which is happened if the type of thematic progression is inconstant or change
from one type to others type.
5. CONCLUSION
The conclusions from this research are taken from the data analysis in From 2015
International conference article abstracts in applied linguistics written Indonesian speaker, the result
indicated that writers have used various types thematic progression patterns while thematic
progression is dominantly applied is Zigzag (Simple Linear) pattern. Then, the quality of abstract in
TEFLIN 2015 almost has fair quality, just a few of them have less quality and none of them has good or
poor quality of abstract.
Finally, it can be concluded that 2015 International conference of article abstracts in applied
linguistics written by Indonesian speaker can be categorized as good abstract based on their
coherence.
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REFERENCES
Bathia, K. V. (2006) The rhetoric of article abstract: a sweep through the literature and a preliminary
study. Journal of Bahasa dan Seni, 43 (2) 174-189. Retrieved October 1, 2015. From
http://sastra.um.ac.id/wp-content/October, 2009.
Belcher, Wendy Laura. Writing Your Journal Article in Twelve Weeks: A Guide Academic
Publishing Success. California: SAGE Publication, 2009. Inc.print
Bloor, M. and Bloor, Thomas. The Practice of Critical Discourse Analysis. London: Longman.
1995.print
Bloor, M.,and Bloor, T. Given and new information in the thematic organization of text: An
application to the teaching of academic writing. Occasional Papers in Systemic Linguistics,
6(1), 33-43. 1992.
Butt, D. G., Lukin, A. et al. Grammar—The First Covert Operation of War.‘Discourse Society. 15:
267-290. 2004.print
Butt, D., Fahey, R., Feez, S., Spinks, S., & Yallop, C. Using Functional Grammar: An Explorer‘s
Guide. Sydney: Southwood Press. 2000. print
Carter-Thomas, S. Thematic networks and types. Asp, ia Reveu du Geras, 23-26, 139-147. 1999
Christie, F., & Dreyfus, S. Letting the secret out: Successful writing in
secondary English. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 30(3), 235-247.
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Coffin, C. Theoretical Approaches to Written Language—A TESOLPerspective. 2001.
Danes, Frantisek. "Functional sentence perspective and the organization of the text." In Danes, Frantisek
(ed.), Papers on Functional Sentence Perspective. Prague: Academia, 106-1281974.print
Eggins, S. An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics. London: Continuum International
Publishing Group. 2004.print
Emilia, E. A Critical Genre-Based Approach to Teaching Academic Writing in a Tertiary EFL Context
in Indonesia. Unpublished Dissertation in Department of Language, Literacy and Arts
Education Faculty of Education. Melbourne: The University of Melbourne. 2005.print
Emilia, E. Teaching Writing: Developing Critical Learners. Bandung: Rizki Press. 2010.print
Evans, G. and Gruba, P. How to Write A Better Thesis. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press.
2002
Gay. L.R. Educational Research: New Jersey.Prentice-hall. 2000.print
Gerot Linda. And Wignell Peter. Making Sense of Functional Grammar: Gerd Stabler. 1994.print
Halliday, M. and Mathiessen, M.I.M. Introduction to Functional Grammar (3rd ed). Oxford:
Oxford University Press. 2004.print
Halliday, M.A.K. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London; Edward Arnold Ltd. 1994.
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Martin, J.R., Christian M.I.M. Matthiessen and C. Painter. Working with Functional Grammar.
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McCarthy, M. Issues in Applied Linguistics. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. 1990.print
Paltridge, B. Thesis and Dissertation Writing in a Second Language. London: Routledge.
2007.print
Safnil. The Discourse Structure and Linguistic Feature of research Article Abstracts in English by
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Schleppegrell, M. J. The language of schooling: A functional linguistics
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Schleppegrell, M. J. Grammar for generation 1.5.: A focus on meaning. In M. Roberage, M. Siegal, &
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Swales, John M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings. Cambridge:
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Todd, R.W., Khongput, S., and Darawangsa, P. Coherence, Cohesion, and
Comments on Students‘ Academic Essays. Assessing Writing 12. 10-25.
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Vande Kopple, W. J. Themes, thematic progressions, and some implications for understanding
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Abstract
The trainees‘ English speaking skill ability at Enhaii hotel can not be separated from their knowledge
of language functions in hotel service business. Enhaii Hotel is a training hotel for hospitality
students of STP Bandung. It is identified that sometimes the trainees use inappropriateness of
vocabularies and English terms. In other words, there is sometimes misunderstanding between the
trainee and the guests. This research is aimed to describe the customers‘ understanding level
towards trainees‘ technical terms and vocabularies chosen in a hotel business. Therefore, it is used
as the basis of improving the trainees‘ quality communication service at Enhaii Hotel Bandung. The
writers use observation technic to identify the effectiveness and appropriateness of vocabularies and
terms chosen in serving the hotel guests.
Keywords : effectiveness, customers‘ understanding, hotel service
1. INTRODUCTION
Language as a tool of communication has an important role in all aspects of human life.,
includes in hospitality industry. Therefore , the use of language could be an integral part to develop
service quality in a hotel. As stated by Somat ( 2014:30 ) that there are some important functions to
communicate to customers; they are what benefit customers could get from the products bought,
what information customers could get from the company, whether their goals needs could be reached
and any good facilities are provided to send theit problem or complaints, and finally whether good
services are provided.
Front liners in a hotel who have good communication could provide better service quality. As
they could understand and know well what the guests need and want. Good communication is related
to the words chosen and appropriate words used should be matched with the guests competency or
understanding.
Hotel customers have different demographic, different level of education. Go customers who
have good education, under intention and know well a lot of hotels ‗ tens used while customers who
have low education, know and understands hotels ‗ terms Example : the receptionist asks the
customer which type of room they want to have, twin bed or double bed.
For repeater guests,the could understand well the meaning of that guests. However, a new guest with
low education, that question is confusing for them who couldn‘t get the meaning or the point of the
question.
As stated by Sonat ( 2014 : 134 ) that one of the obstacles in communication is language used
and words chosen are not understandable by both the speakers and listeners. Indonesian Language
used in hospitality industry used a lot of English words mixed in Indonesian communication the
reasons whey hotel staff used a lot of English words or terms as stated by Marcellino (1993 ) that
Indonesian Language doesn't have special word or ten to translate the English words or terns, could
give complete meaning in semantics field/knowledge could fulfill the registration needs in hotel and
could be matched with Indonesian Language used.
This research is focused on who work at Ehaii Hotel as Hotel Front lines use English terns or wolds in
communicating with the customers.
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dining room and parking lot. In peak season, the occupancy of the hotel reaches 1005, however in
low season it could reach only 30%. Due to the location of the hotel is in strategic area and the room
rate is not expensive at all. While the guests are from any other cities in West Java with different
social status , and there are also some guests from foreign countries such as from other universities
which has a collaboration with STP Bandung. The hotel was built as the place to practice the students
as the trainees even they also have the permanent employees.
TABLE 1
THE DESCRIPTION OF HOTEL TERMS USED BY HOTEL TRAINEES IN SERVING THE
CUSTOMERS
2. The Customers‘ Competency in Finding the Synonym Words of the Hotel Terms Used in
Hotel Services.
As the writer has mentioned before that some English terms used in hotel services are identified then
given to the customers in order to know the customers understanding and to find out whether they
know the synonym of the terms. In the following table could be seen the recapitulation of the
customers understanding about the English terms used in Hotel Services.
TABLE 2
THE RESULTS OF THE CUSTOMERS KNOWLEDGE ABOUT SYNONYM
N=50
NO ENGLISH SYNONYM
TERMS TOTAL
RIGHT WRONG NO
RESPONSE
1 beverage 40 5 5 50
2 breakfast 46 0 4 50
3 cash 50 0 0 50
4 check in time 45 5 0 50
5 check out time 45 5 0 50
6 coffee break 35 10 5 50
7 complain 30 5 15 50
8 confirmed 12 30 8 50
booking
9 corporate rate 23 18 9 50
10 deluxe room 21 2 27 50
11 dinner 42 0 8 50
12 double bed 34 12 4 50
13 extra bed 38 8 4 50
14 food 48 0 2 50
15 group rate 32 12 6 50
16 high season 29 18 3 50
17 house keeping 12 4 34 50
18 late check out 21 2 27 50
19 laundry 35 0 15 50
20 laundry attendant 12 2 36 50
21 middle shift 18 0 32 50
22 overtime 37 6 7 50
23 reception 32 2 16 50
24 roundtable style 18 2 30 50
25 safe deposit box 19 3 28 50
26 single bed 32 1 17 50
27 standard room 35 1 14 50
28 superior room 30 1 19 50
29 transit 34 4 12 50
30 twin bed 15 16 19 50
31 waiter 22 16 12 50
32 welcome drink 28 2 20 50
RATA-RATA 30,31 6 13,69
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PICTURE 1
DESCRIPTION OF THE CUSTOMERS KNOWLEDGE ABOUT SYNONYM
13.69 BENAR
SALAH
TIDAK JAWAB
6 30.31
3. The Customers‘ Competency of Knowing the Antonym of English Terms used in Hotel
TABLE 3
CUSTOMERS KNOWLEDGE OF ANTONYM
N=50
Whenever the customers understand the written English terms used in hotel services, so they
know the synonym or antonym of those terms
Based data collected that from 50 respondents, there are 32 persons or 64% know the English terms,
2 persons or 4% find the wrong antonym, and 16 persons or 32% don‘t answer the antonym words.
There are some English terms that is hard to find the antonym words, such as: coffee break, complain,
confirmed booking, extra bed, housekeeping, laundry, reception, safe deposit box, transit, waiter, and
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welcome drink. The main problem to find the antonym words are such as : extra bed – kasur ukuran
normal ( normal size bed ),. It is caused the antonym for the words extra bed is ― kasur ukuran lebih
besar ―. It also happens to the word ― double bed that the customers have difficulty in differentiating
to the words twin bed. Sometimes the customers are confused for those terms.
The next picture is about how many customers could find the antonym words appropriately.
PICTURE 2
DESCRIPTION OF THE CUSTOMERS KNOWLEDGE ABOUT ANTONYM
16.7
31.6
1.7 BENAR
SALAH
TIDAK JAWAB
4. The Customers Competency in Understanding the English Terms Used in Hotel Services
The customers understanding to the English terms used in hotel services is the main indicator to
know whether the communication could run well without any misunderstanding between the hotel
trainees and the customers, whenever the customers could understand well all English terms used in
providing hotel services. The customers could find the synonym or even the antonym words in
Indonesia. The customers‘ understanding could be described in complete sentence or found the
similar meaning could be described in complete sentences or found the similar meaning words, so the
writer could differentiate the customers who fully understand the English terms or the other ones who
could only know the synonym words, for example late check out the synonym words are terlambat
check out, antonym words tepat waktu or on time check out. People who don‘t understand the
meaning of late check out they don‘t know when check out should be done and what are the effects of
late check out. If they understand well they will accept the consequently of being late check out.
Based on the above data that from 50 respondents, there are 36 persons or 72% understand well the
English terms used in hotel services, 10 persons or 20% understand some of the terms used, and 4
persons or 8% couldn‘t understand at all the terms used in hotel services.
The problems that the customers have, are understanding some English terms, such as : extra bed,
group rate, housekeeping, late check out, laundry attendant, roundtable style, and middle shift. They
still could get the meaning of extra bed as tempat tidur dengan ukuran lebih besar dari ukuran normal,
to differentiate the terms double bed and twin bed.
The competency of the customers in understanding the hotel terms is influenced by their knowledge
about hotel.
PICTURE 3
CUSTOMERS UNDERSTANDING ABOUT ENGLISH TERMS USED IN HOTEL SERVICES
4.4
9.4
36.2
BENAR
MIRIP
SALAH
50
45
40
36.2
35 31.6
30.3
30
SINONIM
25
ANTONIM
20 MAKNA REFERENSIAL
16.1
15 13.7
9.4
10
6
4.4
5 1.7
0
0
BENAR SALAH TIDAK JAWAB MIRIP
DIAGRAM 1
THE RECAPITULATION OF CUTOMERS UNDERSTANDING OF ENGLISH TERMS IN
HOTEL SERVICES
5. CONCLUSION
1. There are 32 English terms used in different situation in hotel services. Some customers
have heard and known well those terms in hotel services. Some customers understand the
terms but they have problems in finding the appropriate synonym words in Indonesian
language, while there are also customers who are more familiar with the English terms than
the Indonesian language for those terms
2. The customers understanding is identified by three important factors, they are to know and
find the synonym words of the terms, their knowledge of finding the antonym words of hotel
terms and fully understand of the terms used in hotel services is good enough or could be
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reached 60%. Therefore, the customers who understand well the English terms used in hotel
services could have good communication with the hotel staff or hotel trainees.
3. The customers understanding to find the antonym words is good enough or 63%. The
customers have good knowledge of antonym words so both parties could have effective
communication.
4. Assessing the customers understanding to the English Hotel terms used in providing the
services could reach 72%,
Consequently, it could be said that the customers understanding to the meaning of the hotel terms has
the highest level. Therefore, the customers could describe the meaning of the terms used in hotel
service comprehensively.
Finally, the customers understanding towards English Hotel terms used in hotel service is good.
REFERENCES
Grosjean, Francois. 1982. Life with Two Languages An Introduction to Bilingualism. London
Harvard University Press.
Mahsun. 2007. Metode Penelitian Bahasa; Tahapan, Strategi, Metode, dan Tekniknya. Jakarta: PT
Raja Graifindo Persada.
Marcellino, M. 1993. Pinjaman Kata Barat di Bahasa Indonesia (Suatu telaah antardisiplin):
Makalah dalam Penyelidikan Bahasa dan Perkembangan Wawasan. Jakarta: Masyarakat
Linguistik.
Pateda, Mansoer. 2001. Semantik Leksikal. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta
Somad, Risnin dan Donni Juni Priasa. 2014. Manajemen Komunikasi, Mengembangkan Komunikasi
Bisnis Berorientasi Pelanggan. Bandung: Alfabeta
Abstract
The demands of English speaking workers in tourism and travel industry in Bali is increasing and
this leads to the increase of the number of vocational learning and training for Tourism. However,
more attention is given to the source culture (English culture) rather than the target culture (local
culture) in most teaching materials. English for Tourism (under the course name English for Tour
and Travel), an ESP in English Education Department Undiksha, has the same problem. Students
learn English to talk to visitors who come to their country, but they are not expected to travel to
target countries or to learn about target cultures while the textbook used focus more on the target
culture. A new design of teaching material based on local culture is then needed. This paper reports
an on-going project which aims at designing teaching materials based on local culture for English
Tour and Travel. The development is carried out in three major stages. The paper draws on the data
of the first stage that has been completed, and discusses the needs of the the EED students learning
English for Tour and Travel based on local culture in several aspects: tourism topics, language
functions, language skills, and local culture. It highlights the learners‘ needs in the eyes of students,
tourism practitioners and lecturers and discusses the implications of these on the design of the
English for Tour and Travel teaching material.
1. INTRODUCTION
The development in work place demands good English. Not only language expressions,
vocabulary, grammar, fluency and other language components are needed, but also the needs of
English has been directed to the demands of work field, either in academic level, or in occupational
level. Learners of English, then, want their studies to lead to something useful based on their needs,
before they come to work.
At work place, the needs of English vary according to the work field. The needs of English at
economic sector, for example, are different with the needs of English at tourism sector. At hotels, the
staffs need to serve local or foreign guests. This situation requires them to be able to speak English
suits to their work. The pedagogic effect of this situation is that these students need to get materials
suit to their language needs which they will use in the work place.
Tourism is still a leading sector in Bali. This continuously leads to the increase of demands for
English graduates every year. Ganesha University of Education then opened a Concentration for
Tourism in S1 English Education Department (EED) and this new change makes the graduates can
work as tourism practitioners, not just as teachers. EED designed the curriculum and give teaching
materials and exercises to the students to develop the professionalism suitable to the demands of
work in tourism industry. As stated in its curriculum, one of the courses in the tourism concentration
is English for Tour and Travel, which should be taken by students of EED in the seventh semester.
The purpose of this course is to provide the students with communication skills for tourism industry.
Then, based on its purpose, the content in the syllabus has topics such as destinations, hotel facilities,
tour operators, travel agencies, etc.
Basically, teaching English for students in English for Tour and Travel class can be
considered as teaching an English for Specific Purposes (ESP). ESP is an English teaching program
which is based on ―the proposition that all language teaching must be designed for the specific
learning and language use purposes of identified groups of students‖ (Johns, 1991: 67). The teaching
design is aimed at a particular group of students to cater their purposes of using the target language.
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As future practitioners of tourism, the students of EED surely need to get the knowledge about
English which suits to the local needs of place where they will work later mostly, which is Bali. To
achieve this purpose, there is a need to develop teaching material which are based on the local culture
of Bali. Based on local culture here means that students should be able to communicate and to give
explanation about the local culture to tourists. This is due to the fact that the uniqueness of the local
culture is different everywhere. Bali has such a unique and potential local culture and natural beauty
such as Goa Gajah, Pantai Kuta, Ngaben etc. This uniqueness, or the added value, makes tourists
come to visit this place and thus need explanation about anything they want to know. The language
used by the tourism practitioners obviously depends on the local needs. Thus, the development of
teaching material English for Tour and Travel should be based on the characteristics of Bali; its
natural resources, economy social, and culture of the society.
However, in the English for Tour and Travel class in Semester Gasal 2015/2016, the
lecturers found difficulties to find relevant teaching materials. From the informal interview with the
lecturers, it was found out that they took the materials from some textbooks that contain information
about general English for tourism. The textbooks are written by foreign authors from other countries
and they use examples of cultures from the western parts of the world such as France, Italy,
Netherland etc. This is called the source culture. To accommodate the needs on local culture (or the
target culture) information and also to provide authentic materials about Balinese culture, the
textbooks are often added with articles from the magazines, tabloids or from the internet about Bali,
but the language used is not that easy to understand for the students.
The need to teach with materials that use and provide information for English as an
international language for tourism, without ignoring the local culture to be understood by the
students, was proposed by Petrovkska (2001) in her paper. According to her, there is a need for a
―touch‖ of local culture in the teaching of this kind of course. In fact, she added, the cultural content
in language teaching has recently moved to the interest of many textbook writers and EFL teachers.
Different subjects as varied as national identity, national language policy, language and politics,
language and gender, etc. are being introduced through the materials and methods in the EFL
classroom.
Dealing with selecting appropriate teaching materials for students, there were some
researches done related to it. Suputra (2010) proved that selecting appropriate teaching materials for
students needs help in making them achieve the competence required. Beside that, it also improves
the intrinsic motivation in studying the teaching materials. In line with this, Renandya (2013) in
Hapsari (2013) says that, the teaching materials not only can facilitate hard skills, but also can
facilitate soft skills that students need later when they work. In short, teaching materials should be
designed to meet students‘ needs, give benefits, and reflects the real life situation.
Research about designing materials of ESP based on local needs, was done by Ginting et al (2005)
who developed teaching materials for ESP Tourism in Lake Toba. Kristiawan et al (2008) also
developed teaching materials for training the tourism practitioners in Kemiren village in
Banyuwangi. The training was aimed at improving the speaking ability of the tourism practitioners.
Both researches give an important contribution in developing teaching materials for local needs and
ESP.
This paper reports an on-going project which aims at designing teaching materials based on
local culture for English Tour and Travel, an ESP course to be used in EED Undiksha. The
development is carried out in three major stages, namely, (1) eksploration stage – as a base to
conduct needs assessment, (2) prototype development stage – to develop the teaching materials to
be, and (3) model validation stage—to validate the designed teaching materials. The paper draws on
the data of the first stage that has been completed, and discusses the needs of the the EED students
learning English for Tour and Travel based on local culture in several aspects. It highlights the
learners‘ wants and needs in the eyes of students, tourism practitioners and lecturers and discusses
the implications of these on the design of the English for Tour and Travel.
English for Specific Purpose is a generic name for all English teaching other than general
English teaching such as English for Academic Purposes (EAP), English for Nursing, English for
Lawyers, Business English, English for Tourism, and many others. It has perception, design,
materials, evaluation, and purpose which are different with General English. One definition of ESP
states that ―ESP is based on designing courses to meet learners‘ needs‖ (Hutchinson and Waters1987;
Robinson, 1991; Dudley Evans, 2001). It is generally used to refer to the teaching and learning of a
foreign language for a clearly itilitarian purpose of which there is no doubt. Other definitions say that
ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves, and it is
centered on the language (grammar, lexis, register), skills, discourse and genres appropriate to these
activities (Dudley Evans and St John, 1998 in Harding 2007). This indicates that the materials,
syllabus and the purpose of ESP should be designed and developed based on the needs of students
and also the graduate users. Thus, ESP approach is a bottom up approach.
There are some criterias for ESP. First, ESP must be oriented to purposes. It implies that
students should learn English only for the purposes, either for academic purposes or for the needs of
the work place. Another criteria is that ESP is based on need analysis which aims at finding out as
detailed as possible the target of achievement in learning English. (Harding, 2007; Robinson, 1991).
This is often called TSA (target situation analysis). Some indicators in TSA are to gain information
about the target needs in learning English. This aims at tracing the micro skill needed which ends in
the checklist in designing syllabus.
To add the points in designing the syllabus and teaching materials, three features common to ESP
courses, according to Carter (1983) in Gatehouse (2001), are also important to be noted:
Authentic (using a variety of different resources, including the Internet)
Purpose-related orientation (the simulation of communicative tasks required of the target
setting)
Self-direction (ESP is concerned with turning learners into users)
To conclude, ESP is oriented on the needs of students which suit to their field and work. To
support an effective and efficient teaching and learning process in a face to face situation in the
classroom, and to meet independent learning needs, then there is need to design teaching materials
based on need analysis. Some criterias as indicated above, are keys to start doing it.
2.2. Matching ESP Lessons to Student‘s Needs
For Dudley Evans (2001), the defining characteristics of ESP is that teaching and materials
are based on the results of a need analysis. The key questions are:
What do students need to do with English?
Which of the skills do they need to master and how well?
Which genres do they need to master either for comprehension or production purposes?
Finding out about and analyzing the needs of the students is vital in ESP teaching Harding
(2007: 17). Harding then proposes some questions to ask in order to know as much as possible about
the learning situation of the students.
Is it an intensive course or an extensive course?
Is assessed or non-assessed?
Is it meeting immediate needs or delayed needs?
Is the group homogenous or heterogenous?
Is the course designed by the teacher or the institutions or negotiated with the learner?
Hutchinson and Waters (1987:21) uses Kipling‘s ―honest serving men‖ to outline the basic
questions for needs analysis such as: why does the students need to learn? Who is going to be
involved in the process? Where is the learning take place? When is the learning take place? What do
the students need to learn? What aspects of language will be needed and how will they be described?
The needs analysis then needs to answer many questions to gain information before designing the
syllabus and teaching materials. The next questions are better asked as well: What topics do you need
to communicate about? What functions do you use? What level of accuracy is required? Do you have
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to speak – if so, do you speak face-to-face or by phone? To one person or several? Is there a ‗script‘
that you follow? Do you have to read and write? If so, what? Are there models for the documentations
that you have to produce? What is the rank and social distance, relative to you, or people you speak
to?
Related to topics, teaching English for tourism, according to Walker (1995), is probably
better achieved through the topic-based focus. This kind of design approach is correctly handled,
fulfils the double role of providing a meaningful framework within which they can improve their
language knowledge and skills. At the same time, this approach integrates language classes into the
students‘ wider experience of tourism. It avoids the too-obvious, up-front repetition of language
items they have already seen, although frequently only partially comprehended. Moreover, he added,
a topic-based approach such as this helps guarantee that the language items covered are those
genuinely needed within the field chosen, and not perhaps those considered ‗essential‘ at this level by
ESP staff approaching tourism English from a more language-centred stance. This approach, as the
writer observed, is mostly used by textbook for English for tourism. Some others focus more on the
language functions.
3. Designing Teaching Material Based on Local Culture
The statement ―Think globally act locally‖ is a famous jargon in tourism industry. Most
people who work in tourism, however, think in reverse - to think locally but act globally. Another
jargon ―Think globally manage culturally‖ was introduced by Firoz, Maghrabi, dan Kim (2002) in
Kristiawan et al (2010) in the relation with globalization. This jargon means that humans need not
only to think globally but also to pay attention to the surroundings in local areas and do good things
for the world.
This is relevant to the teaching of ESP English for Tour and Travel. There is a need to teach
with materials that use and provide information for English as an international language for tourism,
without ignoring the local culture to be understood by the students. Then there is a need for a ―touch‖
of local culture in the teaching of this course. In fact, the cultural content in language teaching has
recently moved to the interest of many textbook writers and EFL teachers. Different subjects as
varied as national identity, national language policy, language and politics, language and gender, etc.
are being introduced through the materials and methods in the EFL classroom. (Petrovska, 2001).
Well-known sociolinguists like Byram, Kramsch, Valdes, Robinson, etc. claim that language
learning and learning about target cultures cannot realistically be separated. The term culture can
have different meanings. Some language teachers use the term to refer to cultural products (e.g.
literary works, works of art), whereas others use the term to refer to background information (e. g.
facts about the history or geography of countries where the target language is spoken). The term
culture may include ‗such aspects but it also includes behavior and attitudes, and the social
knowledge that people use to interpret experience‘ (Cortazi and Jin, 1982 in Petrovska, 2001).
A textbook entitled English for Tourism and Hospitality (Petrovska, 1999), has a text
describing the cultural and historical heritage of the city of Ohrid – yet this can hardly be new content
information for the Macedonian faculty level students with whom the book is used. When students
practice asking for and giving explanations to foreign visitors the setting is in Ohrid, or Ohrid area.
So, prime attention is given to the source culture that is of the learners, rather than to target cultures.
The implication is that students learn English to talk to visitors who come to their country, but they
are not expected to travel to target countries or to learn about target cultures. The reason for this
approach could be a need for learners to talk about their culture with visitors. Another reason for
producing these kind of materials is to help students become aware of their own cultural identity,
according to Cortazi & Jin (1982 in Petrovska, 2001).
This is in line with the aim of this study, which is to design teaching materials for ESP English for
Tour and Travel based on Balinese culture, where students learn their own culture in order to talk
about their culture with the visitors. If we ask more, why? Again, it is because the local culture of
each place is different. West Sumatera, for example, has unique local potencies and beautiful nature.
The topics that go with this uniqueness are Rumah Gadang, Danau Maninjau, Tour de Singkarak,
etc. Hence, the language used by the tourist practitioners (topics, lexis) in any place is specific.
3. RESEARCH METHOD
This article presents the needs analysis results, which are part of the findings of a research
and development project in developing teaching materials of English for Tour and Travel based on
local culture. This study‘s aims are three-fold: (1) to identify the topics, language functions and
skills, and local culture content of the materials needed for the course, (2) to design the teaching
materials for the course, and (3) to find out the effectiveness of the designed teaching material in the
class.
The data presented in this paper were then the results of needs analysis. The data of need
analysis were collected through questionnaire, documentation analysis, and interview, which were
designed to reveal topics, language functions and skills, and local culture needed for the course. The
research was conducted in English Education Department, UNDIKSHA, Singaraja, in English for
Tour and Travel class. The subjects of this research were 74 students of semester 7 (seven) year of
enrollment 2015/2016, two lecturers handling that class, and two tourism practitioners in Bali: a
human resource manager in Lovina Bali and a tour guide in a tourism village in Buleleng. The
questionnaires cover questions of what topics, language functions and skills that students need. The
interview technique held with the lecturers and tourism practitioners was an in-depth interview. The
authors made guidance for what were going to be asked during the interview, which covers points of
questions. Those points of questions were developed overtly according to the informers‘
characteristics, so that the interview could be conducted flexibly. Document analysis were done to
the syllabus and objectives of the course in order to gain the information about standard
competencies needed to be achieved by the students.
The data were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively. Stages in data analysis were as
follows: data presentation, data reduction, and conclusion drawing. Data validity was examined with
triangulation technique—that is comparing data obtained from questionnaires through interview and
comparing the result of the interview with the related documents (Moleong, 1998).
Students choose language functions they think they will use at work when working in
tourism industry. The highest percentages then were the language functions of speaking dealing with
communication problems (60,8 %), listening to people from non English speaking countries (56 %),
and listening to natural speech (50%) . The lowest percentages were public speaking and listening
for main idea/key point. Lecturers and tourism practitioners in this study agreed to focus more on
listening to natural speech and listening to people from countries other than English. They also
agreed on questioning and dealing with communications problem to be focused in speaking skill. For
listening, correspondence and itineraries are recommended, and also all forms, memos, emails, and
business letter for the writing skill.
4.4. Local Culture
Based on the identifications of topics, language functions and skills, then Balinese culture
aspects were consulted with the lecturers and tourism practitioners. As Petrovska (2001) say, local
culture can be included to enrich the new linguistic experience, encourage (motivate) learners by
providing them with something familiar to them, and train them to talk about their own culture to
other foreign language – speaking people for exchange of ideas, values, and knowledge.
The local cultural aspects were asked to be added after the following tourism topics, which
were selected by students, lecturers and tourism practitioners:
1) Destinations
2) Hotel facilities
3) Hotel reservations
4) Tour operators
5) Travel agencies
6) Shopping and sightseeing
7) Getting around
8) Eating out
9) Traditions
10) Special interest tour
11) Careers in tourism
12) Art and folklore
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In line with the topics, the following local culture aspects were suggested by lecturers and tourism
practitioners:
1) tourism objects in Bali such as Tanah Lot, Pura Besakih, Taman Raya Eka Karya
Botanical Garden
2) Balinese interior and exterior at hotels
3) Description of one hotel in Bali
4) Description of what to do in Bali
5) Comments of guests about spending holidays in Bali
6) A traditional market in Bali such as Pasar Seni Sukowati
7) how to rent cars/motorbikes to get around Bali
8) famous dishes in Bali such as lawar
9) ceremonies in Bali such as Ngaben, Nyepi, Melaspas
10) how to get a tour package in Bali
11) description of jobs in tourism in Bali
12) dances and paintings in Bali
By having identified the needs analysis for the tourism topics, language functions and skills
and local culture aspects needed by students in ESP English for Tour and Travel, then the prototype
of the teaching material of ESP English for Tour and Travel based on local culture began to shape.
5. CONCLUSION
When developing instructional materials for specific programs for ESP learners, such as
English for tourism, ESP need analysis is a must thing to do. Local culture of the learning context
should be incorporated in the teaching material as they reflect the real-world experiences for the
students and thereby facilitates language learning. Students learn English to talk to visitors who come
to their country. There is a need for learners to talk about their culture with visitors, as well as to
become aware of their own cultural identity. On the development of the instructional materials,
students, ESP teachers (instructional materials developers), and tourism practitioners should
collaborate and share their knowledge as regards to ESP teaching and learning. As English for
tourism becomes more popular and very few instructional materials are currently available for this
program, further research on this area should be conducted by teachers, tourism instructors, and
instructional materials developers.
REFERENCES
Gatehouse, K. ―Key Issues in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) Curriculum Development‖. The
Internet TESL Journal, Volume VII, No. 10, 2001.
http://iteslj.org/Articles/Gatehouse-ESP.html. 10 Maret 2016.
Ginting, Siti Aisyah, Indra Hartoyo And Sisilia Fitriany Damanik. ―Pengembangan Bahan Ajar
Matakuliah Bahasa Inggris Pariwisata (Esp-Tourism) Berbasiskan Kebutuhan Lokal Di
Danau Toba Sekitarnya‖. Unpublished research report, UNIMED, 2005.
Hapsari, Winda. Teacher‘s Perceived Characteristics and Preferences of Motivational Strategies in
The Language Classroom. TEFLIN Journal. Volume 24 Number 2 Juli 2013. Malang:
TEFLIN Publication Divisions.
Harding, Keith. English for Specific Purposes. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
Hutchinson, T dan Alan Waters. English for Specific Purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1987.
Johns, Ann M. English for Specific Purposes (ESP): Its History and Contributions. In Teaching
English as a Second or Foreign Language (2nd Edition, edited by Marianne Celce-Murcia).
New York: Newbury House, 1991 (67-80).
Kristiawan, Dana Yudha Kristiawan, Abd.Rahman , Sandi Ferdiansyah and Imroatul Husna Afriani.
2010. ―Pengembangan Bahan Ajar Pelatihan Peningkatan Kemampuan Berbicara Bahasa
Inggris Berbasis Kebutuhan Lokal Bagi Pelaku Wisata Di Desa Wisata Kemiren‖. n.d.
Http://Bappeda.Banyuwangikab.Go.Id/ . 15 April 2016.
Robinson, P.C. ESP Today: A Practitioner's Guide. Hemel Hempstead: Phoenix, 1991.
Suputra, Putu Eka Dambayana. Developing English Writing Materials for The Seventh Year Students
of SMP Negeri 2 Singaraja, Bali in the Academic Year 2009/2010: A Descriptive Qualitative
Research and Development. thesis. Universitas Pendidikan Ganesha, 2010.
Petrovska, Irina. ―Materials and Methods in Teaching ESP in Tourism‖. 1 January 2001.
http://www.beta-iatefl.org/778/blog-publications/materials-and-methods-in-teaching-esp-in-t
ourism/. 10 April 2016.
Walker, Robin. ―Teaching the English of Tourism‖. IATEFL ESP SIG Newsletter no 4. November
1995. http://www.unav.es/espSig/walker4.htm. 12 Maret 2016.
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Abstract
Major changes in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) have made lecturers need to
come up with an idea of bringing it into the classroom. Indeed, lecturers may not just neglect the
impact of new technologies and fail to incorporate them in their teaching practice. One big evolution
in classroom technology has been in the development of using webtools for teaching writing.
Storybird; a website 2.0 tool, is an excellent new media for teaching narrative writing. It will not only
highly motivate the students to write in English and other languages but also it gives an opportunity
for the students to control their learning experiences by means of technology device. Beside
Storybird can be easily accessed by the students using their netbook, smartphones, or other devices.
Thus, this paper deals with the use of Storybird in teaching narrative writing.
Keywords: Information and Communication Technology (ICT), Storybird, and Narrative Writing
1. INTRODUCTION
―Integrating Technology with face-to-face lecturer time generally produces better academic
outcomes than employing either technique alone‖
(Edutopia)
Writing is a life skill for people, particularly for college students. If they can write clearly,
they can express their ideas convincingly to others – in college, on the job, and in their personal life
(Kirszner and Mandell, 2011). In college, they might write a single paragraph, an essay exam, a short
paper, or a long research paper. it is strongly supported by Zemach and Rumisek (2005) who say
writing is a very important part of univeristy study. At work, they might write a memo, a proposal, or
a report. In their personal life, they might write a letter or an email asking for information or pointing
out a problem that needs to be solved, or just post a comment on a blog. If they can write, they will be
able to communicate; if they can communicate effectively, they can succeed at college and beyond.
Nevertheless, writing also becomes a difficult skill to comprehend (Guoyan, 2007: 18). The
students need to stimulate their thinking onto paper, concentrate and organize their ideas, and
cultivate their ability to summarize, analyse, and criticize. They also have to master the elements of
grammar of a language, vocabulary, mechanics, content, organisation and style. As a result, most
students encountered some writing blocks like they have lack of ideas or cannot think any interesting
and significant enough ideas to write, are confuse in grammar, choose inappropriate vocabulary, are
awkward in using punctuation, or even have the voice of mother tongue on their writing. Beside, they
may think writing is a time-consuming activity, or even such a boring activity to do so, as a result,
they tend to choose ―tricky ways‖ such as doing cheating or plagiarism. They also tend to write their
writing the night before assignments are due so that they only publish final copy look-alike which
contains amount of errors. Above all, students are less motivated to write since lecturer only use
unattractive and unchallenging activity to arouse their interest in writing.
Referring to this such situation, lecturer needs to engage the students with activities which
are easy and enjoyable to take part in. So that writing activities not only become a normal part of
classroom life but also present opportunities for students to achieve almost instant access (Harmer,
2007: 113). One way to engage students‘ interest to write is by integrating technology to writing
learning process. In this case, the lecturer use web tools as an joyful activity. It means the students
will write by using computers or compatible tools, a word processing software, and web tool. Here,
the lecturer will not only simply transfer the knowledge to students but also familiarize them with
possibilities of integrating technology – web tools, into the classroom.
Storybird is one of website 2.0 tools which enable students to be more creative and
imaginative on their narrative writing. Storybird also offers a lot opportunities to start a narrative
writing process in delightful way. Unlike other web tools, Storybird offers the access to the students
even for those who are less creative and imaginative. Indeed, It is engaging site that will help the
most hesitant writers out of their shell. Aside from its usage, Storybird is a free website and easy to
use. The users - both lecturer and students, only need to become its member and sign up to the
website - www.storybird.com. At the moment, the users already registered their account, they will be
headed with three types of account; regular users (any users), school/edu users (lecturers, and
students), and professionals (artists, and writers). At Storybird, the users could also create picture
books (more art and less text), long form books (less art, and more texts or chapters), and poetry (one
image and select words) which are supplied by many artworks from certain categories like
adventurous thing, life experience, or others. Although it is accompanied by series of pictures,
Storybird allows the students to focus more on the content of their narrative writing rather than
dragging and dropping pictures.
To sum up, integrating technology with face-to-face teaching will give a better learning
outcomes, as Edutopia recommends earlier. Here, lecturer is suggested to bring technology into
classroom activities and incorporate it to their teaching practice. Storybird itself is an effective
teaching and learning technology tool which will enhance student learning academic achievement.
Indeed, Storybird is a marvelous media for teaching narrative writing. It will motivate the students to
be creative in writing their stories, selective in choosing the artworks which go with their stories, and
productive in publishing plenty of interesting stories. In addition, Storybird is an easy web to operate
by lecturer, highly engaging for students, can be accessed by all ages. It is also perfect not only for
lecturer and students, but it is also useful for artists or even professional writers.
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feedback, motivate them to apply knowledge in any content area to a writing task, engaging them in
different projects, increasing their engagement with the language, develop their independent work
habits, improve their vocabulary knowledge, and allow them to have collaboration and publish their
work publicly.
However, using ICTs for education, include writing, also offers another side. First, the use of
ICTs could cause the lackadaisical attitude among students whereby they will not take their work
seriously. It is relevance with a statement from Sweeny (2010) which says ―The students will not take
the work seriously and will not use what they have learned in school in their posting‖. Second, It is
difficult for lecturers to use with a lack of experience using ICT tools. Third, the setting up of the
device can be sometime very troublesome. Then, it is too expensive to afford for some students.
All in all, for the last decade, there has been a growing interest in using ICTs to improve the
effectiveness of teaching and learning in all levels and in both educational and non educational
settings. As lecturer, they need to do everything they can to keep abreast of technological change in
educational resources (Harmer, 2007: 32). They decide what their students want to achieve and kind
of techniques and technology will help their students to do this. Despite the positive things of using
ICTs for teaching writing, it also gives its downside.
Thereafter, a question arises; ―Why should lecturer employ it?‖. The lecturers need to utilize
Storybird in their teaching practice, notably in teaching narrative writing because Storybird presents
many merits, mostly for students. In general, Konert, et.all (2011: 24) argue a great advantage of
Storybird. It is the huge set pictures provided. The images can easily be added to the stories.
Therefore, the story could be art-inspired or completed by images. The use of tool is very
self-explanatory and the tool can be used by students of all ages. Storybird is also able to be shared
not only to students in or outside of (the same) class, but also to people across the country and the
world.
As mentioned earlier, this website mainly gives benefits for students. Most importantly, it‘s
free. That gives (low-income) students an opportunity to participate in a creative experience. Then,
Storybird supplies many amazing artworks even if the students have to decide which images to
choose and how to order them (Giacomini, 2015: 36). The artwork itself is enough to inspire students
to create stories even if they come to the website with nothing in mind. In other word, it allows the
students to be creators of something unique; turning nothing into something. The use of artwork
assists students to develop their deep reflection and higher-order thinking (Menezes, 2012: 300).
In addition, Storybird is also very motivating for students to get into writing since their
stories can be published and therefore being and revised by others. Thus the students do not write a
story for their own sake of writing it but for other people‘s entertainment. Then, students can start to
write criticizing the other stories, the students become aware of what a good story consists of.
Whenever they start to share and comment on each other works, their confidence and skill will be
boistered within a private and safe environment. As a result, they get feeling of how a story becomes
interesting and what makes a story boring. In other words, the tool offers an aspect of social learning
since the students learn how to criticize their fellow students in a constructive way. By doing this, the
students will sharpen their critical thinking.
Furthermore, Storybird helps (reluctant and shy) students to acquire their individual
responsibility (Menezes, 2012: 299) because the work; create, read, and publish the story is carried
out with their own hand. It can be said Storybird helps most hesitant writers to bring out of their shell
as this can be considered an engaging activity. It also offers the access to the students even for those
who are less creative and imaginative. Storybird also gives the option of keeping story private until
the student is ready to share it. For many students, this feature makes them feel creativity safer.
Beside, it is shareable where students could share their stories on blogs, shared via e-mail,
downloaded, printed, gifted – even turned into a class fundraiser.
Storybird is easy to use by lecturer because it requires minimal lecturer preparation and
allows them to easily create individual user accounts for students. With that, lecturer can view all
story books that students are making. Storybird is also excellent for many writing assignments such
as picture books, log form books, and poems. Lecturer could also check on the progress of their
students‘ work easily. In term of doing collaborative writing, the website makes the process of
collaborating or ―taking turns‖, very easy. Both lecturers and students are able to edit and help others
throughout the story.
Unfortunately, Storybird has some limitations, as informed by Konert, et.all (2011: 26). First,
it isn‘t a real-time writing tool. The collaborator has to refresh the page to see what his partner wrote
or he has to wait until his partner has finished and saved the latest draft. Then the other user gets an
invitation to go on writing which says ―it‘s your turn now!‖ Second, the artwork, as beautiful as it is,
is quite limited. The students are left to a rather small bank of illustrations to work with. It is also very
difficult to search for artwork that almost similar to their story. With such limitation in artwork,
students may end up frustrated. Last, the writer and reader have to pay for printed digital storybook.
As a result, they only can screen captured and cropped it into Microsoft word by copying the page.
In conclusion, the use and usage of Storybird are really handy for people in all ages, includes
students. Storybird provides many inspiring artworks that can be created into thousands stories. Once
the art is chosen, they are able to build their story by dragging and dropping pictures and creating a
story to match. They also can change, edit, correct, and update their work. Storybird also allows
people to collaborate on a story each person taking turns to add to the story until completed. It
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promotes leaning autonomy, self-confidence, and critical thinking. However, it also offers a couple
of obstacles.
2. Logging in
The next steps is to log in to the website of Storybird by typing username or email address
and password. Lecturer may edit their account by customizing their avatar, changing privacy
setting (public or private), or changing e-mail notification setting, or spellcheck setting.
In addition after signing up as lecturers and confirming the account, Storybird will prompt
them to create a class, as spotted below. With an educator account, they can create and manage
multiple classes.
After they have added the details for their class, it is time to add students. Go ahead and click that
big blue button that says ―Add or Invite Students.‖ Lecturers may manually invite the students by
creating their account, or let the students to create their own account by giving them a class code,
as viewed at the following picture.
3. Giving an assignment
Lecturers just need to click on ―The assignment‖ button on the dashboard, then, click ―Create
an assignment‖ to assign tasks for their students. The lecturer will have to choose a title for the
assignment, describe the assignment, use a Storybird or photo to inspire their students, choose
―ON‖ if they want students to be able to use spellcheck while writing their Storybirds, and select
the due date for the assignment. Due dates will appear in the student‘s dashboard as a gentle
reminder to complete the theme/assignment, then click ―Save assignment‖. The lecturers can
easily view all students‘ stories (assignments and own stories) by clicking ―Library‖ on the
dashboard.
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There are six items presented at the first page of creating Storybird such as set of pictures (1),
words; in which a place for lecturers or students to write a text (2), pages; place for lecturers or
students to add or delete the page (3), menu; place for inviting a collaborator, publish, or save and
close (4), thumbnails; place for removing all thumbnails but still leaving the page (5), and start
over; place for removing all thumbnails and pages. Then lecturers or students are ready to create a
cover of their story. After that, they can make a story by dragging pictures to the page and type
words into the box provided. Next, if they wish to add another page, just click ―add a page‖. They
may use ―Remove a Page‖ button to delete a previously-created page in their Storybird.
Whenever, lecturers or students need to invite collaborator, they just have to do it into places;
from the menu inside storymaker or from the dashboard.
As soon as, their friends receive e-mail notification, they are ready to join in the Storybird.
Afterwards, the students will also get notification to ―take turns‖ or ―switch turns‖ on dashboard
until they are set to publish their Storybird.
6. Publishing Storybird
Whenever lecturers or students (or collaborator) want to finish and publish Storybird, they
have to choose ―publish‖ from storymaker menu. It means they are bound if their story are read by
others.
5. NARRATIVE WRITING
Generally, narrative or story is any report of connected events, actual or imaginary, presented
in a sequence of written or spoken words, or still or moving images (Wikipedia). Narration also tells
a story, presenting events in chronological order or time order moving from beginning to end (qtd in
Kirszner and Mandell, 2011). Baldick, C (2008), also gives his own definition on narrative. He states:
… telling of some true or fictitious event or connected sequence of events, recounted by a
narrator to a narratee. Narratives are to be distinguished from descriptions qualities, states
or situations, and also from dramatic enactments of events recounted in a process of
narration. The narrative will consists of a set of events in which the events are selected and
arranged in a particular order.
Meanwhile narrative writing is defined as a story writing or report of events, personal
experiences, or any similar incidents, whether they are real or fictitious (Adam, 2015: 4). It can be
broadly defined as story writing – a piece of writing characterized by a main character in a setting
who encounters a problem or engages in an interesting, significant or entertaining activity or
experience. What happens to this main character is called as the plot. The plot follows a beginning,
middle, and end sequence. The middle of the story is the largest, most significant part which we call
the main event. The main event is really what the story is all about and involves either a problem to be
solved or a significant life experience for the main character. Authors write narrative stories in order
to entertain audience of others – this called the author‘s purpose.
In addition, narrative writing is as one of the most essential writing skill that English
language major students have to command (Adam, 2015: 1). It presents many fruitful benefits of
developing narrative writing. First, it helps students develop imaginative thinking and participles in
literacy understanding as a whole. Second, it is extremely important in the field of education, culture,
and in our lives as stated by psychologist Jerome Bruner (2007). Hence, narrative writing is very
significant in our lives, help students develop imaginatively and develop bridging the cultural gaps.
The main function of narrative writing is to entertain, to gain and hold the readers‘ interest. It
also deals with actual or vicarious experience in different ways, and with problematic events which
lead to a crisis or turning point of some kind which in turn finds a resolution. There are many types of
narrative such as imaginary, factual or a combination of both. They may include short stories, fairy
stories, mysteries, science fiction, romances, horror stories, adventure stories, fables, myths and
legends, or personal experiences.
In conclusion, a narrative is a story containing specific elements that works together to create
interest for not only the author but also the reader. This type of writing makes the reader feel as if he
or she were part of the story, as if it was being told directly to him or her. The basic purpose of
narrative is to amuse or entertain the readers.
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Then, they should be guided to register on the website. If necessary, lecturers provide them with
online tutorials.
The third steps is explaining narrative writing along with its writing processes to the
students. Narrative writing has some elements such as plot, setting, characters, main events (conflicts
and solutions). Meanwhile the writing processes are prewriting – planning what is going to write;
writing – writing the draft from start to finish; rewriting – writing the correct one by making some
correction in content and organization (revising), and in grammar, diction, and mechanics
(proofreading). These things are done virtually at Storybird web 2.0
The fourth steps is assigning the students with a simple form of Storybird; picture books. It
has an aim to familiarize them with the web tools. The lecturer may asked the students to create
narrative writing for ten till twenty pages based on the artwork that inspired them the most.
Afterwards, they are quite good with the tools, lecturer may give them another assignment that was
more guided had different objectives. For instance, this time, the lecturer ask the students to create
long form books from the chosen artwork, or topics given. The minimum page numbers are twenty
page, but the maximum one is not limited. They used Storybird while making meaningful
connections and using certain language structures they had already learnt. The lecturer may assign
class project by asking students to create a story by cooperating as a team. It means each students has
to write several sentences to be joined with other students‘ sentences until it builds a story. They do a
true collaborative writing.
Thus, Storybird is an effective media for teaching narrative writing. They not only can
create the story by using English, but also they can create story on other languages, even if their own
mother tongue, because they have an inner to do so. They may also create thousands stories whenever
they have already publish one. The lecturer are also able to check the progress of their students‘ work.
It is made Storybird as number one choice to teach narrative writing.
7. CONCLUSION
Narrative writing is the most interesting type of essay writing among EFL learners, because
it is about writing stories. In fact, students are naturally inclined to write stories of their interests more
than other types of writing. However, they are still less motivated to write since lecturers do not use
effective media to teach narrative writing. Storybird comes as a bright idea to alleviate this problem.
Storybird has a more powerful, active, and autonomous role impact on students‘ confident when
using English. Though, it has many benefits, it also offers a bit obstacles. This paper has tried to
propose some steps of using Storybird to teach narrative writing. Last, there is a wide room to do any
suitable variations in applying the steps given.
REFERENCES
Adam, Ahmed Abdalla Saeed. 2015. Developing EFL Learners‘ Narrative Writing through Using
Short Stories: The Case of Al-Baha University Students. European Journal of English Language
and Literature Studies. Vol. 3, No. 4 pp, 1-8, September 2015.
Baldick, C. 2008. Oxford dictionary of Literary terms. Oxford University Press
Gakhar, S and Thompson, A. 2007. Digital Storytelling: Engaging, Communicating, and
Collaborating. Society for Information Technology & Lecturer Education International
Conference. AACE.
Giacomini, Laura. 2015. Using Storybird in young Learners‘ Creative Writing Class. English
Teaching Forum Vol. 53, No. 4.
Guoyan,. 2007. A Process Genre Model for Teaching Writing. English Teaching Forum. Vol.43 No.
3.
Harmer, Jeremy. 2001. The Practice of english Language Teaching. Third Edition. Completely
Revised and Updated. Longman: Pearson Education Limited.
_____________. 2004. How to Teach Writing. New York: Longman
_____________. 2007. How to Teach English. New Edition. Cambridge: Pearson Education
Limited.
Konert, Elisabeth, et.all. 2011. Learning and Teaching English with new media: Collaborating
Online.
Kirszner, Laurie G, and Stephen R Mandell. 2011. Focus on Writing. Paragraph and Essays. Second
Edition. New York: Bedford/St. Martin‘s
Menezes, Helena. 2012. Using Digital Storytelling to Improve Literacy Skills. IADIS International
Conference on Cognition and Exploratory Learning in Digital Age (CELDA 2012)
Nordin, Yueh. 2010. Web 2.0 and Graduate Research Storybird. Retrieved on April 6th, 2016
Yunus, et.all. 2013. Pros and Cons of Using ICT in Teaching ESL Reading and Writing. International
Education Studies, Vol.6 No. 7 pp 119 – 130.
Zemach, Dorothy E and Lisa A Rumisek. 2005. Academic Writing from Paragraph to Essay.
MacMillan.
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Abstract
This research was aimed at finding out vocabulary learning strategies employed by English
Department students of State Polytechnic of Bengkalis across different proficiency levels. The
subjects of the study were 28 students of English Department of Bengkalis State Polytechnic
academic year 2014/2015. The questionnaire was used to collect the data, consisting of 32 items
classified under three strategy categories; discovering meaning of new vocabulary (DMV), retaining
knowledge of the newly-learned vocabulary (RKV), and Further Consolidation Vocabulary
strategies (FCV). The quantitative data from questionnaire were analyzed using mean score. A Test
of English for International Communication (TOEIC) was also administered to identify students'
English language proficiency levels based on Puengpipattrakul (2007); Elementary (200-395),
intermediate (400-595), working proficiency (600-795). The findings of this descriptive research
revealed that the working proficiency level reported the highest frequency of overall strategy use, the
intermediate level's frequency of use was slightly lower, and the elementary level had the lowest
frequency of use. In DMV strategies, both working proficiency and intermediate levels used guessing
strategy as the most frequently used strategy. In contrast, elementary level used dictionary-use
strategy as the most frequently used DMV strategy. In RKV strategies, working proficiency level used
association as the most frequently used strategy. In contrast, both elementary and intermediate level
used repetition strategy as the most frequently used RKV strategy. In further consolidation
vocabulary (FCV), all working proficiency, intermediate and elementary levels used expanding more
frequently than practice strategy.
1. INTRODUCTION
Vocabulary, a vital element which must be possessed in the whole process of language
learning, still becomes the major problem faced by Indonesian English as foreign language (EFL)
students. The research conducted by Nurweni and Read (1999) found that Indonesian freshmen‘s
vocabulary size were below 2000 word level of 4000 words expected.
To achieve success in language learning, foreign language learners must have various
learning strategies, and employ them in language learning. The strategies employed may vary among
the language learners. According to Oxford (1989a : 236), several factors influencing the strategy
choice are language being learned, proficiency level, sex, motivation level and national origin. Since
there are several factors influencing the choice of strategies employed, learners‘ proficiency level
will be the focus in this study.
The research about Vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs) has received much attention.
However, a small number of studies have been conducted in the past to investigate vocabulary
learning strategies (VLSs) employed by Indonesian EFL learners, especially about strategy
employed by EFL students across proficiency levels. The research conducted by Al-Shuwairekh
(2001), in Saudi Arabian context, found that proficiency level had a very weak relationship with the
use of vocabulary learning strategies. In contrast, Ali (2008) found that English language proficiency
significantly impacts students‘ use of vocabulary learning strategies. Moreover, Mizumoto and
Takeuchi (2008) found that VLSs as a whole had the greatest influence on proficiency (with TOEIC
scores) among a group of Japanese EFL University students.
Since there is a lack of research in this area in Indonesia, exploration of the strategies used
among proficiency levels helps learners, teachers, and lecturers to better understand the variations,
frequency, and strategies employed among different proficiency levels. The strategies employed by
higher level proficiency students can be helpful and modeled for the lower proficiency students to
achieve success in vocabulary and language learning as well as to achieve higher level of English
proficiency.
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 DESIGN
The present study was aimed at determining vocabulary learning strategies employed by
English Department students of State Polytechnic of Bengkalis across different proficiency levels
using a questionnaire. The descriptive survey research was selected as the most appropriate design.
3.2 PARTICIPANTS
The participants of the study were 28 students of English department of Bengkalis State
Polytechnic academic year 2014/2015. They were all administered the TOEIC test and then placed
into three different proficiency levels based on Puengpipattrakul (2007). They were elementary
(200-395), intermediate (400-595), working proficiency (600-795). There were 17.86 % students at
working proficiency level, 50% students at intermediate level, and 32.14% students at beginner
level.
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3.3 INSTRUMENTS
The questionnaire of this research was constructed mainly based on VLSs taxonomy
constructed by Marin- Marin (2005), Intaraprasert (2004) and Siriwan (2007). It was classified under
three main strategies with 8 strategy categories: Discovering Meaning of new Vocabulary (DMV),
Retaining Knowledge of the newly-learned Vocabulary (RKV), and Further Consolidation
Vocabulary strategies (FCV). DMV Strategies include three strategy categories: guessing strategy,
dictionary use strategy, and social discovery strategy. RKV strategies include repetition strategy, and
association strategy. The last category is FCV strategies which include expanding strategy, and
practice strategy. The quantitative data from questionnaire were analyzed using mean score.
There were 32 questions in Indonesian language with five choices of Likert scale in order to
investigate the vocabulary learning strategies of the English department students of Bengkalis State
Polytechnic. The five choices were ; 1= never or almost never true of me, 2= rarely or usually not true
of me, 3= somewhat true of me, 4= usually true of me , and 5= always or almost always true of me. In
reporting the frequency of strategy used, the researcher employed Oxford‘s (1990: 300) key to
understanding mean scores on SILL which also uses the 5-point Likert scale. The average scores
which fell in the range of 3.46-5.00 was defined as high frequency of use of learning strategies, the
average in 2.46-3.45 was intermediate frequency of use, and the average in 1.00-2.45 as low
frequency of use of strategies.
A Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) was also administered to
identify students' English language proficiency level. The TOEIC test consisted of 200 multiple
choice items: 100 listening questions, and 100 reading comprehension questions. Then, the students‘
English proficiency was leveled based on Puengpipattrakul (2007); they were Elementary (200-395),
intermediate (400-595), working proficiency (600-795)
According to the results, overall VLSs used varies significantly among the three scoring
levels. The working proficiency level reported the highest frequency of overall VLSs used (M=
3.41); the intermediate level's frequency of VLSs used was slightly lower (M= 3.24); and the
beginner level had the lowest frequency of VLSs used (M= 3.09). This suggests that when learning
vocabulary, working proficiency used vocabulary learning strategies more frequently than did both
intermediate and beginner levels. All levels reported using the vocabulary learning strategies in
intermediate frequency of use.
Table 4.2: The Use of Main Vocabulary Learning Strategies Categories by High, Intermediate, and
Beginner level
All levels used DMV as the most frequently used strategies. FCV category was the second
frequently used strategies, and RKV was the third frequently used strategies. It indicates that all
levels used discovering the meaning of the new words, and further consolidating the new words more
frequently than retaining the knowledge of the new words in vocabulary learning strategies.
Table 4.3: The Use of Vocabulary Learning Strategies Categories by High, Intermediate, and
Beginner level
Strategy
High Rank Medium Rank Low Rank
Category
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Guessing
4.00 0.500 1 3.75 0.803 2 3.22 0.667 4
strategy
Dictionary
DMV 3.35 0.285 4 3.50 0.707 3 3.53 0.980 1
use
Category
strategy
Social
discovery 2.73 0.953 7 2.75 0.681 6 2.93 0.877 5
strategy
Repetition
RKV 2.73 0.643 6 2.79 0.675 5 3.26 0.684 3
strategy
Category
Associatio
3.03 0.880 5 2.73 0.600 7 2.67 0.553 6
n strategy
Expanding
strategy 4.00 0.490 2 3.77 0.608 1 3.39 0.553 2
FCV strategies
Category
Practice
3.60 0.418 3 3.04 0.771 4 2.44 0.846 7
strategy
Overall 3.41 0.334 3.24 0.432 3.09 0.523
In terms of seven strategy categories, working proficiency used expanding and guessing
strategy as the most frequently used strategy (M=4.00). The strategies coming next were practice
(M=3.60), dictionary use (M=3.35), association (M=3.03), social discovery (M=2.73) and repetition
(M=2.73). Intermediate level also used expanding as the most frequently used strategy (M=3.77).
The strategies coming next were guessing (M=3.75), dictionary (M=3.50), practice (M= 3.04),
repetition (M=2.79), social discovery (M=2.75), and association strategy (M= 2.73). Beginner level
used dictionary use strategy as the most frequently used strategy (M=3.53). The strategies coming
next were expanding (M=3.39), repetition (M=3.26), guessing (M= 3.22), social discovery (M=2.93,
association (M=2.67), and practice strategy (2.44).
Expanding and guessing were two of the most frequently use VLSs by working proficiency
and intermediate level. Meanwhile, dictionary use and expanding strategy were the most frequently
use VLSs by beginner level. It indicates that all levels preferred to use expanding strategy to other
strategies. However, they were different in terms of using guessing and dictionary use strategy. Both
working and intermediate levels used guessing strategy as the first and second most frequently used
strategies. Meanwhile, the beginner level used dictionary strategy and expanding strategy as the most
frequently used strategies. In short, working proficiency and intermediate levels paid more attention
to expand their knowledge and guessing , the meaning of new vocabulary. Meanwhile, beginner level
paid more attention to use dictionary use strategy besides expanding strategy. Moreover, repetition
and social discovery were the least frequently used VLSs by working proficiency level. In contrast,
social discovery and association were the least frequently used VLSs for intermediate. Association
and practice were the least frequently used strategies for the beginner level. It indicates that the
working proficiency level used repetition strategy less frequently than other strategies. The
intermediate and beginner levels, however, used association less frequently than other strategies.
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Table 4.4: The Use of DMV Categories by High, Intermediate, and Beginner level
Strategy
High Rank Medium Rank Low
VLS Category Rank
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Guessing
4.00 0.500 1 3.75 0.803 1 3.22 0.667 2
strategy
Dictionary
DMV 3.35 0.285 2 3.50 0.707 2 3.53 0.980 1
use strategy
Category
Social
discovery 2.73 0.953 3 2.75 0.681 3 2.93 0.877 3
strategy
Total 3.42 0.180 3.38 0.451 3.25 0.734
In DMV category, all levels shared slight difference on the mean score. Working proficiency
used DMV more frequently than other levels (M=3.42), intermediate level were slightly higher
(M=3.38) than beginner level (M=3.25). However, in using the strategy categories, the working
proficiency and intermediate level used guessing strategy as the most frequently used strategy in
determining the meaning of the new words. They used it in high frequency of use. In contrast,
beginner level used dictionary use strategy as the most frequently used strategies in determining the
meaning of the new words. The working proficiency and intermediate level employed guessing
strategies more frequently than did the beginner level. It indicates that the working proficiency and
intermediate levels preferred guessing the meaning of new words to consulting dictionary and asking
their peers, lectures and others. In contrast, beginner level preferred consulting their dictionary to
guessing and asking their peers, lectures and others.
In guessing strategy, working proficiency used it in high frequency of use. In contrast,
intermediate and beginner levels only used it in intermediate of use. It indicates, the working
proficiency usually used guessing strategy compared with intermediate and beginner level which
sometimes used guessing strategy. In dictionary use strategy, working proficiency level only used
this strategy in intermediate use range. In contrast, both intermediate and beginner levels used this
strategy in high frequency of use range. It means that both intermediate and beginner levels usually
used dictionary use strategy while the working proficiency level only sometimes used it in
determining the meaning of the new words. In social discovery strategy, all levels reported using this
strategy category in intermediate frequency of use. It means that they only sometimes used social
discovery strategy. All levels showed difference in terms of the mean score of using this strategy.
Beginner level used this strategy more frequently than did both intermediate and beginner levels.
Table 4.5: The Use of the Most Frequently DMV Items by High, Intermediate, and Beginner Levels
Working Proficiency
No Strategies Mean Rank
DMV2 I guess the meaning from word classes 4,2 1
DMV4 I guess the meaning by looking at the picture accompanying it 4,2 2
DMV1 I guess the meaning by using context clues 4 3
Intermediate
DMV4 I guess the meaning by looking at the picture accompanying it 4 1
DMV7 I use electronic dictionary 3,93 2
DMV2 I guess the meaning from word classes 3,86 3
Beginner
DMV7 I use electronic dictionary 4 1
DMV6 I use English-Indonesian dictionary 3,78
2
DMV4 I guess the meaning by looking at the picture accompanying it 3,67 3
In terms of strategy items in DMV strategy items, the working level was different with other
levels because it used more variations and frequency of guessing strategy items than did other levels.
Working proficiency level used DMV guessing strategy items; guessing the meaning from word
classes and context clues, as the most frequently used strategies in discovering the meaning of the
new words . In contrast, beginner level used more variations and frequency of dictionary use strategy
items than did other levels. It used DMV dictionary use strategy items such as using electronic and
English-Indonesian dictionary as the most frequently used strategies in discovering the meaning of
the new words. However, all levels used guessing the meaning from context as top three most
frequently used strategy items in discovering the meaning of the new words.
Table 4.6: The Use of RKV Categories by High, Intermediate, and Beginner Levels
In RKV category, this category was only used in intermediate use range. It means it was only
sometimes used by the learners. In terms of the frequency of use, working proficiency level used this
category more frequently than did both intermediate and, beginner levels. Moreover, these three
levels were different in terms of using strategy categories in RKV. Working proficiency used
associations strategy (M=3.03) more frequently than repetition strategy (2.73), whereas beginner and
intermediate level used association strategy less frequently (M=2.73, M=2.67) than repetition
strategy (M=3.26, M=2.79). It indicates that working proficiency preferred to use association,
whereas, intermediate and beginner level preferred to repetition in retaining the knowledge of new
vocabulary items.
Table 4.7: The Use of the Most Frequently RKV Items by High, Intermediate, and Beginner Levels
Working Proficiency
RKV 10 I associate new words with my personal experience 3,6 1
RKV 11 I associate new words with the place I found it 3,6 2
RKV 9 I visualize the written form (spelling) 3,4 3
Intermediate
RKV 11 I associate new words with the place I found it 3,21 1
RKV 2 I repeat the word silently in my mind 3,21 2
RKV 10 I associate new words with my personal experience 3,14 3
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Beginner
RKV 3 I write the word several times 2,6 1
RKV 11 I associate new words with the place I found it 3,6 2
RKV 2 I repeat the word silently in my mind 2,6 3
In terms of strategy items, working proficiency and beginner level were different in terms of
using association and repetition items to retain the knowledge of the new words. Working levels used
all three association strategy items as the top three most frequently used strategies in RKV. They
were associating new words with my personal experience and place the word found, and visualizing
the written form. In contrast, beginner level used more repetition items as the top three most
frequently used strategies in RKV strategies. They were writing the words several times, repeating
the word silently in mind. In short, working proficiency level used association strategy items much
more frequently than did beginner level . In contrast, beginner level used repetition items much more
frequently than did working level.
Table 4.8: The Use of FCV Categories by High, Intermediate, and Beginner Levels
In FCV category, working proficiency used more frequent use of expanding strategy
(M=3.98) than did both intermediate and beginner levels (M=3.32; 293). It indicates that working
proficiency level usually used expanding and practice strategy. However, intermediate and beginner
level only used FCV in intermediate use of frequency which indicates that it was only sometimes
used by both intermediate and lower achievers.
Table 4.9: The Use of the Most Frequently FCV Items by High, Intermediate, and Beginner Levels
Working proficiency
FCV5 I watch English movies 4,8 1
FCV4 I listen to English songs 4,6 2
FCV2 I watch English programs on TV 4,4 3
Intermediate
FCV4 I listen to English songs 4,43 1
FCV5 I watch English movies 4,21 2
FCV2 I watch English programs on TV 4 3
Beginner
FCV5 I watch English movies 4
1
FCV4 I listen to English songs 3,89
2
FCV6 I use internet to find information about English 3,67
3
In terms of strategy items, working proficiency levels used 4 out of 5 strategy items in high
frequency of use. Meanwhile, intermediate levels used only 2 out 5 in high frequency of use, and
none of the strategy items were used in high frequency of use by beginner level. Moreover, all levels
used listening English songs and watching English movies as two most further consolidating
vocabulary items.
4.2 DISCUSSION
According to the results, overall strategy used varies among the three proficiency levels. The
working proficiency level reported the highest frequency of overall VLSs used; the intermediate
level's frequency of VLSs used was slightly lower and the beginner level had the lowest frequency of
use. It means that the higher the English proficiency, the more the frequency and the more strategies
they used in learning vocabulary. This finding is consistent with the previous studies conducted in
Thailand by Siriwan, (2007). Besides, all levels reported using the vocabulary learning strategies in
intermediate frequency of use. It is similar with the finding of Kapifour (2011). Furthermore, it also
shows that the VLSs employed were different among three levels of TOEIC proficiency, the basis of
levelling the students‘ English proficiency in this research. It is in line with Mizumoto and Takeuchi
(2008) found that VLSs as a whole had the greatest influence on proficiency (with TOEIC scores)
among a group of Japanese EFL University students.
In discovering the meaning of the new words, the working proficiency and intermediate
levels used guessing strategy category as the most frequently used strategies. In contrast, dictionary
use strategy category was used as the most frequently used strategies in discovering the meaning of
the new vocabulary by beginner level. It is supported by Al-Shuwairekh‘s (2001: 254), and Cheng‘s
(2006:122) findings who found that the successful learners or the students with better vocabulary
learning achievement were different with the less successfull ones in which the succesfull ones relied
much on contextual clues and tried to guess the meaning of words from textual context more
frequently than did the less sucessful ones. Furthermore, guessing the meaning is much more
efficient than looking up word in a dictionary (Mart, 2012:178). However, difficulties in guessing
may be the reason of beginner level used dictionary use strategies much more frequently than
guessing. Intaraprasert (2005:167) argues that this problem arises because of inadequate information
provided by context itself.
Moreover, the purpose of looking up words in dictionary is different between advance and
less proficiency learners. The former tends to use bilingual dictionary to comfirm their guesses,
while the latter uses them to look up unfamiliar word (Hulstijn in Hunt, 2009:14). Furthermore, it is
also strengthened by Gairns and Redman (1998:80) who states that dictionary is as valuable support
to backup contextual guesswork and clarify the meaning. In sum, guessing the meaning of the words
first, then consulting dictionary to confirm the guessing is much more effective and efficient than just
looking up word in dictionary.
In retaining or memorizing new vocabulary, working proficiency level used association
strategy rather than repetition as the most frequently used strategies in retaining the knowledge of the
newly-learned vocabulary. In contrast, beginner level used repetition strategy rather than
associations as the most frequently used strategies in retaining the knowledge of the newly-learned
vocabulary. It is similar with Al-Shuwairekh (2001) finding. It is influenced by the complexity of
association over repetition as stated by Schmitt (1997:132). He states that association requires a
greater cognitive effort and is more difficult to employ. In contrast, repetition requires only a little
cognitive effort and is easy to do. However, making associations is more effective than doing
repetition in retaining the knowldege of vocabulary as Cohen & Aphek finding (1981). They found
that forming associations had shown to enhance retention better than repetition. Therefore,
encouraging students to be accustomed to using associational patterns over repetition is much more
effective to enable them to retain more words over time.
In further consolidating the new words, working proficiency used it more frequently than did
both intermediate and beginner levels. It is congruent with Siriwan‟s (2007), and Cheng‘s (2006),
Al-Shuwairekh‘s (2001) findings. Siriwan (2007) states motivation was involved factor in the use of
expanding strategies which differentiate the higher vocabulary proficient students over the lower
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ones in which the former may be highly motivated to find opportunities to expose themselves to
English than the latter. In short, students should be motivated to expose themselves to English and
make use various media and opportunities to expand their vocabulary knowledge.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The present findings revealed differences in VLSs use among students with different
proficiency level. The working proficiency level employed the highest frequency of overall strategy
use, the intermediate level‘s frequency of use was slightly lower, and the beginner level had the
lowest frequency of use. The use of strategies fell in the intermediate use range, regardless of student
proficiency level. Working proficiency used guessing strategy, expanding strategy, and practice
strategy in high frequency use. In contrast, beginner level used dictionary use strategy and expanding
strategy in high frequency of use. In discovering the meaning of new words (DMV), working
proficiency and intermediate level showed similar preferences to use guessing strategy as the most
frequently used strategies whereas beginner level preferred to use dictionary use strategy. In
retaining or memorizing the knowledge of newly-learned vocabulary (RKV), working proficiency
level preferred to use association to repetition strategy. In contrast, beginner level preferred to use
repetition strategy to association strategy. In further consolidating the new words (FCV), working
proficiency level usually used expanding and practice strategies. In contrast, intermediate and
beginner levels only used these strategies in intermediate use frequencies which indicate these
strategies were only sometimes used by intermediate and beginner levels.
The findings provide some important implications for teachers, lecturers and students. First,
students of all three ability levels used VLSs moderately. It means that they only sometimes used
vocabulary learning strategies. Increasing the frequency of use of VLSs seems important as Chen
(2015) found that the more strategies the participants used, the higher the proficiency, TOEIC scores,
they were likely to receive. Encouraging students to use and explore more wide range useful
strategies, help them to employ VLSs more frequently and effectively, and raise their awareness
toward the use of vocabulary learning strategies are important.. Second, teachers and lecturers must
facilitate, train, and model their students various effective vocabulary learning strategies as working
proficiency did such as guessing the meaning from context and using the dictionary to confirm the
guessing in discovering the meaning of the new words, using association instead of repetition to
retain the knowledge of the new words, and having more expanding and practicing strategies to
expand the knowledge of the new words. Besides, ist can be used as one of solutions to increase the
TOEIC score of the students.
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Abstract
People start communicates since they are babies. Language is a tool for communication. When a
baby born, the environment influence what language she/he will use later on. At the first time, the
baby acquires his/her mother tongue. Later on she/he learns other language. In Indonesia, especially
in Padang, West Sumatera, children use Minang and Bahasa as their daily language. When the
children enter early childhood education, English is also taught and introduced in kindergarten.
Even though not all of Kindergarten in Padang put English as their subject, but most of ―famous
kindergarten‖ include English as their additional curriculum. They ―sell‖ English as one of their
program because they realize that many parents believe that English is an important thing in current
and future for their children. Basically, there are some requirement that need to be prepared in
order to promote English as an holistic teaching and learning process. This article discusses about
some essential requirement in teaching English to young learner such as, curriculum, teacher
competency, media and method used, and more specifically talks about its overview in Padang, West
Sumatera.
1. INTRODUCTION
Since English has become an international language, more and more people learn English.
The importance of English as a world language has made people to learn as early as possible. Some
psycholinguists say that one of the factors to be successful in language learning is young age. There
are some explanations for better learning at young age. The brain is more adaptable before puberty
than after, and that acquisition of languages is possible without self-consciousness at an early age
and also because young children have more opportunities than adults, therefore teaching English for
young learner become an important thing due to the chance that the children have.
Teaching English to young learners refers to a more specialized area of teaching English
which deal with younger students. It is totally different from teaching adult. When teaching young
learners we constantly have to keep in mind the fact that what we have in front of us is a mixed class
with varied abilities, expectations, motivation level, knowledge and last but not least, different
learning styles. Young learners are like sponges, they soak up everything we say and how we say it.
There has been a growing awareness acknowledging that teaching English to young learners is not as
simple as we once thought. It is not a matter of teaching a list of simple vocabulary. It needs optimal
condition and requirements that would enable young learners to further their learning, and eventually
the aim of teaching English to young learners would be achieved. Some requirements that need to be
consider are the curriculum, teacher competency, media and method used.
In Indonesia, interest in teaching English to young learners has been steadily growing in
recent years. Many parents believe that by studying English from early stage, their children will get a
better future. They believe that by introducing English to their children as early as possible, it will
bring their children to have a better carrier. In Padang, West Sumatra, some Kindergarten put English
in their curriculum although in early childhood education new curriculum, for example the 2013
curriculum, do not included English as their attention, but every kindergarten has its own authority to
expand their curriculum. Some kindergarten such as Planet Kids, Citra Al Madina, DEK, Mariana,
and more put English as one of their subject. This article is going to overview the requirement and its
implication in some kindergartens in Padang, West Sumatera.
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Children are born with a natural appetite and interest for learning, and their desire to learn
should be fueled when they begin school (Cameron, 2001). Teachers have the most important roles in
creating an encouraging emotional atmosphere in the classroom. Different activities will support
statement. Teachers have to be creative in order to make a fun and interesting atmosphere in their
class. Cooperative rather than competitive atmosphere (especially including a winner and some
physical reward) works better with young learners (Scott and Ytreberg, 2001). The students should
feel that they are winning and having fun altogether. Yet this should not be understood as enjoying
with little learning. The motto should be learning by enjoying. Children especially have fun with
movement and physical participation, and the more fun the students have the better they will
remember the language learned (Shin, 2006). As Scott and Ytreberg (2001) emphasize children
understanding comes through hands and eyes and ears, and the physical world is dominant at all
times.
3. Requirements in Teaching English for Young Learners
a. Curriculum
The term curriculum refers to the lessons and academic content taught in a school or in a
specific course or program. In dictionaries, curriculum is often defined as the courses offered by a
school, but it is rarely used in such a general sense in schools. Depending on how broadly educators
define or employ the term, curriculum typically refers to the knowledge and skills students are
expected to learn. Curriculum of teaching English for young learner is absolutely different from
teaching English for adult. English for young learner is not as complicated as adult, for example,
children do not comprehend abstract ideas such as grammar. Bourke (2006: 280) notes that young
learners don‘t have a concept of ideas such as parts of speech, discourse or phonology. Any attempt
to explain these abstract concepts at an early age will likely serve only to confuse them. In addition,
from an early age, children first begin to sort out words involving concrete objects. When introduced
into the L2 classroom, they ―need very concrete vocabulary that connects with objects they can
handle or see‖ (Cameron 2001: 81). In contrast, adult learners are able to cope with abstract ideas.
Therefore, teaching English for young learner have to avoid teaching grammar and focus on about
vocabulary. Reading ang writing is also suspended until appropriate age to introduce English
literacy.
Curriculum related to learning material that will be given to children. Based on Early
Childhood Education Curriculum in Indonesia, there is no specific competency that related to
English. Early childhood education curriculum in Indonesia is focusing on religion and moral value,
motoric, cognitive, social-emotional, and literacy. Literacy is stressing on Bahasa Indonesia. This
phenomenon makes teaching English for young learner in Indonesia having difficulties in developing
their learning material. However, some kindergarten compiles their own learning material in order to
direct their teacher in teaching English for young learner. Kindergartens in Indonesia use thematic
approach in their classes, therefore, they insert vocabulary based on the theme every week. Most of
kindergarten in Padang are stressing on vocabulary such as; part of body, family, animals, fruits,
number, etc. They also introduce simple classroom commands for instance; stand up, sit down open
your books etc. They avoid reading and writing activity as well as grammar. In Adabiah
Kindergarten, there is special day - that is Friday- where most of activity and communication use
English. In conclusion, kindergartens in Padang have their own curriculum to support teaching
English for young learner based on theme every week.
b. Teacher Competency
Educational research continually reminds us that the most important factor in any child‘s
education is the teacher. Effective EYL programs have well-trained teachers with adequate
proficiency in English to help their children learn English. Effective EYL teachers have appropriate
training in teaching young learners, in teaching English, and in teaching through English. As it can be
understood, teacher‘s role in this process is highly demanding. They should adapt their language,
teaching techniques and methods, and the emotional, cognitive and physical atmosphere in the
classroom according to the children‘s needs and readiness; otherwise, a successful learning cannot be
achieved.
A teacher is someone who has an ability to understand the curriculum, syllabus, method,
material, evaluation etc and is able to create joyful learning activities during the lesson. Besides,
teacher is required to have good skills in English which enables him/her to provide the most suitable
learning materials for the learners. A teacher must have knowledge how to apply several methods and
techniques to help students learn. But with the growing number of EYL programs, a major challenge
is finding enough teachers or teacher training programs to prepare these teachers.
Vale and Feunteun (2012: 6) classifies typical points raised by the teachers of English to
children, namely 1) teachers with EYL experience, but with no experience of working with children,
2) teachers with experience of teaching children, but with little or no experience of teaching EFL, and
3) teachers who are trained to teach EFL, possibly to children. EYL experience needs to meet with
experience of teaching children in order to having good competency teacher. Teachers who are
trained to teach English sometimes reluctant to teach in kindergarten, on the other hand teachers who
are trained to teach children have limited ability and knowledge in teaching English.
In Indonesia, EYL teachers are classified into three types, namely: 1) classroom teachers
who have not been to English teaching college, 2) English teachers who attend English teaching
college but have no experience working with children, and 3) teachers who have English background
and experience working with children (Suyanto 2009: 33). This statement relates with reality in
Padang. In some kindergarten, teachers who introduce English, most of them, have no competency in
teaching English. They do not have communicative competence in the foreign language, such as
linguistic competence, and linguistic-cultural competence. Most of them have poor pronunciations
that lead the children to wrong pronunciation as well. However, some kindergartens choose teacher
who really have competency in English. The school recruits teachers who have been to English
teaching college and train them how to work with children, such as in Citra al Madina Kindergarten.
In addition, in Planet Kids Kindergarten, the teachers are specially trained to learn English, therefore
they can teach English well. To sum up, teacher competency in teaching English for young learner
need to be improved through training to meet an ideal teacher.
c. Media and Method
An interesting media and appropriate method is needed in order to teaching English to young
learner effectively. Children have their own characteristic. Their cognitive developments lay on
concrete operational stage. In this stage, children begin to think logically and use their experience to
solve problem. Nevertheless, they are only able to solve problem which are applied to concrete
examples and objects in real life (Pinter, 2011, p. 12). . Media used in the teaching learning activity
will keep the learner focus on the teacher, thus the classroom will be on teacher‘s control. The media
used should be effective and interesting as Suyanto (2007: 6.4) said that the use of effective and
interesting media in teaching can help the students understand the material easily.
There are many kinds of media that can be used in teaching English. Some good examples
are picture, flashcard, realia, and video. Pictures or graphic materials refer to ―non-photographic
and two dimensions - materials which is utilized by the teachers to convey messages to the students.
This kind of material includes drawings, charts, graphs, posters, cartoon, etc. Realia is defined by
Nunan (1999: p. 313) as objects and teaching from the world outside the classroom that are used for
teaching and learning. So, it can be inferred that realia is unmodified real things inside or outside the
classroom which is used by the teacher for teaching learning process. Realia can be used as starting
point to introduce the lesson and/or understanding concept of the material. Video is a combination of
visual and audio visual media. Through video, children can see the visualization and hear the voice
and sound. Flash card is a set of cards bearing information, as words or numbers, on either or both
sides, used in classroom drills or in private study. One writes a question on a card and an answer
overleaf. Flashcards can bear vocabulary, historical dates, formulas or any subject matter that can be
learned via a question-and-answer format. Flashcards are widely used as a learning drill to aid
memorization by way of spaced repetition. Teachers need to varied their media in classroom so that
children feel eager to learn English
A good media need to meet with an appropriate method and techniques. If teachers don‘t use
appropriate teaching methods to teach English to young learners, the achievement of learning process
may not run well. Choosing the most appropriate activities, method or techniques which will help
young learners learn languages better gains significance. When teaching young learners, teachers
have to use fun and interactive communicative activities such as games, songs, and stories. Singing is
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something that children like. Through songs the children can spell the English word easily and get
vocabulary as much as they can especially supported by movement they made. By spelling the words
and showing the movement at the same time stimulate children‘s understanding Games are every
children‘s favourite. Children enjoy games and thus participate without anxiety. Games can motivate
children greatly and they are activities which are usually familiar to children as regards structure,
rules etc. It is in accordance with Lewis (2008: 5) stating that through games children experiment,
discover, and interact with their social environment and it is a fun activity which gives the children
opportunities to practice their English in relaxed and enjoyable ways.
Story telling is a widely used method in very young learners‘ classrooms. Stories offer
numerous opportunities for children to learn the target language since they have rich vocabulary,
surprise, repetition of language, rhymes, metaphors and dialogues (Cameron, 2001). Total Physical
Response (TPR) is probably something that all good teachers use in the pre-primary classroom. TPR
is about speech and action at the same time, which is just like the way children acquire their native
language. One of the greatest advantages of TPR for the pre-primary classroom is that it doesn‘t have
to be text dependent. TPR can be mostly oral. This means that children of any level of reading ability
can react to it.
Most of Kindergartens in Padang have problem with media in teaching and learning to
process. They have limited media in the classroom. Usually teacher creates their media from things
that they can find around them. Related to teaching English, they also have limitation in using media,
therefore teaching and learning process do not run well. For example, when the teachers introduce
some vocabulary, they only show the picture to the children, mention the thing in the picture and ask
children to repeat it. However, sometimes they use realia, show it to children and pronounce the
words. They do have flashcard in their room, but rarely used. It is because they do not know how to
use it. Only a few kindergartens have opportunity using better media. Mariana Kindergarten, for
example, has used video in introducing new vocabulary. The kindergarten prepares laptop and LCD
in the room, so the teacher could use it to show video, or movies to the children. The children enjoy
the teaching and learning process very much. Through video, the children also can watch movies and
songs, so they can sing along together. Singing makes their pronunciation better. In addition, in
Mariana Kindergarten, there is a special room where the children can play and learn English. They
try to make term ―Learning English is fun‖ really works.
Beside media, most of kindergarten teachers in Padang do not know what are the appropriate
method they can use in classroom. Singing songs is the most favourite method they choose.
However, they have limited English songs for children. It is quite difficult for them to find good
children song resources. Sometimes among teachers share songs with other teachers, but sometimes
they create their own song. Unfortunately, they use inappropriate vocabulary in the song that make
the song has no meaning. They compose Indonesia song to English song but the meaning become
different.
Games is children favourite. Teachers create games that support English learning creatively.
They adopt traditional games and put some English word in the game. The children play happily and
learn English at the same time. Story telling the one strategy that they rarely do. They have no
reference how to deal with this method. One main problem is pronunciation. They have difficulties in
pronounce the word, so they seldom tell the stories to children in English. They also do not know
good technique to tell story. As a result, the children look boring in the activity. However, many
Kindergarten teachers in Padang understand about TPR Method. Most of them use this method
especially when they use simple classroom command. In DEK Kindergarten this method is widely
and continuously used. This method makes children acquire English as their first language. They do
not look stress.
3. CONCLUSION
Children are valuable assets for any nation in this world. A strong nation has happy and
healthy children. Happy and healthy children have many opportunities to reach better future. In the
future they will face different world from nowadays. They need to communicate with other people
from different countries. English as one of an International language plays an important role in the
future, therefore English should be introduced to children in early age for many reasons. Teaching
English to young learner has its own challenge. Padang, as the biggest city in Sumatera Barat, has
tried to introduce English to young learners. Many requirements need to be considered. Although it is
not perfect yet, but at least kindergarten's teachers have start it. Many challenge found in the process
such as constructing appropriate curriculum, preparing competence teachers, choosing and using
proper media and method in the classroom. In summary, teaching English to young learners in
Padang need more improvement so that children especially at young age could get many benefits
from it.
REFERENCES
Bourke, J. (2006). Designing a topic-based syllabus for young learners. ELT Journal, 60/3, pp.
279-286
Cameron, Lynne. 2001. Teaching Languages to Young Learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Harmer, J. (2007). The Practice of English Language Teaching. (4th Ed.) Harlow: Pearson Longman
Limited.
Lewis, G. (2008). Games for Children:Resource Books for Teachers. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Pinter, A. (2011). Children Learning Second Languages. Hampshire: Palgrave MacMillan.
Pogosian, Victorian. (2008). The Russian System of Training Teachers of Foreign Languages for
Young Learners: History and New Developments. In: Ritva Kantelinen, Eija Liisa
Sokka-Meaney & Victoria Pogosian (Eds.) Seminar Papers on Early Foreign Language
Education, University of Joensuu, 2008, pp. 45-55. [Online] Available:
http://persona.yasni.ru/victoria+pogosian+97317/kantelinen (January 9, 2013)
Nunan, D. and Lamb, C. (2000). The Self-Directed Teacher: Managing the Learning Process.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Suyanto, Kasihani K.E. (2009). English for Young Learners. Jakarta: Sinar Grafika Offset
Scott, W. A., & Ytreberg, L.H. (2001). Teaching English to Children (14th Ed.). New York:
Longman.
Shin, J. K. (2006). Ten helpful ideas for teaching English to young learners. English Teaching
Forum, 44(2), 2-13.
Vale, David and Anne Feunteun. (1995). Teaching Children English. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press
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Abstract
Teaching English as foreign language in universities today is demanded to have a paradigm shift,
from past passive learning to active learning, to find better ways of engaging students in the learning
process. However, many teachers feel a need for help in imagining what to do, in or out of class that
will constitute a meaningful set learning experience. Students in universities belong to the category
of adult learners. They need to be treated more gently and given more chance to learn independently.
An appropriate delivery method offered to support the adult learners to learn is andragogy, instead
of using the other one delivery method to support the young learners to learn, pedagogy.This study is
to compare the andragogically and pedagogically orientated learning methods for English as a
foreign language adults learners. The Educational Orientation Questionnaire (Christian, 1983) is
used. Sixty adults at Speaking for Instructional Purposes classes in English Education Department
Muria Kudus University are included in the study. The results reveal that the subjects are more to
have orientation of andragogy than that of pedagogy. However, the wide range of scores suggested
that they were not rigid in their orientations and tended to hold pedagogical tendency towards
learning too.
1. INTRODUCTION
Andragogy has been the hot issue in the area of adult education despite ongoing debate
regarding its significance and application (Atherton, 2003; Brookfield, 1995). Educators in various
majors apply the assumptions of andragogy in their educational efforts. This might be inspired by an
idea that adults learn differently than younger students. Andragogy referring to the way adults learn,
is compared with pedagogy as the way younger students learn.
According to Knowles (1980), andragogy is a set of assumptions about adults as learners and a series
of recommendations for the planning, management, and evaluation of adult learning. This
explanation of the concept has two important presuppositions. First, self-directedness is a core of
adulthood. Second, andragogical practice involves collaboration with the learners in their quest for
learning.
Blondy (2007) compares the assumptions of pedagogy and andragogy. In the pedagogical
approach the learner is expected to be dependent and the teacher is the one who dictates the content to
be learned while androgogical approach gives the learner independence, meaning that the learner is
supposed to be self-directed. The learner‘s experience, according to the pedagogical approach, has
little relevance. In andragogical approach, however, the learner‘s experience is valuable for learning,
and, therefore, among the methods to be used are discussion and problem solving. While pedagogy
supposes that society dictates the learner what to learn, andragogical approach acknowledges what
people want to learn, which necessitates learning programmes to be organized around life
applications.
Davenport and Davenport (1985) also point out some of the andragogical and pedagogical
differences in application. In pedagogical philosophy, the instructor is the one who diagnoses the
needs of the learners, prepares objectives and evaluates the process. The instructor is the knowledge
transmitter; therefore, the learner has a passive role. In contrast, an instructor with andragogical
philosophy aims to create an informal, collaborative and respectful climate. He involves the learner
in the process of designing and evaluation of the learning activities which are based on the learner‘s
problem areas. The techniques include group discussion, role-playing, action project, case studies etc
(Deveci, 2007).
Knowles (1980) argued that learners in a pedagogical learning experience are more
teacher-directed. The learning content is generally prescriptive with the emphasis on transmittal of
knowledge and both acquire knowledge and skills, and demonstrate their competence to their
teacher. These learners also expect the teacher to firmly direct their learning, motivate them, and be
responsible for assessing all the learning. Common practices that support a pedagogical orientation
include lectures transmitting factual information, assigned readings, drills, tests, and rote learning.
Teachers operate on the assumption that learners are ready to learn whatever is prescribed to them in
the form of standardized curriculum. Although pedagogical practices are more appropriate for
children, Knowles defended the use of such practices with some adult learners, particularly in
circumstances where any other approach is unsuccessful (Sandlin, 2005).
A number of studies have been conducted on the on andragogical-pedagogical orientations
of adult learners in other fields. The following is a summary of eight representative studies.
Christian (1983) adapted Hadley‘s (1975) EOQ, for civilian-military students attending classes at
Tinker Air Force Base. The results of his study revealed differences related to whether classes were
mandatory or voluntary. He did not examine possible relationships between educational orientation
and age and sex.
Davenport & Davenport (1986) replicated Christian‘s (1983) study and included the
relationship between age, sex, academic achievement, and educational orientation among students at
the University of Wyoming. Their study revealed that female students had a higher andragogical
orientation. However, they could not find statistically significant relationship between age and
educational orientation and academic achievement and educational orientation.
Grubbs (1981) conducted a study with 332 students in 20 mid-western schools of theology and found
that females and younger students were more andragogical than others. Delahaye, Limerick, and
Hearn (1994) studied the andragogical and pedagogical orientations of university students studying
business management. Using Christian‘s (1983) Students‘ Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ) they
found that the relationship between an andragogical orientation and a pedagogical orientation is not
based on a continuum, but is orthogonal. Such a relationship implies that an individual can be located
within a two dimensional space that is bounded on one side by andragogy and on the adjoining side
by pedagogy. Therefore, a learner could have a higher score on pedagogy and andragogy or lower
score on pedagogy and andragogy.
Choy and Delahaye (2002) investigated the learning approaches, study orientation, and
readiness for self-directed learning of 266 youth aged 17-24 years old and enrolled in four Technical
and Further Education Institutes. Three instruments were used, the Study Process Questionnaire
(Biggs, 1988), SOQ (Christian, 1983), and the Learning Preference Assessment (Gugulielmino &
Guglielmino, 1991). The data showed that most youth have a predominant surface approach to
learning, a preference for an andragogical orientation, and a low level of readiness for self-directed
learning. There was no statistically significant difference in the pedagogy scores by gender.
Chen (1994) conducted a study to identify and compare the learning orientation of 683 adults and 699
traditional students in vocational programs of six junior colleges in Taiwan. He used the SOQ
(Christian, 1983) to determine the students‘ andragogical or pedagogical orientation. The data
suggested adult students tended to prefer andragogical orientation more than the pedagogical one.
There were significant differences among adult and traditional students in the dimensions of
―self-directed learning‖ and ―instructor's direction‖ and in the learning orientation of students
grouped by gender, age, type of programs, and grade.
Finally, Richardson (1994) aimed to determine if there was a difference in program
satisfaction between students who graduated from high school and began their nursing education and
those students who waited before beginning their nursing education relative to their preference for
andragogical or pedagogical teaching methodology. The study included 481 sophomore, junior, and
senior baccalaureate nursing students. The survey instruments obtained data on preference for
andragogical or pedagogical teaching methodology, program satisfaction, and demographic
characteristics. Analysis of variance was used to determine if there were significant differences in
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Hadley's (1975) EOQ and a program satisfaction scale scores based on student age, gender, marital
status, and year in college. An analysis of variance was used to determine if differences existed for
students who started their pre- nursing program after high school and those who waited. In general,
students preferred the andragogical teaching methodology over the pedagogical teaching
methodology. There was a significant difference between the EOQ mean score and age (p =.01) with
the 22-24 year olds having the highest preference for the andragogical teaching method. There was a
significant difference in EOQ score and year in college (p =.00), with sophomore and senior students
preferring more andragogical teaching methods than junior students. It was also found that there was
satisfaction with the program, though junior students were more satisfied with the program than
sophomore or senior students. Analysis of variance determined there were no differences in program
satisfaction or preference for andragogical or pedagogical teaching methods between students who
started their education after high school and those who waited.
Even though the literature has some examples of studies conducted on adult learners‘
andragogical and pedagogical orientation to learning in other areas and academic subjects, as cited
above, the field of English as a foreign language (EFL) is devoid of such studies. The notion of
andragogy is not known, or even given priority. The curriculum of programs preparing English
teachers seems to focus more on the pedagogical orientation of education, which tend not to focus on
adult learners. The informal talks and conversations with many EFL practitioners, who were either
teaching children or adults, lead to the conclusion that the term andragogy does not exist in their
lexicon.
Such an orientation to teaching will have negative effects on adults‘ learning English
because some adults do feel more anxious about learning a foreign language, believing that language
learning can best take place in earlier stages of life. Therefore, they may feel at a great disadvantage
to learn English. If the language education programs do not take these adult learners‘ characteristics
into consideration and language teachers lack the capability to adopt pedagogical orientations to
teaching adults learning English, the result might be much more detrimental.
Because of this pedagogical emphasis, some practitioners who may implement andragogical
practices in their teaching are likely not aware of their doing so. They call themselves ―English
language teachers‖ and do not make a distinction between those teaching adults and those teaching
children, which might point to the lack of interest to andragogical language teaching. Therefore, an
assessment of the pedagogical and andragogical orientation of adult learners learning English can
provide material and curriculum designers, as well as the practitioners in the field of EFL, with new
insights and open an andragogical door to English language teaching. The aim of this study was to
reveal the andragogical and pedagogical orientations of the adult EFL learners of English Education
Department Muria Kudus University at the classes of Speaking for Instructional Purposes.
the desired level of learning, the characteristics of adult learners should be considered. Only in this
way can appropriate learning environments be provided for our learners. However, the assumption
that all adult learners know and endorse the andragogical model cannot be made. One of the pillars of
the andragogical model is to start from where our learners are and to make use of their previous
learning experiences. Therefore, the fact that learners may hold strong pedagogical beliefs and
expectations cannot be overlooked. If it is overlooked, the andragogical assumption would be
imposed onto the learners, resulting in possibly a negative effect on their learning. Therefore, it
seems reasonable to suggest that in every adult education program the learners‘ beliefs about learning
need to be known, which requires teachers to learn the learners‘ andragogical-pedagogical
orientations.
Defining andragogy as the ―art and science of helping adults learn‖ (Knowles, 1990),
Knowles‘s identified six basic assumptions of how adults learn:
1. Adults need to know why they need to learn.
2. Adult learners embrace a self-concept of being responsible for their own learning.
3. The adult learner‘s varied life experiences serve as rich resources in the learning environment.
4. Adult learners‘ readiness to learn is linked to coping with real-life situations.
5. An adult‘s orientation to learning is different from a child‘s and is most likely life or task centered.
6. Adult-learner motivation comes mostly from internal motivators including promotion, job
change, and quality of life (Knowles, 1990).
Knowles et al. (2005) clarified the distinctions between andragogy and pedagogy. For the
purposes of this study, the term pedagogy also refers to traditional-learning theory. Knowles defined
pedagogy as the ―art and science of teaching children‖ (Knowles, 1990). From his core assumptions,
Knowles (1990) summarized differences in educational delivery, noting that pedagogy is based on
the following set of assumptions:
1. Students do not need to know why they must learn. They only need to know that the learning of
the course material will help them to successfully complete the class.
2. A teacher‘s concept of students is based on dependent personalities. Likewise, students view
themselves as being dependent on their teachers.
3. The experiences derived from the learning situation have minimal value to the students.
4. Students‘ ―readiness to learn‖ is initiated by the teacher, when the teacher tells them they must
learn to pass the class.
5. The students‘ orientation to learning is subject-centered.
6. Extrinsic factors such as grades, parental pressures, and the approval of the teacher are the factors
that motivate students.
In Knowles‘s work (1977, 1978, 1980), andragogy initially underlays four assumptions as a
contradistinction to the traditional, teacher-centered, pedagogical model. The four initial
assumptions were:
1. Self-direction
2. Experience-based
3. Readiness to learn
4. Orientation to learning
Knowles‘s (1970) characteristic of self-directedness relates to the ―concept of the learner‖ (p.
48). In the traditional pedagogical model, Knowles saw the role of the learner as a dependent role. In
that teacher-centered context, the expectation is that the instructor assumes full responsibility for
what, when, and how learning takes place. In contrast, the andragogical model recognizes that adults
mature at different rates and naturally move from dependency toward self-directedness. In this
student-centered model, teachers encourage and facilitate learning but work to nurture the adults‘
psychological need for self-direction.
Adults develop a need to learn when real-life experiences require them to cope and address real-life
tasks or problems. Learners self-motivate and become ready to learn, and learning becomes more
satisfying when linked with urgency to real-life experiences. After examining a learner‘s orientation
to learning, Knowles linked the educational process to the achievement of personal goals,
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emphasizing the notion that learners ―want to be able to apply whatever knowledge and skill they
gain today to living more effectively tomorrow‖ (Knowles, 1984).
Learning Orientations
Scholars share no universal agreement on the number of learning theories that exist.
However, five general areas have emerged as significant schools of thought on the subject: (a)
behaviorist, (b) humanist, (c) cognitivist, (d) social cognitive, and (e) constructivist. These
―orientations‖ group specific learning theories based on the assumptions associated with each
(Merriam et al., 2007).
From a behaviorist orientation, overt behaviors can be observed and measured and stimulus
can be observed quantitatively (Good & Brophy, 1990). This orientation views learning as
establishing responses to discriminative stimuli. Through practice, responses can be strengthened so
that complex skills can be developed by providing clear measurable objectives followed by
consistent reinforcement (Schunk, 2008). The implications of the behaviorist orientation to adult
learning are rooted in the view that learning is a process of forming associations between stimuli and
responses. The adult who recognizes that behavior is associated with certain stimuli may be able to
self- regulate. The individual may ―choose which behaviors to regulate, establish discriminative
stimuli for their occurrence, evaluate performance in terms of whether it matches the standard, and
administer reinforcement‖.
The humanist orientation is best known to originate from scholars such as Maslow (1968)
and Rogers and Freiberg (1993). Maslow believed that at the lowest level are physiological needs,
and at the highest level is self-actualization. Only when the low needs are met is it possible to fully
move on to the next level. Learning can be seen as a form of self-actualization, a sense of
accomplishment, and the controlling of impulses.
Rogers and Freiberg (1993) posited that learning combines the logical and intuitive with
intellect and feelings to create an experiential learning condition. Experiential learning has a quality
of personal involvement, is self-initiated, is pervasive, is evaluated by the learner, and becomes the
essence of meaning to the learner. The significance of the humanist orientation for adult-learning
theory includes the notion that adults desire to be self-directed and that the focus of learning is on the
individual, with learners expected to assume primary responsibility for their own learning.
The notion that human learning occurs primarily in social contexts gave rise to social-cognitive
learning theory. Combining many of the elements of the behaviorist and cognitivist orientation, the
dominant belief was that humans acquire knowledge by observing others. Learner motivation,
learning contexts, observational learning, and self efficacy are key contributions. The implications of
the social-cognitive orientation for adult learning include the notion that adults are motivated to
learn, in part because of their varying degrees of external or internal control, the importance of
context, and the learner‘s interaction with the environment (Gibson, 2004).
The constructivist orientation maintains that learning is the result of the construction of
meaning and how people make sense of their experiences. Social constructivists believe that
knowledge is ―constructed‖ when people collaborate about shared problems or tasks. Implications for
adult learning include the notion that self- direction is a constructionist view. Cognitive
apprenticeship, situated learning, reflective practice, and communities of practice are notions found
in the adult-learning and the constructivist literature (Merriam et al., 2007).
Learning Method Orientations of Andragogy and Pedagogy
Andragogy does not belong to teaching method, but tends to go to the level philosophical
concepts representing the adult learners‘ involvement in teaching and learning process. The
andragogical effects in teaching are seen through teaching methods. In other words, there are many
teaching methods representing and orienting to andragogy or andragogically oriented.
Pedagogy does not belong to teaching method, but tends to go to the level philosophical
concepts representing the adult learners‘ involvement in teaching and learning process. The
pedagogical effects in teaching are seen through teaching methods. In other words, there are many
teaching methods representing and orienting to pedagogy or pedagogically oriented.
Below is some examples learning method orientation of andragogy and peadagogy:
Table 1
Learning Method Orientation of Andragogy dan Pedagogy
(Kramer & Wren, 1994)
No Andragogy No Pedagogy
1. Small group discussion 1. Lecture by teacher
2. Effective use of clickers 2. Lecture-demonstration
3. One-minute papers 3. Recitation oral questions
4. Interactive lecture 4. Student reports
demonstrations/ILDs
5. Studi kasus 5. Textbook assignments
6. Concept mapping 6. Construction of vocabulary lists
7. Tutorial worksheets 7. Vocabulary drills
8. Problem-based learning 8. Use of pretest
9. Just-in-time teaching 9. Gaming and simulation
10. Computer simulations and games 10. Interviews
11. Group tests 11. Audio-tutorial lessons
12. Problem sets in groups 12. Open textbook study
13. Random calling 13. Reproductions
14. Writing with peer review 14. Tutorial: peer teaching
15. Writing with peer review 15. Coaching
16. Bulletin boards 16. Oral reports
17. Biographical reports 17. principles and facts
18. Debate 18. Construction of scrapbooks
19 Class discussions 19 Supervised study during class
period
20. Library research 20. Open textbook tests, take home tests
21. Field trips 21. Reading aloud
22. Drama, role playing 22. Filling out forms
23. Committee projects 23. Council/school board meeting
24. Laboratory experiments
3. METHOD
This section describes the respondents, data collection and analysis procedures of this study.
4. THE RESPONDENTS
In this study, 60 students at Speaking for Instructional Purposes classes in English Education
Department Muria Kudus University were included. They had been studying English for about six
years on and off. However, for the three months prior to the study, they had been attending their
classes regularly. Their ages varied between 19 and 21. The mean age was 26. This was a
convenience sample because I had access only to students who I was teaching.
5. DATA ANALYSIS
In this study, I adopt Christian‘s (1983) Educational Orientation Questionnaire (EOQ) as the
main instrument to gather data. Christian‘s questionnaire was similar to that of Hadley (1975), but
contained 25 andragogical and 25 pedagogical items. Ten items were omitted due to validity
problems. A reliability coefficient of .77 was found for the EOQ using the Kuder Richardson
Formula. Content validity was tested by the jury method of validation, with two groups reviewing the
instrument. Thirteen prominent adult educators, including Malcolm Knowles, had reviewed the EOQ
and found it acceptable. The Turkish version of the instrument was reviewed by my promoters in
writing the dissertation at Postgraduate Programme of Semarang State University.
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The questionnaire followed Hadley‘s (1975) six dimensional design that measures: (a) the purpose of
education, (b) the nature of the learner, (c) the characteristics of the learning experience, (d)
management of the learning experience, (e) evaluation, and (f) the relationship among learners and
between learners and educators.
The 50 EOQ statements were randomly numbered, with statements 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11,16, 20,
21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 32, 33, 36, 39, 40, 41, 42, 45, 47 and 49 the andragogical items, and
statements 1, 3, 6, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 28, 29, 30, 31, 34, 35, 37, 38, 43, 44, 46, 48 and 50
the pedagogical items (see Appendix). Andragogical statements were scored on a 5-point Likert scale
ranging from 5 (almost always) to 1 (almost never), and pedagogical statements were reversed, with
1 (almost always) to 5 for (almost never). Hence, a high score represents an andragogical orientation,
and a low score represents a pedagogical orientation. Since there are 50 items on the questionnaire,
250 was the highest possible score and 50 the lowest possible score. A score of 150 was the median
point and was considered neutral. Scores over 150 would be considered andragogical, whereas scores
under 150 would be considered pedagogical. A z-test was conducted to determine whether there was
a statistically significant difference between the scores that show an andragogical orientation and
those that show a pedagogical orientation.
6. DISCUSSION
The data gathered in the study revealed three learner groups:
1. Those who tended to be andragogically oriented (n=51, 83.3%). The andragogical scores varied
between 151 and 196.
2. Those who tended to be pedagogically oriented (n=7, 11.7%). The pedagogical scores varied
between 135 and 148.
3. Neutral. Two of the respondents had the score of 150. Because this means a neutral orientation,
they were not taken into consideration in the analysis of the data. The standard deviations for the
instrument are presented in Table 1.
Table 1
The Mean of the Pedagogical and Andragogical Scores
And the Standard Deviation
Category N % X SD
Pedagogy 7 11.7 143 4.358
Andragogy 51 83.3 166 13.1
*z=7.698, z> 1.96
The mean for the pedagogy (M=143; SD=4.358) was smaller than the mean for the andragogy
(M=166; SD=13.33). When the pedagogical and andragogical scores were compared, a statistical
significance of 0.05 was found (z=7.698, z> 1.96). Andragogical scores were found to be statistically
more significant than the pedagogical scores, which suggest the majority of the respondents (83.3 %)
were andragogically oriented. However, it is important to note that those who were andragogically
oriented were not so rigid in their orientation to learning, since their scores ranged from 151 to 196
(SD=13.13). Therefore, the andragogical group tended to be more heterogonous. Also, although they
were small in number, those who were found to be pedagogically oriented tended to be a more
homogenous group compared to the andragogically oriented group (SD=4.36).
First group who is andragogically oriented
The students who andragogically oriented tend to be heterogeneous. To get andragogically
oriented, they vary in two things; (i) in the background of their age, and gender; (ii) in the way they
answered the points of questionnaire.
Among the range of age, the 19, 20, 21 year of aged students resemble in number to be
andragogically oriented. No dominant ages of student tend to be andragogically oriented. In this
study, the factor of age does not affect the students‘ tendency to be andragogically oriented.
The same matter also deals with the background of the students‘ gender; male and female students.
Both male and female students are balanced in number to be andragogically oriented. This is quite
contradictory with some of previous researches indicating that female have more tendency to be
andragogically oriented in EFL learning and acquisition, and one of them was investigated by Rua
(2006).
Rua (2006) here proposed the result of his study related with an outline of the evidence
between males and females‘ achievement and orientation of learning and acquiring EFL. The outline
include: (i) the number of females opting for foreign languages in schools and taking public
examinations in languages is significantly higher than the number of males; (ii) males are superior to
females in tasks concerning spatial ability, but females generally excel males in tasks involving
verbal skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing); (iii) females consistently appear more
interested in the study of a foreign language than males, and manifest an evident liking for the
culture, the country and the speakers of that language. Whereas males‘ reasons for studying the
language are mainly instrumental, females‘ motivations tend to be integrative; (iv) females are
significantly more confident concerning their abilities to master the language, whereas males, on the
contrary, appear to be more self-deprecating of their linguistic competence; (v) the sex-stereotyping
of jobs in society still endorses language learning as an accomplishment for females, and
consequently, females tend to perceive languages as more vocationally relevant. In other words, they
are generally more inclined to believe that languages will be useful to them in their future careers.
The heterogeneity also deals with the way of the first group of students in answering the
points of questionnaire. The revised and modified Christian‘s EOQ (1983) in this study consists of 50
points. Those of andragogical orientation have one half, and another half belongs to the pedagogical
orientation. The half of 50 points for andragogical orientation are as follows:
1. Lecturer brings students‘ behaviour that motivates themselves to ask question
2. Lecturer should create situation of teaching that makes students participate actively
3. Lecturer should show the order of learning activities to students
4. Lecturer should help students to increase their learning progress
5. Lecturer assigns students to have study club
6. Lecturer should give all information as accurate fact
7. Lecturer should direct students‘ learning
8. Lecturer should give chance to students to make self-assessment for their achievement.
9. Lecturer should appreciate students‘ skill and experience in the form of score
10. Lecturer should give chance to students to learn by their own way Lecturer should state the goal
of learning in the beginning of lesson
11. Lecturer should avoid of competition that may happens among students
12. Lecturer should understand and find solution for students‘ learning problems
13. Lecturer should create situation of teaching that makes students participate actively
14. Lecturer should motivate students to be responsible for their own learning quality.
15. Lecturer makes lesson plan based on recommended guidance
16. Lecturer should conduct evaluation as already targeted in the lesson plan
17. Lecturer should give chance to students to learn by their own way
18. Lecturer should inform students the way how to learn
19. Lecturer should give preparation to students before having examination
20. Lecturer should help students reach the goal of learning they have determined themselves
21. Lecturer should make lesson plan carefully
22. Lecturer should realize lesson plan in teaching
23. Lecturer should let students determine their own learning goals
24. Lecturer should help students reach the goal of learning they have determined themselves
25. Lecturer gives students chance to solve their own problems if there are any
When expressing their andragogical orientation, each student of this group heterogeneously state
each of the 25 points of andragogical orientation. No dominant tendency of stating the same
perception and behaviour supporting andragogical orientation is found. The students
heterogeneously spread their perception and behaviour toward those points.
Second group who is pedagogically oriented
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The students who are pedagogically oriented can be claimed homogenous in stating their
perception and behaviour toward the pedagogical orientation. Their homogeneity also deals with two
things; (i) in the background of their age, and gender; (ii) in the way they answered the points of
questionnaire.
19 year students as well as the male students tend to be more pedagogically oriented. The
students with homogeneous age and gender dominantly tend to be pedagogically oriented. Students
of 19 years of age seem to still have their strong characteristics of young learners, whereas male
students as stated by several experts, including Rua (2006), are bit more dependent in learning and
acquiring EFL.
Dealing with the way of the second group of students in answering the points of
questionnaire, homogeneity also happens. There is a tendency of stating the same perception and
behaviour supporting andragogical orientation. The students homogeneously spread their perception
and behaviour toward those points of pedagogy as follows:
1. Lecturer should motivate students to join academic competition
2. Lecturer should insert social values in his/her teaching
3. Lecturer may change his/her own decision of everything related with students‘ learning if there
are logical reasons
4. Lecturer should motivate students to have better learning behaviour
5. Lecturer should give students chance to increase their diligence in a form of competition among
them
6. Lecturer and students should build warm relationship
7. Lecturer should motivate students to be mature in getting knowledge
8. Lecturer should consider what students really need in their learning
9. Lecturer and students collaborate in trying to take a risk and to do new things
10. Lecturer should involve students to realize lesson plan
11. Lecturer should have good idea of developing their way of teaching
12. Lecturer should assign students to read a lot
13. Lecturers do not make differences in academic matters
14. Lecturer should evaluate the students individually
15. Lecturer should avoid of competition that may happens among students
16. Lecturer should identify students‘ changing behaviour and help make it
17. Lecturer should know the best for students
18. Lecturer should avoid of wasting time for discussing irrelevant issues
19. Lecturer should avoid of wasting time for discussing irrelevant issues
20. Lecturer should give preparation to students before having examination
21. Lecturer should give much attention to students
22. If lecturer makes mistakes, he/she will get no respect from students
23. Lecturer should conduct evaluation as already targeted in the lesson plan
24. Lecturer should give students note and homework
25. Lecturer chooses topics of learning for students
Third group who is neutral (both andragogically and pedagogically oriented)
Only two students are found neutral; meaning that they may have perception and behaviour of
andragogy and pedagogy at once.They tend to try being andragogically oriented but at the same time
they still cannot leave their pedagogical orientation. In this study this kind of data are excluded to be
analyzed.
7. CONCLUSION
The adults who were learning English as a foreign language tended to be more
andragogically oriented in their learning. However, the wide range of scores also indicates a
tendency towards pedagogical orientations. Therefore, it would be wrong to assume that the learners
would only go for the andragogical and/or pedagogical items.
When the number of the learners found to be andragogically oriented is considered, the purpose and
the needs of the learners on a course should be taken into account. Therefore, before starting certain
courses, educators need to find out the needs, interests, and purposes of their target groups. For
example, if the learners of English wanted to learn the language to use it in social groups, the
educational program should help them to develop their communicational skills.
Educators should not assume that all their adult learners will be andragogically oriented. In
organizing the educational settings and the materials, pedagogical factors need to be taken into
consideration. It is also important to be aware of those who could be totally andragogical or
pedagogical in a group. Only in this way can educators provide educationally appropriate
opportunities for all individual learners, enabling them to reach more learners. Learners who are
pedagogically oriented should be approached in pedagogical ways first. Then, step-by-step they
could be helped to have and appreciate the andragogical experiences.
Educators need to be informed about the concept of learning orientation. Educators who appreciate
the importance of this concept and know how to use it would choose to find out the learning
orientation of their learner from the very beginning. Educators should also learn their own
orientation, which would allow them to make a comparison between their own and their learners‘
orientation, giving them the opportunity to build realistic expectations and arrange the learning
environment accordingly.
REFERENCES
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York: Cambridge Books.
Knowles, M. (1978, 1990). The Adult Learner a Neglected Species, Houston, TX: Gulf.
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ABSTRACT
The study aimed to analyze the composition writing ability developed through the process approach
following both free and controlled exercises formats of the 84 junior pre-service special education
teachers of the Leyte Normal University for AY 2014-2015. It adopted the descriptive cross-sectional
survey research design and had used Jacobs‘ English as a Second Language Composition Profile as
the instrument of the study. For valid and reliable interpretation of data, the mean and t - test were
used. Results showed that the level of the respondents‘ composition writing ability developed through
free-exercises in terms of organization, vocabulary and language component were rated to be at
―average good‖ level. In terms of content and mechanics; the respondents‘ compositions were both
rated ―poor to fair‖ by the four raters. On the other hand, the level of the respondents‘ composition
writing ability developed through controlled-exercises in terms of content, organization, and
language were at the average to good level while their vocabulary and mechanics components were
rated poor to fair level. The over-all or general level of the respondents‘ composition writing ability
developed in both free and controlled exercises is at the average to good level. The raters noted that
the respondents committed errors the most in mechanics, vocabulary and language use.
Keywords: composition writing ability, process approach to writing, pre-service special education
teachers
1. INTRODUCTION
The curricular landscapes of the various teacher education programs offered by the Teacher
Education Institutions (TEIs) in the Philippines explicitly require students to write extensively. This
is so as numerous studies point out that writing is the best platform to which thoughts and ideas are
best structured. Likewise, the ability to write is the most salient manifestations of learning in higher
education Hartshorn (2011). Researches also revealed that writing, which was considered the
domain of language arts, has become an essential tool in today‘s global community Ru-Wang et.al,
(2011). Further, El-Sayyed Sanad (2014) posited that that writing is one of the primary cornerstones
on which content learning is built. However, of the four macro-skills of language learning, writing
seems to be the most unpopular. Studies also reveal that this skill remains a dilemma to both the
learners and the teachers. This is evident in the way it has been neglected and / or treated poorly in the
past (Manguerra (2001); Zara-ee (2011)).
In its strictest sense, students in the tertiary level are often times bombarded with a myriad of
activities requiring them to write. With the changing platforms of the world‘s economic affairs;
various challenges to educational processes including teaching and learning engagement have
emerged. Baraceros (2009) argued that the recent merging of economies of the member states of the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), in which the Philippines is a signatory state,
would require graduates of higher education institutions, to have mastery in the verbal and written
use of English language to ensure success in their interaction or networking as well as global
competitiveness. In the same manner, Hansen, Randall and Hansen, Katharine (2015) posited that
most potential employers of job seekers do care about writing skills. They care so much that they
bemoan the poor preparation of the entry-level pool of grads. They further stressed that, in a labor
force full of mediocre writers, someone who writes well is bound to stand out and succeed. Yet, a
steady erosion in the writing abilities of graduates was noted by the academicians and business
people.
If Teacher Education Institutions (TEIs) would want its graduates to keep at par with their
counterparts in the ASEAN region; then, they should graduate writing virtuoso. As such, college
students in general and pre-service teachers in particular must be writing - literate.
These firm grounds prompted the researcher to conduct this study.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 The Flower and Hayes Writing Process Model
Dujsik (2008) posited that The Flower and Hayes (1981) writing process Model is cognitive
by nature. The model has three major elements: task environment, writer‘s long-term memory, and
writing processes. The task environment refers to the information related to the writing assignment
(e.g. topic, audience, and motivating clues) and text that the writer has created so far that has an
impact on the writing performance. The writer‘s long-term memory includes the information such as
knowledge of topic, audience knowledge, and various writing plans which the writer retrieves and
refers to during the writing process. The writing processes consist of planning, translating, and
reviewing, all of which are controlled by a monitor that ―functions as writing strategist which
determines when the writer moves from one process to the next‖. The model further claims that
planning comprises three sub-processes: generating ideas, organizing information, and setting goals.
While writing, writers take ideas from planning, information from the task environment and from
long term memory, and convert them into written forms corresponding to information in the writer‘s
memory (translate), and read/edit (review) to improve the quality of the text it added. Dujsik (2008)
further noted that writing classrooms practice which typically involves planning, drafting, revision,
and editing manifest the model.
2.2 Relative research on writing ability
Manguerra (2006) quoted Preciosa Soliven who pointed out that the writing ability of an
average College student in the Philippines is just equal to that of a high school student graduate in
China. In the same study, the late Bro. Andrew Gonzalez likewise emphasized that the quality of the
country‘s College graduate is poor and that only few schools and research institutions are providing
intellectual elite. These remarks are alarming since one of the measures in enhancing competitiveness
is equipping students with adequate knowledge of the English language to cope with the demands of
globalization. Thus, the ability to communicate in both written and oral English is imperative.
Undeniably, writing is essential to a learning process. It is regarded as a ―unique mode of
learning‖. It is anchored on the idea that the learner acquires the skill when writing form part of the
total learning process. Likewise, it is deemed as the most difficult challenge of a student‘s
manifestation of learning as it requires coming up with a response that are structured and concise.
Furthermore, it must provide context for an audience that is not part of the environment but that exists
apart from the learner as immersed in the writing process. Students are also compelled to be more
careful and more engaged as learner-participants in the learning process (Raimes, 1987; Dizon, 1994;
Manguerra, 2006; Hadley, 2014). Xuefeng (2010) argued that writing is a powerful means of
learning because the more students manipulate content the more likely they are to remember and
understand the content and reading process. Consequently, Alinsunod (2015) posited that writing is
one of the most powerful tools to demonstrate what we know. Writing problems appear due to the
different expectations of writing at tertiary level and that students need to be aware of the
expectations of the readers, the content of writing, degree of formality in writing, and contextual
elements in writing. Moreover, Viel-Ruma (2011) contested that writing is an essential skill for
academic success across all curricular areas. Researches also posited that poor performance on
writing tasks can lead to: decrease student achievement in all subject areas; difficulty in gaining
admission to postsecondary educational institutions; and limited employment opportunities. On the
other hand, (Valenzuela, 2014) argued that writing is always a political and sociocultural practice.
Learning and teaching how to write are never neutral. Drawn on the notion of cultural capital, the
researcher noted that some scholars argue that writing well in English as a second language requires
the acquisition of such valuable capital. Writing in English comes with prestige. The study further
stressed that, in the Philippines, students born into middle-class families are one step ahead of those
from working-class families. Easier access to more valued linguistic resources at home and school
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means a more powerful linguistics currency, which afford middle-class students almost exclusive
membership in elite communities in practice. Cabansag (2013) found that high school students in a
Laboratory High School in a State University in Cagayan Valley, Philippines are very proficient in
structure and grammar but not so much in mechanics. The study also revealed the persistent errors
committed by the respondents in their written compositions namely: use of verbs, verb tenses and
proper use of capitalization. Attempting to determine the relationship between the reading habits and
the English writing proficiency of the selected First Year High School students of Colegio de San
Juan de Letran Calamba, AY 2009-2010; Gonzales et. al. (2011) pointed out that most of the selected
first year high school students have moderate reading habits while they have below average both in
grammar and paragraph writing as far as their total scores in the English writing proficiency are
concerned. A similar study posted on-line examined the writing proficiency of the students enrolled
in the programs BSED and BEED in Catanduanes State University S.Y. 2013-2014 .The study
revealed that the BSED and BEED students in Catanduanes State University S.Y. 2013-2014 have an
advance writing proficiency. This means that they can write routine, informal and some formal
correspondence, narratives, descriptions and summaries of a factual nature in all major time frames in
connected discourse of a paragraph in length. They also have good vocabulary and good control of
the most frequently used structures. The results also showed that only 5 of the 27 respondents are
leveled superior. This means that the 5 respondents can produce formal and informal writings on
topics related treated on both abstractly and concretely. They can present well-developed ideas,
opinions, arguments, and hypotheses through extended discourse; can control structures, both
general and specialized vocabulary, spelling, punctuation, cohesive devices and all other aspects of
written form and organization with no pattern of error to distract the reader.
(http://www.slideshare.net/tinmay/remedial-research-final-na-to)
3. RESEARCH METHOD
3.1 Participants
Participants were eighty four junior students of Leyte Normal University enrolled in the
program Bachelor in Elementary Education in Special Education during the second semester AY
2014 - 2015.
3.2 Measures and Procedures
3.2.1 English as a Second Language Composition Profile by Jacobs
To determine the level of the composition writing ability of the students, the researcher
adopted the English as a Second Language Composition Profile by Jacobs, taken from English
Teaching Forum, Vol. XVI, No.3, circulated in July 1983. The instrument was likewise used in a
parallel study conducted by Solayao (1998) for his master‘s thesis submitted to the Philippine
Normal University- Manila. The instrument basically examines a writing composition in terms of
content (30%), organization (20%), vocabulary (20%), language use (25%), and mechanics (5%).
3.2.2 Demographic information
Participants provided some demographic information, including gender, and age, types of
students.
3.3 Data analysis
For valid and reliable interpretation of data, the mean and t - test were used. The mean for
independent data was used to describe the level of composition writing ability of the respondents.
The t - test of independent samples on the other hand was used to compare the level of composition
writing ability of the two groups in terms of content, organization, vocabulary, language use, and
mechanics based on the free and controlled exercises given to the respondents. The 0.5 level of
significance was used as basis for rejecting or accepting the null hypotheses. To obtain the desired
data, the respondents were asked to write four compositions anchored on the themes: (1) Surviving
the Wrath of Super Typhoon Yolanda and (2)Travelling is Learning for the controlled exercises
and ―My Most Unforgettable Christmas Break” and “On Becoming a Special Education
Teacher” for free exercises. The compositions were used to determine the level of the respondents‘
composition writing ability in terms of: content, organization, vocabulary, language use and
mechanics. They are likewise used to determine the composition writing ability of the respondents in
free and controlled exercises as well as the linguistic units frequently committed. A copy of the table
of equivalence of this profile was attached to each of the eighty four compositions. The compositions
were then given to a panel of raters composed of two master teachers in English, a college instructor
and the researcher himself.
4. RESULTS
4.1 Mean Scores in the Different Components for Two Compositions
Table 1: Mean Scores in the Different Components for Two Compositions in Free Exercises
as Evaluated by Four Raters
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Table 2 shows the mean scores obtained by the respondents for two compositions developed
through controlled writing method. When taken in isolation, the scores of the junior pre-service SPEd
students were on the average to good level in content, organization, and language use components as
reflected in the mean scores of 22.30, 16.31, and 21.76 respectively. On the other hand, the
respondents were rated poor to fair level in both vocabulary and mechanics in which they obtained
the mean scores of 11.76 and 3.16 respectively. Reflecting against Jacob‘s ESL Profile; having been
rated poor to fair in vocabulary means that their compositions were non-fluent; ideas confused or
disconnected; lacks logical sequencing and development; frequent errors of word / idiom form; and
choice usage meaning confused or obscured were noted by the raters. In addition, to be rated poor to
average in mechanics means that their compositions have frequent errors of
spelling, punctuation, capitalization, paragraphing, legible handwriting, as well as meaning confused
and obscured.
Table 3: Joint Mean Scores in the Different Components for Two Compositions Developed through
Free-Exercises as Evaluated by Four Raters
Components Content Organization Vocabulary Language Use Mechanics Descriptive
Jointly
30% Level
Percentage 20% 20% 25% 5%
Joint Mean Scores in the Different Components for Two Compositions in Free
Raters
Exercises as Evaluated by Four Raters (N=84)
R1 21.20 18.22 18.35 22.21 2.98 82.96 A-G
R2 18.32 19.24 17.45 20.24 3.12 78.37 A-G
R3 17.29 17.12 14.22 19.21 3.34 71.18 A-G
R4 17.01 17.26 15.23 23.32 2.68 75.5 A-G
Total 308.01
Grand
Mean 77.00 A-G
The third table shows the joint mean scores of the two compositions of the respondents
developed through free-exercises rated by four raters. Jointly, if language components are not taken /
interpreted in isolation; the respondents‘ composition writing ability is at the average to good level as
reflected in a grand mean of 77.00.
Table 4: Joint Mean Scores in the Different Components for Two Compositions Developed through
Controlled-Exercises as Evaluated by Four Raters
Components Content Organization Vocabulary Language Use Mechanics Descriptive
Jointly
30% Level
Percentage 20% 20% 25% 5%
Mean Scores in the Different Components for Two Compositions in Controlled
Raters
Exercises as Evaluated by Four Raters (N=84)
The fourth table shows the joint mean scores of the two compositions of the respondents
developed through controlled-exercises rated by four raters. Jointly, if language components are not
taken / interpreted in isolation; the respondents‘ composition writing ability is at the average to good
level as reflected in a grand mean of 75.29.
In terms of linguistic unit/s does/do students committed the most by the pre-service junior
special education students; the raters noted that the respondents committed errors the most in
mechanics, vocabulary and language use. Jacob‘s ESL Profile interpreted the compositions to have
incurred the following:
A. Mechanics : Frequent errors of spelling; punctuation, capitalization, paragraphing, legible
handwriting, meaning confused and obscured
REFERENCES
Baraceros, E. L. (2009). English 3: English for Academic Writing. Rex Publishing, Manila,
Philippines.
Hartshorn, J. K. (2008). The effects of manageable corrective feedback on ESL writing accuracy.
Available at: Pro Quest Dissertations and Theses Global. Retrieved on July 6, 2016
Zara-ee, A. (2011). ―Does english proficiency level predict writing speed, length, and quality?‖ Arab
World English Journal, Vol. 2, No.3. (128-140).
Manguerra, M.T. (2006). Instructional materials in teaching technical writing to college students of
De la Salle University-Dasmarinas. A seminar paper for a Master‘s Degree. Philippine Normal
University-Manila, Philippines.
Dujsik, D. (2008). The effects of pre-writing strategy training guided by computer-based procedural
facilitation on ESL students‘ strategy use, writing quantity, and writing quality. Available at:
Pro Quest Dissertations and Theses Global. Retrieved on July 6, 2016.
Jing Ru-Wang et.al. (2011). Development of an instrument for assessing elementary school students‘
written expression in Science. Source: The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher Vol. 20, No. 2
(276-290).
Xuefeng, Z. (2010). Instructional materials for teaching writing for college students in china. A
special project for a Master‘s Degree. Philippine Normal University-Manila,Philippines.
Alinsunod, J. (2015). A study on common writing errors of engineering students: a basis for
curriculum development. European Journal of English Language and Literature Studies. Vol.
2., No.3,(7-15).
Viel-Ruma, K. A. (2008). The effects of direct instruction in writing on english speakers and english
language learners with disabilities. Available at: Pro Quest Dissertations and Theses Global.
Retrieved on July 7, 2016
Valenzuela, J. Writing teachers have to develop their own methods. The Philippine Daily Inquirer.
E4 Learning Section, issued Tuesday, July 1, 2014.
Cabansag, J.N. (2013). Written language proficiency of laboratory High School Students in a State
University in Cagayan Valley Philippines. International Refereed Research Journal Vol. IV,
Issue – 2, (87).
Gonzales, J. A., De Peralta, C.F. (2011). The relationship between the reading habits and the english
writing proficiency of the selected 1st year high school students of Colegio de san Juan de
Letran Calamba AY 2009-2010. Ani: Letran Calamba Research
Sanad, Hanan Ahmed El-Sayyed (2014). Using self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) to
develop EFL reading and writing skills. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science
(IOSR-JHSS), Vol. 19, Issue 5 (82-97).
http://www.slideshare.net/tinmay/remedial-research-final-na-to
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Abstract
This paper discusses two issues. First, it discusses the concept of English as an international
language and the increase of the number of non-native English language learners in the next
decades. It is predicted that the number non-native English language learners exceeds the number
English native language learners. The fact also shows that the number of non-native English
speakers also exceeds the number English native speakers. The possibility of communication using
English among non-native English speakers is greater compared with communication using English
among native speakers of English or the number of non-native English language speakers to native
speakers of English. Second, it discusses possible integration of cultural values of both native and
non-native English speakers into the teaching of English. Such integration ignites the role of English
as an international language. The blending of multicultural values into the teaching of English
should be reflected in the teaching contents of both spoken and written texts. With this rich cultural
values introduced to the English language learners, it will raise awareness of rich cultural
differences that should be acknowledged. English as an international language accommodates
cultural values of the world multicultural society.
1. INTRODUCTION
English will remain as an international language in the next decades. The word
‗international‘ is understood as the existence of variations reflecting cultural and linguistic
differences of people who use English in multicultural contexts. The way English users
communicating in English reflect their cultural norms and values. The way they communicate in
English, to some extent, will also be influenced by their first language. Rusdi (2015) argued that
Speakers who come from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds use English differently
reflecting their unique speech styles and cultural norms. It cannot be denied English will be used
differently by different people from different cultural backgrounds both in speech styles and cultural
values attached to it. Such variations should be maintained and understood by other English language
users to build awareness and understanding among the English language users throughout the world.
The paper discusses two key issues. First, it discusses the concept of English as an international
language in multicultural society. Second, it discusses the implication of cultural differences in
multicultural society into the teaching of English.
speech styles, like native speakers. They will use Indonesian cultural norms and values when
communicating in English.
The fact shows that the number of non-native speakers of English exceeds the number of
English native speakers. Honna (1998) reported that in Asia, more than 350 million people speak
English for various purposes, a number that is more than the combined population of United States,
Britain, Canada, and Australia where English is a native tongue for many citizens. Most non-native
speakers of English communicate in English with other non-native speakers. Indonesians might use
English to communicate with Thais, Vietnamese, Koreans, Japanese, Cambodians, or Egyptians. Let
non-native speakers reflect their cultural norms and values when communicating in English. It is
agreeable what Honna (1998) has stated that the spread of English in Asia does not necessarily
represent the transplantation of American English, British English, or any other native speaker
English in the region. Honna further argued that English in Asia is being increasingly
de-Anglo-Americanized, and that new varieties of English are being established to reflect Asian
ways of life.
English users are grouped into three categories: inner circle, outer circle, and expanding
circle, Kachru in van Gelderen (2006). English users in inner circle are native speakers of English.
English is used for everyday interaction, language of instruction, formal language used by the
government. Countries that are grouped into inner circle are Great Britain, United States of America,
Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. In outer circle category, English is used as a second language.
English is used as a formal language in schools and government offices. Some people might also use
English for everyday interaction. Some of the countries under the umbrella of outer circle are India,
Pakistan, Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei Darussalam. In the expanding circle, English is used as a
foreign language. English is not used as formal language in schools and government offices. For
everyday interaction, people in expanding circle use local or national language. In the expanding
circle, English is mostly learned for specific purposes. In Indonesia, for example, the main objective
for learning English is to prepare students to be able to read English texts. Others are learning English
in order to pass the IELTS or TOEFL test. Some of the countries under the expanding circle, for
example, are China, USSR, Indonesia, Egypt, Korea, Japan, etc.
In term of the number of English language users, the expanding circle has more English
language users than that of in inner and outer circles. Crystal in van Gelderen (2006) estimated that in
2001 the number of English users in inner circle were 320-380 million speakers; in outer circle was
more or less 300-500 million; and in expanding circle was about 500 million to 1 billion speakers.
The fact show that English users are coming from different ethnicities and cultural backgrounds. The
fact also shows that English are not only used among native speakers in inner circle, but also among
speakers in outer circles, and among speakers in expanding circle. In fact, the number of non-native
speakers of English communicate to other non-native speakers is greater than native speakers of
English to other speakers and via versa.
Take for example in South East Asian region, Indonesians, non-native speakers,
communicate in English to other Indonesians, Vietnamese, Singaporeans, Malaysians, The
Philipinos, and Thais. Indonesians might communicate in English to other non-native speakers such
as to Japanese, Koreans, Russians, and Chinese. Possibly, the greater possibility for Indonesians to
communicate in English is to people in expanding or outer circles, not to the native speakers of
English in the inner circle.
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intuitive, or indirect‖ (1995:272). It has also been generally accepted that the inductive method of
argument is preferred by Asians while the deductive method is preferred by Westerners. For
example, Kirkpatrick asserts that ―there seemed to be consensus [among Western scholars] that
Asian reasoning was somehow more indirect than ‗Western‘ and that Asian reasoning preferred the
use of inductive or analogical argument‖ (1995:291). Tyler and Davies (1990) studied the
communication patterns between a Korean lecturer with his American students. It was found that the
Korean lecturer presented his topic by explaining details of the information first. This method is not
expected by the American students where they expected the lecturer presented the general
information first, then the details of the information. Samovar and Porter (1991) argued that most
Koreans use the inductive method of reasoning while Americans use the deductive method of
reasoning. Scollon and Scollon in Rusdi (2015) stated that cultures and preferences might change and
argue that Western speakers or writers before seventeenth century preferred to use inductive method
of reasoning. They began to use deductive method of reasoning or ―CBS (Clarity, Brevity, Sincerity)
style‖ began only in the seventeenth century.
However, Scollon and Scollon (1991:113) also use the term ―inductive‖ and ―deductive‖ to
describe the ways ‗Asian‘ and ‗Westerners‘ develop conversations. In a study of small talk sequence
structure, Scollon and Scollon (1991) identified that Asians tend to defer the topic until after a
considerable period of talk and that they follow a call-answer-facework-{topic} pattern, while
westerners introduce the topic early at the beginning of the talk and follow a call-answer-topic
pattern.
In their study of Chinese conversation patterns in Taiwan, Scollon and Scollon (1995)
identified a difference between the Taiwanese and the Western patterns as being in use of facework.
They argue that they delay of the introduction of topic in Asian discourse is due to the cultural
structuring of situations and participant roles. Hierarchy in relationships is more observable in Asia
than it is the west. For example, in interaction people will bear in mind who is older and who is
younger, who is in a higher position and who is in a lower position. The rule is, with regard to the
introduction of the topic, the older person in the higher position has right to introduce the topic. This
is in contrast to Western discourse where the person who speaks first (the caller), introduces the
topic.
Gundykunts et al. (1988) made a similar point when suggesting that a direct communicative
style characterizes an individualistic society and then an indirect communicative style characterizes a
collectivistic society. It is therefore hypothesized that the method of argument used by Indonesians,
as apart of an Asian and collectivistic community, will tend to use an inductive style, while English
native speakers or ‗westerners‘, will prefer to use a deductive method of reasoning.
The direct-indirect communicative style refers to the degree of speakers‘ explicitness in their
verbal communication (Gundykunst et al. 1988). The direct style is defined as ―verbal messages that
embody and invoke speakers‘ true intentions in terms of their wants, needs, and desire in the
discourse process‖, and the direct style, in contrast, is referred to ―verbal messages that camouflage
and conceal speakers‘ true intentions in terms of their wants, needs, and goals in the discourse
situation‖ (Gundykunst et al. 1988:100). The following is an example given by Rusdi (2015) of an
indirect communication style used by an Indonesian in responding to a question regarding
exit-permit approval procedures. This Indonesian is a student who is studying in Perth and plans to
return to Indonesia during the semester break. He asked other Indonesian students what he should do
to ensure that his exit-permit would be processed quickly by the Indonesian Foreign Affairs in
Jakarta. One of the Indonesian students, who works for the department of Religious Affairs,
suggested:
karena kebetulan kantor saya berhadapan dengan Departemen Luar Negri. Mungkin
kawan-kawan dari luar Jakarta tidak bisa mengurus exit-permit dalam satu hari. Ada
beberapa staf di Departemen Agama yang bisa menolong. Tapi saya kira juga harus ada
saling pengertian, karena menyangkut extra-hour. (Hppia mailing list 26 Nov. 1999).
English translation:
(Because) my office happens to be just opposite the Department of Foreign Affairs, those
coming from outside Jakarta, probably cannot arrange for the exit-permit in one day. There are
staff at the Department of Religious Affairs who can offer help but I think there should be
mutual understanding because it is related to extra hours.
What he wanted to say by ―but I think there should be mutual understanding because it is
related to extra hours‖ is that you will need to reward the person who helps you. Another example of
an indirect communicative style in Indonesia is provided by Alwasilah in Rusdi (2015) who reported
an American journalist‘s comments about when he applied for visa to visit East Timor.
I made my request through both official and unofficial channels. Everyone I asked was most
pleasant, and said, in effect ―why, sure, there shouldn‘t be any problem, but it would have to be
officially approved. ― When will that approval come? ―The minister in charge of the matter is
out of town.‖ Or ―The people who can make the final decision will meet tomorrow.‖ Or ―Call
on Friday, we should know then.‖ Or ―Call when you come back from your trip to Sumatra.‖
For two months I was never told that I could not visit East Timor, that my request had been
denied. It was just never granted. The closest to a ―no‖ I never heard was ―not yet‖, which is
probably the most frequent answer to any question in Indonesia. (The New Yorker 6 June
1988, p.49)
To give a straight or bold ―no‖ to an offer or a request is regarded impolite to most
Indonesians (Rusdi, 2015). Suseno (1996) states that Javanese almost never say mboten (no) in
refusing a request or an offer. When they want to refuse the request or the offer, they will use a more
polite expression of inggih (yes). So, when someone is communicating to a Javanese, she or he
should be careful in translating the inggih as it could mean ―yes‖ or ―no‖. Park in Rusdi (2015)
reports similar observations in Korean-speaking communities, where Koreans rarely make negative
responses such as ―no‖, ―I agree with you‖, or ―I can‘t do it.‖ They prefer to use expressions such as
―I agree with you in principle…‖, or ―sympathize with you…‖ (Park 1979:88). The indirect
communicative style has also been identified in Japanese-speaking communities. Okabe in Rusdi
(2015) also identified that Americans used explicit words such as ―absolutely‖, ―certainly‖, and
―positively‖, while Japanese used less explicit words such as ―maybe‖, ―perhaps‖, and ―Probably‖
(1993:36). Kartriel (1986) studied the speech styles of Israelis and Arab speakers and found that
Israeli speakers used ―straight talk‖ or ―tough talk‖ style, but the Arab speakers‘ speech style is
labelled as ―sweet talk‖. Gibson (1996) defined the terms tough talker and sweet talker as follows:
The Tough Talker is a man or woman dramatized as centrally concerned with himself or
herself. His or her style is I-talk. The Sweet Talker goes out of his or her way to be nice
to us. His or her style is you-talk. The Stuffy Talker expresses no concern either for
himself or for herself. His or her style is it-talk. (p.x)
Linked to the underlying concepts of inductive-deductive methods of reasoning or
direct-indirect speech styles, Hinds (1987) differenciates language users as writer or speaker
responsible, or reader or hearer responsible. In English speaking culture, speakers have
responsibility to be clear over listeners. This can be read from following aphorism:
Tell‘em what you‘re going to tell‘em, tell‘em, then tell‘em what you told‘em (Hinds 1987),
p.144).
The review of these literatures has shown that every ethnic group has its own cultural norms and
values. These cultural norms are reflected in the way people communicate.
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target language cultures such as British, American, Canadian, New Zealand, or Australian cultural
norms are all regarded as foreign cultures. Other cultural norms or values of people from different
ethnicities are also considered to be foreign cultures. The cultures of people from Vietnam, Thailand,
Japan, Poland, Russia, Peru, Egypt, or Uganda are also considered to be foreign cultures for students
learning English in Indonesia.
The third type of culture is called academic culture. Academic culture has its own rules or
conventions. In academic culture, for example, students are urged to communicate clearly,
efficiently, logically, and communicatively. When writing a good paragraph, for example, students
are asked to write the topic sentence explicitly and clearly. It is preferable when the topic sentence is
written as the first sentence of the paragraph. Other sentences in the paragraph should be related to
the topic sentence. Such format of developing a good paragraph is an example of an academic
culture. Another example of academic culture is that when students are asked to give a presentation,
they are urged to introduce the topic of the presentation early. When the presentation is long, the
speaker should mention early at the beginning how the presentation is going to be developed. People
coming from different cultural backgrounds (individualistic or collectivistic, high context or low
context) when they come to academic life, they should follow academic cultural norms.
Good morning.
It is my great pleasure to give a presentation this morning.
The topic of my presentation is Effective Techniques of Writing an Academic
Paper. The presentation will be divided into three parts. First, I will explain the
characteristics of a good academic paper. Then, I will explain the techniques of
quoting. And, lastly, I will discuss the issues on plagiarism.
6. CONCLUSION
English as an international language is used in multicultural society. It emphasizes the fact
that English is not only used among native speakers of English in inner circle, but it is used by
speakers in outer and expanding circles. The facts also show that the number of English language
users in outer and expanding circles is greater than the number of English users in inner circle. The
way speakers of English communicate differs linguistically and culturally influencing by their first
language and cultural norms and values. Such differences make English as an international language.
The differences also colour the use of English in multicultural society. English is only used as an
instrument to express thoughts of speakers coming from different ethnicities with different cultural
norms and values. Therefore, the teaching of English should be able to prepare students to
successfully communicate with other speakers coming from different cultural backgrounds in
multicultural society. English classrooms should be coloured with multicultural norms and values of
speakers of English who come from different cultural backgrounds.
REFERENCES
Gibson, W. 1966, ‗Tough, Sweet and Stuff: An Essay on Modern American Prose styles‘, In Culture
and Interpersonal Communication, eds. W.B. Gundykunst et al., 1988, sage, Beverly Hills.
Gundykunst, W. and Kim, Y. 1984, Communicating with Strangers, Random House, New York.
Gundykunst, William. B et al. 1988, Culture and Interpersonal Communication, Sage, Beverly Hills.
Honna, N. 1995, ‗English in Japanese Society: Language Within Language‘, Journal of Multilingual
and Multicultural Development, vol. 16, no. 1 &2, pp. 45-62.
Hinds, J. 1987, ‗Reader Versus Writer Responsibility: A New Typology‘, in Writing Across
Languages: An Analysis of L2 Text, eds. U. Connor and R.B. Kaplan, Addison-Wesley
Publishing Co, Reading, Mass.
Hppia-news group, November 26, 1999.
Katriel, T. 1986, Talking Straight: Dugri Speech in Israeli Saba Culture, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.
Kirkpatrick, A. 1995, ‗Chinese Rhetoric: Methods of Argument‘, Multilingua, vol. 14, no. 3, pp.
271-295.
Okabe, R. (1983). ‗Cultural Assumptions of East and West: Japan and the United States‘, in
Intercultural Communication Theory, ed. W. Gundykunst. Beverly Hills: Sage.
Park, M. (1979). Communication Styles in Two Different Cultures: Korean and American. Seoul:
Han Shin Publishing Company
Rusdi. (2015). Tailoring Local Cultural Norms in the Teaching of English. A Paper Presented at the
Third International Seminar on English Language Teaching, Universitas Negeri Padang.
Samovar, L.A. and R. Porter. (1991). Communication between Cultures. Belmont: Wadsworth.
Scollon, R. and S.W. Scollon. (1991) Topic Confusion in English-Asian Discourse, World Englishes,
10( 2),113-125.
Scollon, R. and S.W. Scollon. (1995). Intercultural Communication. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd
Suseno, F.M. (1996). Etika Jawa: Sebuah Analisa Falsafi tentang Kebijaksanaan Hidup Jawa.
Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama
Tyler, A. and C. Davies. (1990). Cross-linguistic Communication Missteps, Text, 10(4), 385-411.
van Gelderen, Elly. (2006). A History of the English Language. Amsterdam: Jhon Benjamins
Publishing Company.
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Abstract
This article aims to explain the use of REAP Strategy in teacing reading. Different reading strategies
are needed for different reading purposes. It is aimed to help readers achieve their purposes in
reading, whether for gaining information or for pleasure. By using Read, Encode, Annotate and
Ponder (REAP) Strategy, it was expected that the students can improve their reading comprehension.
It was assumed that Read, Encode, Annotate and Ponder (REAP) was appropriate to overcome the
problem. It was because every steps in REAP strategy had some advantages in order to help students
understanding a text.
1. INTRODUCTION
English has four language skills that should be mastered by students. There are listening,
speaking, reading, and writing. From all those skills, reading has the most emphasis in teaching and
learning especially in Indonesia. It is because Education Institution is focused on the goal of the final
examination (Ujian Nasional). Every students at the end of grade 9 (Junior High school) and grade 12
(Senior High School) must pass the examination. The examination of English course involves mostly
two language skills, they are listening and reading. Generally, the examination test‘s questions
dominantly consist of reading passages. Therefore, the students are expected to be good in reading to
pass the English examination.
The students can be a good reader if they can reach the goal of reading itself. As Nunan
(2003) states that the goal of reading is comprehension. Reading comprehension refers to the ability
to understand information presented in written form. Mendonce (2012) states reading comprehension
is the level of understanding of text. This understanding comes from readers‘ interaction between the
text and how they use their knowledge outside the text. In order to pass the examination, the students
are expected to be good in reading. In addition, according to Alyousef (2005), reading itself is viewed
as an interactive process between a reader and the text being read. It means in the process of reading,
readers get information through deep thinking process of the text being read. Therefore, in teaching a
language, teacher should encourage students to comprehend the given materials.
In order to help the students comprehended a text, there were some learning strategies in
teaching that could be used by a teacher. One of them is Read, Encode, Annotate and Ponder (REAP)
strategy. Read, Encode, Annotate and Ponder (REAP) was a strategy for helping readers to read and
understand a text. According to Allen (2004), the use of this strategy will cause the students to revisit
the text during each stage of the REAP process. The students also learn to represent main ideas and
the author‘s message in their own words. After that, they do the ponder stage. They should connect
with the text through analysis and synthesis of their reading. According to Eanet and Manzo (1976),
the purposes of REAP strategy is to develop students to a greater understanding of writer‘s roles in
writing and improve their reading comprehension. REAP strategy will help the students to connect
between a text and their words to enable them to communicate their understanding of the text.
By using Read, Encode, Annotate and Ponder (REAP) Strategy, it was expected that the
students can improve their reading comprehension. It was assumed that Read, Encode, Annotate and
Ponder (REAP) was appropriate to overcome the problem. It was because every steps in REAP
strategy had some advantages in order to help students understanding a text. The Read step was
aimed to help the students to revisit the text. The Encode step allows students to understand the text
by restating main ideas and important points of the text in their own words. The Annotate steps can
improve the students‘ attention and make reading a more active process (Strode, 1993). This step can
also help the students to understand unfamiliar words on the text by using quotes, phrases, or other
words. The Ponder step allows the students to make a personal connection between the texts with
their understanding.
2. DISCUSSION
Because reading comprehension is viewed as a complex process of truly understanding a
text, it is important for teacher to comprehend some principles in teaching reading. Nunan (2003)
stated that there are eight principles of teaching reading, (1) exploit the reader‘s background
knowledge, (2) build a strong vocabulary base, (3) teach for comprehension, (4) work on increasing
reading rate, (5) teach reading strategies, (6) encourage students to transform strategies into skills, (7)
build assessment and evaluation into your teaching and (8) strive for continuous improvement as a
reading teacher. Those principles will help the teacher to teach reading in order to help students reach
the main goal of reading. That is comprehension.
In teaching reading comprehension, teacher also has some responsibilities (Nuttal, 1996).
They are (1) enjoying and valuing teachers‘ reading, (2) helping students to enjoy and value reading,
(3) understanding what reading involves, (4) finding out what the students‘ can and cannot do (5)
choosing valuable text to work on, (6) choosing and advising effective tasks and activities, (7)
preparing the students to undertake the tasks, (8) making sure that everyone works well and to their
full efforts. And (9) monitoring progress. As professional, teacher should be paid attention to those
responsibilities. Those responsibilities are a guide for them to help students comprehend and enjoy in
the process of reading.
As a teacher, students also have some roles in learning reading. Based on Nuttal (1996) there
are five roles of students in learning reading. The roles are (1) the students should be active and be a
part of learning, (2) the students should understand how the texts are and what they do when they
read. (3) The students have to learn text talk, (4) the students should be aware that they have to take
the risk of making mistakes. If they do not realize it, they do not learn much and (5) they are not
allowed to cheat. The teacher can control the students in reading class by understanding the students‘
roles in reading. Those roles are useful to monitor them in reading process.
Based on the statements above, It can be concluded that the teacher should know the
responsibilities of the teacher in teaching reading comprehension. It will help the teacher to do what
should do when teaching reading. The teacher also should know the roles of teacher and roles of
students. The knowledge of roles teacher and roles learner in reading activities will help the teacher
to teach effectively, especially for teaching reading comprehension.
Reading strategy can be defined as a learning technique or behavior of students in
comprehending and getting information from the written materials. According to Garner (1987),
reading strategy is an action or series of action employed in order to construct meaning. In line with
this, Block (1986) states that reading strategies indicate how the readers cohesive a task, what textual
cue they attend to, how they make sense of what they read, and what they do when they do not
understand. In addition, the term of reading strategies refers to the mental operation when readers
purposefully approach a text and make sense of what they read (Barnett, 1988). In other words, when
doing reading, the readers use some actions or learning techniques to get information from reading
materials in order to make reading more effective and efficient.
Different reading strategies are needed for different reading purposes. It is aimed to help
readers achieve their purposes in reading, whether for gaining information or for pleasure. As Sholes
(2009) states that there are four purposes in reading, they are as follow: (1) reading for pleasure,
example reading a comic or novel, (2) reading to find general information (3) reading to find a
specific information, usually using scanning technique, (4) reading to learn subject that is needed for
a class. Based on those purposes in reading, this research is concerned with reading strategies that
used by students for academic purposes or reading for learning. In short, according to Sholes (2009)
strategies used in reading for academic purposes can be skimming, scanning, and skipping unknown
words.
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On the other hand, according to Oxford (1990), there are two kinds of leaning strategies that
can be applied in reading. They are direct strategies and indirect strategies. Direct strategies consist
of memories strategies, cognitive strategies, and compensation strategies. Meanwhile, indirect
strategies that can be used in reading are metacognitive strategies. In line with this, Oxford (1990)
also elaborates each of the strategies. Firstly, memories strategy in reading is a strategy involves
guessing intelligently using linguistic clues or using other clues. Secondly, cognitive strategy is a
strategy that enables the students to manipulate language material in direct way (e.g. reasoning,
analyzing, summarizing). Thirdly, compensation strategy is a strategy that can help the learners make
up for missing knowledge (e.g. guessing meaning, using synonyms). Fourthly, metacognitive
strategy is employed the students for managing learning process overall (e.g. self-monitoring, paying
attention).
Based on those learning strategies, REAP (Read, Encode, Annotate, and Ponder) strategy is
categorized in cognitive strategy. It is because REAP strategy will allow the students to make
predicting, recalling, summarizing, making inference and drawing conclusion of the text. Those steps
in REAP also useful to help students to comprehend the text by connecting the text with their
understanding.
Read, Encode, Annotate and Ponder (REAP) is a reading comprehension strategy that is
proposed by Eanet and Manzo in 1976. Based on Eanet and Manzo (1976), REAP strategy can be
defined as a strategy to develop students to greater understanding of writer‘s roles in writing and
improve their reading comprehension. Now, there are some definitions of REAP strategy by some
experts. According toManzo, Manzo, and Albee (2002), REAP strategy is a comprehension strategy
that requires students to follow four steps which support a more meaningful and thorough
understanding of texts during reading. In line with this, Strode (1993) states that REAP strategy is an
annotation strategy for improving reading comprehension and also writing skill. Annotating strategy
means a writing-to-learn strategy used while read and reread a text. On the other word, annotating
strategy is a strategy that annotates or marks a text to identify important information and records the
readers‘ idea.
The steps in REAP strategy includes into four steps (Allen, 2004). The first steps in REAP
strategy is Read step. In this step, the students will be asked to read a text selection by the teacher.
After that, in Encoding step, the students try to encode by putting the gist of what they read in their
own words. Then, the students follow Annotate step. In this step, the students will be asked to
annotate the text by writing down the main ideas (notes, important words, and quotes) and writer‘s
message. Finally, the students do Pondering step. In this step, the students ponder what they have
read by thinking and talking with others in order to make a personal connection, develop the
questions and connect their reading with others reading. Those all steps are designed to guide the
students to comprehend a text and interpret the text clearly by their own words.
Moreover, The REAP strategy has some purposes. According to Hoover (2000), The REAP
strategy aims to help the students as readers to become more effective readers and to think critically
about the material that they have read. In line with this, Allen (2004) also states that the
implementation of the steps in REAP strategy can make the students revisit the text during the
process of each steps. In other words, by following each steps in REAP, students learn to make a
connection between a text and their own words. It will enable them to comprehend a text and
communicate their understanding based on the text.
Based on the steps in REAP, the REAP strategy has some advantages to help students
comprehending a text. Firstly, the students can revisit the text several times as they work through the
REAP process. Secondly, students can understand the text by restate main ideas and important points
of the text in their own words. Thirdly, the students also can make a personal connection between the
texts with their understanding. And the last, annotating steps can improve the students‘ attention and
make reading a more active process (Strode, 1993).
The first was Reading step. In reading, the researcher asked the students to read a narrative
text provided by the researcher. The students were asked to notice some main ideas of the paragraphs
from the text. The second step was Encoding. In this step, the researcher asked the students to encode
the text by writing down the main ideas of the text in their own words. The third was annotating steps.
The students annotating the text using quotes phrases or words. The last, the students did pondered
the text by engaging in discussion with peers. After that, the students were given some questions to be
answered based on the text that they have read. The researcher monitored the students in doing each
of steps.
3. CONCLUSION
The successful of improving the students‘ reading comprehension by using the REAP
strategy also influenced by the materials chosen and the teacher attitudes such as giving help,
monitoring them, giving motivation and control the class. Beside the materials chosen, the
improvement is also influenced by the teacher‘s attitudes such as giving help, monitoring them,
giving motivation and controls the class. Based on the discussion above, it can be concluded that the
REAP strategy could better improve students‘ reading comprehension. And, it is influenced by the
factors of material chosen and the teacher giving help, monitoring them, and controlling the class.
REFERENCES
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Eanet, M. G. and Manzo, A. V. ―REAP - A strategy for improving reading, writing, study skills‖.
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Hoover, J. John. ―Study skills and the education of students with learning disabilities‖. Journal of
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Mendonce, Shiny. Role of Proper English Pronunciation in Projecting a Better Personality, 2012.
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Nunan, David. Practical English Language Teaching. New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2003.
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Wisconsin Extension. (2003). Web. 05 January 2013.
Abstract
The global spread of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) has implications for practice in English
Language Teaching (ELT) classrooms. This paper presents a study on attitudes toward ELF in ELT
which is crucial to its incorporation because attitudes are proven to influence the learning output in
ELT. It uses a mixed method approach through questionnaire on attitudes toward ELF which
contains a modified Verbal Guise Technique (VGT) complemented with semi structured interview. 70
university students and 4 lecturers from three English departments in Japan (Waseda University and
Sophia University) and Indonesia (Universitas Negeri Jakarta) were involved in filling out the
questionnaire and semi structured interview sessions. The results highlight positive attitudes towards
ELF and its incorporation into ELT (Japan: 3.71 and Indonesia: 3.51). In addition, factors which
influence these attitudes (aspects related to language learning experience) were proven significant.
It also suggests ways to incorporate an ELF perspective into the ELT classrooms which were
discovered through interview sessions. Further, it addresses the issue in the gap between theory and
practice in research on Global Englishes in Language Teaching (GELT) where ‗conceptual gap‘ is
often found. The study is of interest of those interested in ELT curriculum evaluation and design to
meet the needs of both ELT and ELF community in countries like Japan and Indonesia.
Keywords: Global Englishes in Language Teaching (GELT), English as a Lingua Franca (ELF),
Verbal Guise Technique (VGT)
1. INTRODUCTION
The global spread of English is growing in many different ways based on many
different factors, such as historical reasons, internal political reasons, external economic reasons,
practical reasons, intellectual reasons, and entertainment reasons (Crystal, 2003a) in which all refer
to communication. Kirkpatrick (2007) uses the term ‗English as a Lingua Franca‘ (ELF) to define the
status of English in communications where it is used as a bridging language between people who do
not speak the same first language (L1). Crystal (2003b) points out that about 90% of international
bodies in the Asia-Pacific region use English as their operational language, and of the 812 million
English users worldwide, approximately 80% are non-native speaker (NNS) rather than native
speaker (NS) users (Chong, 2012; Kaur, 2014). Globalization has caused countries such as Japan and
Indonesia, among many others, to develop in conjunction with the market of English language
industry which addresses a need for English to bridge communication between speakers from
different nations, cultures, and linguistic backgrounds. Furthermore, there has been an agreement to
use English as the operational language to fill in the communication gap among different L1 users
in the Southeast Asian community, ASEAN+3 (Kirkpatrick, 2007), which includes Japan and
Indonesia.
This transition of the status of English from a foreign language to a lingua franca has not been
so smooth due to strong attachments to the native norms, especially in the expanding circle‘s ELT
community. The role of native norms of English, which have existed and ruled as the standard model
of ELT practices all over the world, is being questioned through increasing ELF research. Therefore,
ELT practices in the classroom struggle to accommodate the learner‘s objective in learning English,
which is for communicative purposes. The struggle exists in environments where there is a strong
belief in the superiority of ‗standard‘ English due to the dilemma of whether to focus on
communicative functions or language forms. In relation to such phenomena, the current study was
conducted to investigate students‘ attitudes toward ELF and the factors influencing such attitudes.
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Besides, the study also explored both students‘ and lecturers‘ perspectives on incorporating an ELF
perspective into ELT classrooms. It is important to start from the concept of attitudes as there is a
strong relationship between attitudes in learning and the output of learning itself. Positive learning
attitudes tend to result not only in a successful learning process but also a successful teaching process
(Reid, 2003; Visser, 2008). Through learning about attitudes and their contributing factors, it is
possible to figure out how to incorporate an accepted version of ELF into ELT practices in order to
bridge the gap existing in the ELT community.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) and English Language Teaching (ELT)
ELF has been broadly defined as the use of English in bridging communication between
speakers with different first language backgrounds and across linguacultural boundaries, regardless
of whether they are native speakers (NS) or non-native speakers (NNS) (Seidlhofer, 2005; 2011).
Similarly, Kirkpatrick (2012a) argues that the emphasis of ELF is on the real sociolinguistic
necessity to achieve effective communication in multilingual settings rather than merely imitating
native speakers. In short, ELF refers to the use of English in intercultural communication where the
speakers do not share the same L1, which can occur amongst any combination of English speakers
from Kachru‘s three circles.
It is crucial to relate ELF to the topic of English Language Teaching (ELT) since ELT is the
main purveyor of language learning and acquisition for Non Native Speakers (NNS). The effort to
build a relationship between ELF and ELT could bridge what has been called a ‗conceptual gap‘ by
Seidlhofer (2001). She explains that there has been a mismatch between students‘ learning
motivations and the available options of ELT with respect to accommodating students‘ needs in
learning English. It has been emphasized by language pedagogy experts that language learning
should be based on authentic usage and authentic sources of language. Such language is only
authentic with reference to what people really use in real communication settings, which is why they
learn the language (Jenkins, 2009). Different English models may be used for different purposes of
communication in different contexts. Canagarajah (2007) emphasizes the importance of exploring
and accommodating the exploration of how English is ―intersubjectively constructed in each specific
context of interaction‖ (p.925). This statement stands out against the backdrop of traditional ELT
practices where a single model of English is taught regardless of students‘ learning goals.
2.2 ELF-Based Pedagogical Proposals
There are far fewer studies which have been conducted on ELF and its pedagogical
implications compared to other related topics, however, some scholars have put forward efforts on
this matter. These scholars are among the first to have seriously considered the ‗conceptual gap‘
pointed out by Seidlhofer (2001). Jenkins (2009) agrees with the existence of a mismatch in which
the kinds of English being taught in schools differs from what many students need and use in their
daily communication outside the classroom. Cogo and Dewey (2012) call for teachers to incorporate
the global diversity of the English language into their curricula instead of focusing so heavily on
native models of English. Furthermore, they call for greater emphasis on effective and successful
communication rather than grammatical and lexical accuracy based on native English models.
Seidlhofer (2011) argues that ELT should objectively consider the language needs of students before
making premature decisions about what kind of language the students should learn in English classes.
This is also essentially a demand that attachment to native models of English be relinquished from
the mind sets of ELT practitioners.
As a respond, Wen (2012) created an initial ELF-informed framework for incorporating an
ELF perspective into ELT classrooms. The framework is composed of two dimensions. One
dimension concerns language itself, and the other concerns the teaching of language. According to
the framework, students are not expected to simply imitate the lessons but to use them in ways which
help them to effectively develop strategic methods of communication in situations where cultural
factors are involved. Within Wen‘s framework, English needs to be analyzed and taught
linguistically, culturally, and pragmatically (Jenkins, 2015). These proposals could form part of a
solution to support the ELF movement. However, in fact, the ELF movement is still struggling to
gain attention from scholars, especially regarding how ELF can be incorporated at the ELT
classroom level. This proposal mentioned above and some other proposals have not been
implemented, and the gap between theory and research in the field of ELF has thus not been filled.
2.3 Attitudes towards ELF
In relation to language learning, Dyers and Abongdia (2010) suggest that attitudes involve
one‘s unconscious perspectives and judgements toward a language or variety in reference to how one
feels or thinks about it. In addition, language attitudes fluctuate and are connected to social settings
and the input-output factors which make them dynamic and unstable (Baker, 1992; Garrett, 2010).
The term ‗input-output factors‘ refers to reception (language learning) and production
(mastery/proficiency) as well as other reactions on the part of language users and their responses in
everyday language use. Therefore, a language attitude study can be described as an effort to
understand language users in terms of their processing of language, their reactions to various modes
of language use and communicative behaviors, and their mental or physical reactions to other
language users (Cargile et al., 1994).
Various approaches have been used in language attitudes studies by different researchers.
Cargile and Giles (1997) suggest that the ‗matched guise technique‘ (MGT) and ‗verbal guise
technique‘ (VGT) were the most popular approaches until the late 1990s. They are categorized as
indirect methods (Garrett et al., 2003). In terms of practice, the MGT requires one person to recite the
same text using different accents. These recordings are then assessed by the research participants
using semantic differential scales. Bradac (2001) and Jenkins (2007) have criticized the MGT by
arguing that it is actually deceptive to the study participants and by claiming that the problem with
vocal stability in the instrument is tangible. Meanwhile, an upgraded version of the MGT, the VGT,
is also far from flawless. For one thing, there is a problem with its contextual authenticity in terms of
language use and interaction (Galloway, 2011). Therefore, Galloway adds that unless it is
triangulated with other qualitative methods, the VGT is not able to provide a comprehensive
investigation on language attitudes.
Most of the studies on ELF users‘ preferences for certain varieties and accents of English
seemed to yield similar results—namely, that native varieties and accents are perceived as superior to
non-native ones. It is clear that there is a lack of research on ELF in which interaction and
communication in ELF settings is also investigated or evaluated. Therefore, MacKenzie (2013)
suggests that ELF researchers perform more studies on attitudes towards interaction, but not with
regard to English varieties. Instead, focusing the research on attitudes toward real ELF interactions
would establish a direct link between the study results and the potential incorporation of an ELF
perspective into ELT. This would allow scholars to explore ELF and its relation to ELT in terms of
‗naturally occurring data‘ as one of the most crucial issues faced by ELF scholars (Cogo & Dewey,
2012). Lastly, studying these attitudes would reveal the current atmosphere within ELT with regard
to ELF, which in turn could provide insights for tailoring the most effective proposal for imposing an
ELF perspective in the ELT classroom.
2.4 The Japanese and Indonesian ELF Contexts
Japan and Indonesia share many of the same characteristics in terms of their ELT
environments. However, they are not exactly equal in their ELT development. To start with,
Kachru‘s (1992) concentric circles model places both countries in the expanding circle where
English is neither a second language nor an official language and is instead generally recognized as a
foreign language (Galloway, 2013). However, it has been argued that Kachru‘s model is somewhat
lacking in its classification and description of English use in certain countries, among many other
criticisms, such as the distinction between countries where English is not considered a second or
official language, but it is still used as a lingua franca, and regarding the few countries where English
is still a totally foreign language. That being said, it should be understood that when the concentric
circles model was formulated in the early 1990s, the extent of English use in both Japan and
Indonesia was minimal, and the populations of these countries were not as large as they are today.
Now, however, with the expansion of globalization and the number of English speakers worldwide
rapidly increasing, the situation has shifted in terms of language use. As a matter of fact, English is
now the first foreign language taught in formal education both in Japan and Indonesia (Kirkpatrick,
2012b; Kubota, 2002; Suzuki, 2006).
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3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Study Design
This study employed a mixed-method design where questionnaire was used as the main
instrument and then triangulated by semi structure interview sessions. As it was mentioned in the
previous chapter, the study focused on attitudes on ELF and its classroom implementation.
Consequently, it was conducted to address the following research questions:
1. What are Japanese and Indonesian university students‘ attitudes toward ELF?
2. What factors influence their attitudes towards ELF?
3. What are Japanese and Indonesian university students‘ views on incorporating the ELF
perspective into ELT classrooms?
There were 2 groups of population involved in the study. Being the study population, 70 students had
participated in the questionnaire and 4 participants (2 lecturers and 2 students) were interviewed,
these numbers of participants represent both Japanese and Indonesian universities equally.
The questionnaire was consisted of 33 items divided into four parts, A-D. Parts A and B (Items 1-14)
included questions or statements related to the participants‘ background information. Items 4 to 9
were adapted from Galloway‘s (2011) work on investigating Japanese students‘ attitudes in a higher
education setting. Part C of the questionnaire included eight statements (Items 15-22) assessing
their attitudes toward ELF, which specifically asked them about the purpose of learning English and
its relation to nativelikeness, ELF communication or ELF use, and about teaching ELF in the
classroom.
In the questionnaire, a modified version of VGT was inserted. The reason for modifying the
VGT in this study was that it usually measures the responses to varieties or accents based on each
individual speaker rather than on the basis of the interaction. In this study, instead of evaluating each
speaker independently, the participants provided responses in terms of overall evaluation of the
whole interaction between the four speakers. Seven traits were assessed by using semantic
differential scales on the VGT, which were adapted from previous studies on attitudes toward
English varieties and accents (Garret et al., 2003; Kim, 2007). These were acceptance, confidence,
comprehensibility, intelligibility, successfulness, communication flow, and model fit. The VGT was
then followed by four statements allowing the participants to evaluate the overall ELF interaction in
relation to ELT. In this way, the VGT was modified to be more authentic by using a
naturally-occurring ELF interaction. To ensure the questionnaire‘s reliability, a Cronbach‘s Alpha
test was run and it was proven that it maintained good reliability score as seen in the following table:
Table 2.1: Reliability statistics
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items
.714 19
In addition, the semi-structured interview was chosen as a triangulation in this mixed-
methods design in order to obtain richer and more in-depth data. Flick (2007) points out that
questionnaire data can potentially be enhanced in terms of clarity and depth by the addition of
interviews with a portion of the participants. Given the study‘s limited time and my unfamiliarity
with the Japanese culture and language, the semi-structured interviews helped me to obtain clearer
target information (Bryman, 2012).
In analyzing the data, descriptive analysis and Independent Sample t-test was run on SPSS in
order to make sense of the questionnaire data. The t-test determined whether the two groups
(dependent and independent variables) have significant differences in the mean score and identified
the influential factors to participants‘ attitudes. This technique was used by Galloway (2013) to
analyze results from a similar study on factors influencing students‘ attitudes towards English. The
interview data were all transcribed manually by the researcher.
After the transcription work was finished, NVivo was used to help with the coding and word
frequency query analysis. NVivo, as a code-based system, offers well-developed and flexible tools
for qualitative studies (Lewins & Silver, 2014). The simplest thing NVivo does is to enable
researchers to import transcripts to be recoded.
ELF
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It is true that there have been several—perhaps even many—studies investigating students‘
attitudes towards ELF. However, these studies did not specifically investigate attitudes
corresponding to direct and real ELF interactions involving a focus on communication. Instead,
previous studies have looked at responses to accent or variety in the ELF perspective. Jenkins (2007)
studied teachers‘ attitudes towards accent and found that many favored native speaker accents, such
as American and British. With the majority preferring these native-like accents, this finding indicated
that the participants held rather negative attitudes towards ELF. Matsuda (2003) investigated
Japanese students‘ attitudes toward English as an international language, a concept similar to ELF.
The results indicated that students also had negative attitudes because they perceived English to be
‗owned‘ by inner circle countries. This researcher emphasized that lack of awareness of the presence
of other varieties of English was crucial to the formation of these attitudes. Therefore, he suggested
encouraging exposure to English varieties in order to raise awareness of real international English
use. Galloway (2011; 2013) studied students‘ attitudes toward English in general and teachers‘
attitudes toward ELF in terms of native and non-native varieties. The findings indicated that native
English was viewed as superior to ELF in many ways and that American English was the most
popular among the varieties. None of these studies assess attitudes to real ELF interaction.
However, relating these previous studies to the findings of this study in terms of native- oriented
attitudes, it can be seen that the trend may be shifting. This study found more support for ELF as the
participants, both teachers and students, demonstrated positive attitudes and expressed enthusiasm
for the concept of ELF and less on nativeness. This finding is important in challenging the status quo
in ELT and non-native English users in a wider scale that judgement on non ‘standard‘ English use
should fail (Giles & Billings, 2004). Moreover, this finding is relevant to Kirkpatrick‘s (2007, p. 9)
point in relation to social life, he emphasizes ‗the concepts ‗native speaker‘ and ‗mother tongue‘
make little sense in multilingual societies where it may be difficult to single out someone‘s mother
tongue‘. Therefore, with the raising of awareness on ELF proven by more positive attitudes towards
it, it is necessary to evaluate ELT‘s pedagogical practices in the classroom where English is
supposedly perceived as an international language. It is crucial in order to preserve the linguistic,
cultural, and functional diversity of today‘s English (Matsuda & Friedrich, 2012).
4.2 What factors influence participants’ attitudes towards ELF?
This question was answered solely through the responses to the questionnaire distributed to
both groups of participants, which included 22 possible indicators or factors influencing such
attitudes towards ELF. The factors of language learning environment and learning method were
found to be associated with statistically significant t-test results. In other words, where and how
students learn English may influence their attitudes toward English as a Lingua Franca. Meanwhile,
variables related to English learning motivation did not seem to influence the Indonesian students‘
attitudes towards ELF since there were no significant t-test results associated with these variables in
their responses. These findings correspond to Galloway‘s (2011) study on factors influencing
attitudes. She shows that familiarity, motivation, pedagogical beliefs, and language learning
experience were the most significant factors. Regarding familiarity, the participants‘ responses‘ in
this study indicated that the experience of studying or travelling abroad to places where they could
practice their English was the most significant factor. McKenzie (2008) points out that the more
experience students have abroad, the more positive their attitudes are likely to be, in relation to more
varieties of English.
However, the results demonstrated that for Japanese students, going abroad was not
uncommon. For most Indonesian students, on the other hand, being able to travel abroad, especially
to inner circle countries, was a rare experience. This is likely related to the economic situation of this
country, where only the rich have the freedom and means to travel. Therefore, the type of exposure
which would provide them with greater familiarity with ELF usage was lacking for most of them.
They do not have the opportunity to build contact-based attitudes towards alternative models of
‗standard‘ English, they are trapped in the monolithic view of linguistic diversity (Dornyei et al.
2006; Galloway, 2011).
4.3 What are Japanese and Indonesian university students’ views on incorporating an ELF
perspective into ELT classrooms?
The findings suggest that the participants viewed incorporating ELF into ELT classrooms as
an important step in promoting the ELF movement and helping learners to meet their needs. In fact,
the lecturers who were interviewed noted that they had tried to promote ELF in their classrooms as
can be seen in Extract 2 (Appendix 1). They were aware of the situation and had concluded that such
exposure would be beneficial for their students. They acknowledged the need to raise awareness of
ELF and at some point foster their students‘ understanding of what Seidlhofer (2001) termed a
‗conceptual gap‘. She adds that due to the shift of the trend in these contexts from EFL to ELF, then
it becomes a new condition where a new conceptual framework is required in order to deal with it.
Therefore, the persistence on ignoring the truth about the trend of ELF and how it effects ELT will
not bring any betterment. It is unreasonable to keep imposing a single restricted pedagogical model to
the students while they actually have options to choose from, without pressure from the dominant
model (Jenkins, 2007; McKenzie, 2008). This situation cannot be changed unless if the priority is
given to the learners, not to the hidden agendas behind the ELT industry which belongs to inner circle
countries such as America and the UK. Therefore, Ferguson (2012) suggests that teaching ELF in the
classroom takes a lot more than just teaching a language, it demands the inclusion of both the
‗standard‘ English and the distinctive features of ELF.
Lastly, the participants acknowledged the barriers which inhibit such actions to promote
ELF, naming standardized tests and a lack of materials as the main obstacles. The standardized test
creates a ‗discomfort zone‘ for teachers as they face the dilemma of whether to priorities
communication, as in the ELF perspective, or focus on helping their students pass the
standardized English tests (Ranta, 2009; Galloway & Rose, 2015). As a matter of fact, this testing is
very old-fashioned, if that term is applicable, because language testing should accommodate
interaction in the very first place. Mauranen (2012) argues, if the students are to be tested for spoken
proficiency, then full observation on the real spoken interaction should be given, in order to test what
is supposed to be tested.
4.4 Pedagogical implications
The main implication of this study is related to the most current needs and demands in the
ELT industry. The fact that the primary purpose of many English learners is simply to be able to
communicate effectively is something that needs to be addressed. It seems somehow unfair to keep
forcing learners to consume the native model of English regardless of their knowledge of their own
needs and the options they have, a ‗conceptual gap‘ (Seidlhofer, 2001). The purpose of ELF is not to
replace the native norms of English but to let students be informed about the choices they have in
their learning and to choose which model best suits their individual needs.
ELF as a field of study is expected to be able to bridge the gap between theory and practice. The
identification of attitudes toward ELF on the basis of communication and interaction along with
knowledge of the ELT community‘s perspective on inserting an ELF perspective into ELT
classrooms will open the door to additional implementation of ELF principles. Furthermore, it could
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provide a solution for one of the most common ELT problems in most expanding circle countries,
such as in Asia, where English is a compulsory school subject for six to nine years but where learning
outcomes are still considered relatively unsuccessful.
Thus, it is important to include an ELF perspective in the process of redesigning certain
elements of ELT, such as curricula and materials. Such changes in the system of ELT with respect to
ELF would help raise awareness of the importance of acknowledging the changes, differences, and
varieties of English used in today‘s world on the international level. Along with a revision of
curricula and materials, there is a need to perform a proper needs analysis for students in expanding
circle countries. This could provide clues for teachers when making educational decisions and
designing their specific daily materials for teaching English materials which should be relevant to
the real use of English today and geared toward helping students to be able to communicate in
English as they wish.
5. CONCLUSION
This study originated from the understanding that attitudes have significant consequence in
language teaching and learning. Attitudes lead to behavior in terms of whether to respond positively
or negatively towards a given stimulus. In fact, attitudes have been confirmed to influence the
outcomes of language learning, specifically in terms of English Language Teaching (ELT). In
addition, the experience of being an ELF user in various settings and the information gained through
the Global Englishes course as part of the University of Edinburgh‘s MSc TESOL programme
provided the rationale for doing this study. Japan and Indonesia were chosen as the context for the
research due to the unique characteristics of these countries, which are both categorized in the
‗irrelevant‘ expanding circle by Kachru (1992).
A mixed-methods approach was utilized in the study. It is believed that using a quantitative
method to gain rich information triangulated with a qualitative method for more in-depth exploration
was the best way to answer the research questions. In addition, the quantitative analysis combined a
general survey and a Verbal Guise Technique (VGT) using an authentic ELF interaction, something
which, to the best of the author‘s knowledge, has never been done before. The findings indicated that
the respondents held positive attitudes towards ELF and that language learning experience was the
most significant factor influencing these attitudes. In addition, all respondents demonstrated
enthusiasm for the incorporation of an ELF perspective into ELT. Furthermore, the lecturers who
were interviewed even indicated that they had made attempts to do so, despite the presence of various
obstacles.
It is thus clear from the evidence found in this study that the two countries of Japan and
Indonesia use English more as a lingua franca than a foreign language and have positive attitudes
towards it. In relation to ELT, it is believed necessary to move away from the native- centric ELT
model. Instead of forcing students to learn the ‗standard‘ norm, it would be better to provide them
with both knowledge of native English and ELF so that they can choose which forms to use based on
their individual needs. This could help to minimize the negative effect of the ‗conceptual gap‘ which
has been preserved in ELT for so many years. Much more importantly, a trend seems to be forming in
terms of awareness of the ELF topic within the ELT community; it is now a generally-accepted
phenomenon of global English use, proven by the fact that there are now many more ELF users than
native English users worldwide.
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Appendix 1. Extract 2
1 S Do you think that you‘d like to have English class where they introduce you to this new
2 model of, alternative model of English where it focuses in the communication?
3 P1 Yeah yeah, that will be interesting yeah. Yeah we do have aaa, we do have a kinda class
4 like that, emm, @ as we discuss a lot and you know, there will be something like
5 grammatical mistakes or something like that but that‘s not the problem, it‘s just to
6 express what you think, the purpose is to think and to express it.
7 S So, how can you integrate ELF in the classroom?
8 P3 Well, one example is critical listening class. So they, I, what is it, I take video from
9 YouTube. I forgot what it is about. It was in the last semester. And I asked to watch and
10 then to try to understand it. And again it‘s difficult to understand the video for the first
11 time watching, I mean. They need to do it second time in order to understand. Oh yeah,
12 there is one more thing. Because they listen a lot, speaking, I mean English talk or
13 speech, From people from aaa speakers of English aaa American or British, they are
14 FAMILIAR with it, right? So, when they when I, what is it, played the video from the
15 people from other countries like Asian people speaking English, they they, they watch
16 it like what? WHAT? And then the first time. It‘s Because they they are not, what is it,
17 used to it. So for the second time they can understand it.
18 S Can you talk a little bit about how, how ELF can be taught in the classroom?
19 P4 When I was in English department, I did it REALLY CONSCIOUSLY. Yeah. I made
20 sure that I had, you know, examples, even in videos, you know, of different uses of
21 language. (…) And I have some good materials from Australia that I brought with me
22 that, that work (…) you know kind of, it was even practicing listening to different
23 accent. You know, it‘s like listen to the Russian speakers in English, listen to the
24 German speakers in English (…) it‘s that kind of GOOD THING.
S Interviewer (Salam)
P Participant
[IP] Inaudible portion
CAPS Emphatic stress
(…) 3 seconds pause or longer
@ Laughter
(1) Every line is numbered on the left, beginning at 1 for each extract
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Abstract
This research is a quantitative study which aims to enhance the speaking fluency of English
Department‘ students, State Polytechnic of Padang (PNP) through vocabulary deliberate learning. It
was established by implementing linked word‘s game as one of ways to enrich the student‘s
vocabulary size. The data was taken from the fresh year students who took Speaking 1 subject. It
consisted of 2 intact classes; 1A with 26 students, and 1B with 27 students. The 1A class was set as
experimental group, on another hand 1B class was set as control group. The analysis compared by
the score perceived on their Pre-Test by using the Vocabulary Size Test (VST) designed by Paul
Nation to thescore on their Post-Test right after the treatment. The data were analyzed by using
T-test for independent sample test in comparing between experiment group and control group. The
result of this research displayed that control class showed that t(24) = -.834, p = .413. So, it can be
concluded that no significant change in post test score compared with pre test score in control class
because p>0,05. Meanwhile in experimental group t(22) = -1.937, p = 0.066. P value in
experimental group closed to 0.05 which means that there was significance change from 27.13
(pre-test score) into 32.35 (post-test score). Shortly, this game influenced the enrichment of the
students vocabulary size.
Keywords: Deliberate vocabulary learning, Vocabulary Size Test (VST), Linked-Word Game
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background Information
English is one of foreign languages which has been studied by students in Indonesia besides
other foreign languages such as German, French, and Japanese. Although they have studied English
for years in formal educational institutions since Junior High School to Higher Education, but most
of them still have constraints and difficulties in using good English which can be understood by their
listeners. Actually, with this long period of English learning process, the students are considered for
having abilities and enough skills to interact in English. However, it does not guarantee that they are
able to achieve an ideal personal capability for communicating in English, especially how to speak
and deliver the messages that they want to say in a good way. Mostly, it is caused by the lack of
English vocabularies amount which affect their abilities in finding the precise equivalent words that
they want to convey. Therefore, they need longer time to speak in English in order to convey their
message. Sometimes they stay quiet as their response of avoiding to give feedback from the questions
or statements that they receive.
Most of the media that has been used in foreign language learning is through the book
whether comes from formal education or informal daily life. Apart from English textbook that have
been provided by school, actually there are plenty of media that the students can use to increase their
knowledge about English. Movies, advertisement, news on television, magazines, and English story
book are some example of media that can be utilized by students for learning English. Due to the
technology and time advancement, the ability in mastering a foreign language like English in
Indonesia today is an absolute thing owned by generations of the nation. If they want to have progress
and compete with other countries in term of knowledge and proper life, they should increase their
foreign language competency, especially English. Furthermore, Indonesia is now being intensively in
developing its human resources to face Asean Free Trade Area (AFTA) which do require English
Speaking capability for communicating with other AFTA corporate states.
The same condition has also been experienced by students of English Department of State
Polytechnic of Padang (PNP). During these five semesters of the English learning period, they are
provided with all English knowledge which includes four skills of English to help them in mastering
the language. These skills consist of writing, listening, reading and speaking. The knowledge is not
limited to these four skills only, but also accomplished by other subjects such as speech, translation,
public speaking, grammar, and many more. In fact, at the end of their study, the students are yet able
to speak fluently in English, in order to express their ideas and opinion precisely and concisely.
This obstacle is not only becomes the students‘ problems, but also it is problematic for the
lecturers of the English Department. How to find the way of learning and how to get the result as
expected which is the students are able to speak well and fluently in English has become main
concern of these lecturers. One of effective ways which is assumed in helping students to overcome
this problem is by enriching students' vocabularies. This activity can be done by giving deliberate
vocabulary learning to the students. Some comprehensive approaches that have been done that prove
someone will not be able to speak or motivated to speak if the receptive ability and knowledge of the
language system, such as vocabulary, have not been sufficient, and it is in agreement of what has
been highlighted by Nation and Newton (10). Therefore, the students are expected to comprehend
new vocabularies that they have learned without sticking to the grammar (Swain, 2005). It means that
indirectly the more vocabularies they have, the more fluent they speak and respond in conversation,
which is the main purpose of this study.
1.2 The Purpose of Study
This study is aimed at helping students of English Department, PNP, especially first year
students to enrich their vocabulary size in order to develop their fluency in speaking. A method
implemented that can increase their ability in speaking and add their confidence to speak is by using
vocabulary size enrichment.
1.3 Research Question
Based on the background and purpose of this study above, then the research question of this
study is: Does the vocabulary deliberate learning, which is done in this study, help English
Department‘s students, PNP to increase their speaking fluency by using developing and enriching
vocabulary size technique through the linked word game?. This research question is conducted based
on the statement that the more fluent they speak in English means that they will have more
confidence to speak besides encouraging them to grow more vigorously in learning other subjects
such as Listening, Public Speaking, Speech, and others.
This study is implemented in Speaking 2 classes which are taught by the researchers in order
to concentrate on this study and to facilitate the researcher in data retrieval as well. This activity is
done with the consideration that by doing research in classes taught by researchers, it is hoped that it
will not affect the learning process which have been conducted in advance.
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In the same way to the two studies mentioned above, Long (1988) and Ellis (1990)‘s studies
also come up with the idea that there are a great number of improvement about the learning
vocabulary in this language-focused learning strand. They say that the vocabulary learning should be
conducted in deliberate taching atmosphere thus learners can plan their learning; deliberate learning.
For meaning-focused output strand, the major concern within this learning is on how the information
can be conveyed well. Therefore, ‗Speaking‘ dan ‗Writing‘ can be considered as appropriate media
for the learners to develop their vocabulary. It is because in these two skills, they focus more on
words which they cannot do in ‗Listening‘ and ‗Reading‘ (Nation, 2001).
i. Word Game
Vocabulary learning activity through the word game should pay attention on the technique
used, whether it has fulfilled the learning goal. It should question its goal either the learning focuses
on spelling some words or on pronunciation, or perhaps the goal focuses to recognize a word form
and link it to its meaning (Nation, 2001).
There are three important processes that can make a learner remember a word, they are:
Noticing, Retrieval dan Creative or Generative use (Nation, 2001). Consequently, this study applies
‗Word game‘ which is part of the retrieval process; recalling learner‘s memory on words they have
met and understood. It can be words which they perceive during the activity of listening or reading
(receptive) yet being used as maximal as possible within their activity of productive; speaking and
writing.
b. Speaking Fluency
Talking about speaking fluency means dealing with a speaker‘s fluency in conveying their
thought or opinion to their listener. It is also dealing with providing appropriate respond in a
conversation which is indirectly becoming an outcome of English knowledge that they have.
According to Nation and Newton (2009), there are three major characters which have to appear in
speaking fluency, they are 1) When the learner conducting meaning-focused activity and concerns
more to convey the message well with the ‗real time‘ speed, 2) When the learner make use of all the
knowledge on language items that they have, and 3) When the learner put less effort in talking and
give higher level performance than their normal level.
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Conceptual Framework
This study is a quantitative study because it is implied interpretive analysis. This analysis is
used when the researchers basically the interpretation of the result received after conducting their
study. In another word, the result of this study is the subjective interpretation of the researchers over
the taken data (Dornyei, 2007), likewise mentioned by Miles and Huberman (1997, p.7), ―The
researcher is essentially the main ‗measurement device‘ in the study‖.
This study takes students from two different classes that learn the same subject; Speaking.
The students in each class is grouped into one group with the same population. The two groups called
Experiment Group and Control Group. Furthermore, these two groups are differenciate from the
given treatment, experimental group is the group that except the treatment whereas control group is
the non-treatment one. At the end of the study, the result of these two groups are compared to get the
final result (MacKey and Gass, 2005).
Accordingly, Pre-test and Post test are set up to the two groups in order to make sure the
comparability of the participants and the effect of the treatment between both groups. Pre-test is
delivered prior to the treatment and Post-test is after the treatment without delayed. Each test is done
one time with the same format for every question, or with equal meaning for the reason to get the
proportional result from each group (MacKey and Gass, 2005)
The treatment which will be applied to experimental group is ―deliberate vocabulary
learning‖ that is in the form of ‗ Linked word‘s game‘. The treatment for this game is planned to be
given for 20-30 minutes for each session. In this study, treatment will be applied for two months with
invariance a week pause interval referred to the students‘s schedule for ‗Speaking‘ subject. In total,
there are eight until 10 sessions used for this ‗linked word‘s game.
All of the procedures, purposes and desired result of this study will be pointed to the samples
by using Bahasa. It is with the consideration that by using the language that they really mastered, the
comprehension toward this study is attained more satifactorily.
3.2 Sample and Population
The population of this study is the students of Speaking 2 class in the second semester of
English Department, PNP. There are two paralell classes for this Speaking 2 class named Speaking 1
A/ 1B with the number of students around 25 per each class. The reason for choosing this sample is
because the result of this study can be implemented to their further learning process later on.
The sample as confirmed by Dornyei (2007) is categorized by the year of their study and the
subject background of their study. This is because by grouping the sample particularly becomes
effective method for those who conduct a research with a specific focus. Reverse approach in the
quantitative method is designated as it can have a sample at least of 25 participants. It refers to the
sample size that is necessary to be used to detect the effect or the desired outcome of the study
(Dornyei, 2007).
3.3 Data Collecting
The data can be collected in short periode of time before and after the treatments given to the
experimental group. Surely, it all depends on the researcher planning; sample‘s question and the
questions themselves should be prepared properly in detail (Paivio and Begg, cited in McDonough
and McDonough, 1977, p. 155).
In this study, the data taken from the experimental group are applied in two steps; 1) Prior
Step (Pre-Test) which is done before the treatment, and 2) Final Step (Post-Test) which is given after
the treatment without delayed. Pre-Test and Post-Test are exactly the same test which is utilized
Vocabulary Size Test (VST) (Monolingual 20,000, version A) by Paul Nation that is retrieved from
his website http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/about/staff/paul-nation. VST is given into the sample to
measure their vocabulary size before and after the treatment. This is aimed to find out whether there
is significant change on the experimental group after the treatment is given.
VST which is established by Paul Nation is also used by Laufer and Nation (2001) and have
been tested in their study about ―Passive Vocabulary Size and Speed of Meaning Recognition: Are
They Related?‖. Their study examined about the correlation between speaking fluency and the
vocabulary size. It was also about focus on the relationship between fluency and vocabulary size, and
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also between fluency and word frequency level. As has been proven by their study that fluency is
obtained when the learner knows the meaning of the words which is given from diffrent level of
frequency.
Table 1
Tests of Normality
Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk
Statistic df Sig. Statistic df Sig.
Pre1a .206 23 .013 .927 23 .094
Post1a .147 23 .200* .954 23 .358
Pre1b .127 23 .200* .954 23 .350
Post1b .131 23 .200* .947 23 .254
a. Lilliefors Significance Correction
*. This is a lower bound of the true significance.
Furthermore, based on the result from pre- and post-test of experimental and control group, the result
of dependent sample t test is divided into two focuses; paired sample statistic, and paired sample test:
Table 2
Paired Samples Statistics
Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Grup Pre test 27.1304 23 8.65660 1.80503
Eksperiment Post test
al 32.3478 23 9.98002 2.08098
Grup Pre test 37.0000 25 8.18026 1.63605
Kontrol Post test 37.8800 25 8.16660 1.63332
Table 3
Paired Samples Test
Paired Differences
95% Confidence Interval Sig.
Std. Std. Error t df
Mean of the Difference (2-tailed)
Deviation Mean
Lower Upper
Grup Pre test - Post test
Eksperim -5.21739 12.91566 2.69310 -10.80254 .36776 -1.937 22 .066
ental
Grup Pre test - Post test
-.88000 5.27826 1.05565 -3.05876 1.29876 -.834 24 .413
Kontrol
The data shown above initially began with the pre-test figure of both groups. They have
reached slightly different in score with the ‗mean‘/average of 27.1 for 1 A and 37 for 1 B. The first
group had more lower ‗mean‘ score than the second group. It can be said that the ability of the
students in the first group was relatively ―poor‖ than the second group. Here it meant that they had
low motivation to study because lack of vocabulary size therefore they were not too fluent in
speaking.
Moreover, the data shown on table 1 explained that Sig value in Shapiro Wilk test is greater
than 0.05, it means that all groups of data have been distributed normally. First, from the t-test
sample, it is found that control class t (24) = - 0.834 and the value of p in control group‘s score is
higher than 0.05 (p = 0.413) which means that there is no significant change in post-test score
compared to pre-test score in this group. Even though, the average score of this group is higher than
another group, but it describes that the students‘ vocabularies size does not improve and there is no
dramatic different score of pre-test and post-test in control group. As it has been explained before,
actually this group does not get linked word game treatment during its speaking class material.
On the other hand, the post-test score of experimental class has improved compared to its
pre-test score, t(22) = -1.937 (as seen on table 3). After receiving vocabulary deliberate learning
through the linked word game, the score average increased from 27.13 to 32.34 and the t-test showed
that its p value is 0.066 (p is near to 0.05). It means that there is a major improvement of vocabulary
size in this group. Furthermore, this study proves that the linked word game, as an applicative way of
vocabulary deliberate learning, can improve and enrich the vocabulary size of the students in English
Department, PNP.
5. CONCLUSION
5.1 Conclusion
Linked word game, in this study, is utilized as an applicative way in implementing
vocabulary deliberate learning which set to experimental and control group. Independently-samples
t-test is then used to compare the result received from these two groups with regard to find the effect
of vocabulary deliberate learning toward the improvement of students‘ speaking fluency.
Furthermore, well planned linked word game has been provely effective to enrich students
vocabulary size. In addition, by having a variety of vocabulary indirectly can grow the confident of
learner to learn other skills of learning English beside speaking.
5.2 Suggestion
Vocabulary deliberate learning can be one of an effective way to enrich and improve
students‘ English ability. It is suggested to the lecturer to elaborate the game besides this linked word
game in order to catch students‘ interest. The goal of language learning should be still focused on the
vocabulary improvement and enrichment for the students. Regarding to the next study that will be
done by other researchers, there can be consideration to concern on implementing vocabulary
deliberate learning to enrich the vocabulary size of EFL learners.
1. This vocabulary deliberate learning can be applied to other English skill besides speaking
subject, for example writing, reading and listening class. Therefore, there will be advance
result in different environment.
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2. The technique can be varied based on the students‘ ability and background since different
condition will need different treatment. Thus, linked word game is not the only way to apply
vocabulary deliberate learning and it can be extended to other techniques.
3. The next study or research can be implemented in a bigger data and wider sample so the
result will be more valid.
4. All aspects of the language learning process should be included to enrich and improve
students‘ fluency in English.
REFERENCES
Baddeley, Alan. Human Memory. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1990.
Brown, Roger. and McNeill, David. ‗The ―Tip of the tongue‖ phenomenon‘. Journal of Verbal
Learning and Verbal Behaviour 5 (1996): 325-337. Print.
Dornyei, Sultan. Research Methods in Applied Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
Print.
Ellis, Rod. Instructed Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1990. Print.
Gathercole, Susan E, and Baddeley, Alan D. Working Memory and Language. Hove, New Jersey:
Lawrence Erlbaum, 1983. Print.
Long, Mike. ―Issues in Second Language Acquisition in L. M. Beebe, (ed).‖ Instructed
Interlanguage Development‘. New York: New Bury House, 1998. 115-141. Print.
Mackey, Allison. and Gass, Susan M. Second Language Research. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence
Erbaulm Associates, Inc, 2005. Print.
McDonough, Jo. and McDonough, Steven. Research Methods for English Language Teachers.
Great Britain: Arnold, 1997. Print.
Miles, Mathew B and Huberman, Michael A. Qualitative Data Analysis, 2nd Edition. Thousand
Oaks Calif: Sage, 1994. Print.
Nation, Paul I. S. Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge, UK : Cambridge
University Press, 2001. Print.
Nation, Paul I. S. and Newton, Jonathan. Teaching ESL/ EFL Listening and Speaking. New York:
Routledge, 2009. Print.
Swain, Merril. (2005). ―Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning, In E.
Hinkel (ed).‖ The Output Hypothesis: Theory and Research. Marwah, N.J.: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, 2005. 471-483. Print.
Abstract
This paper discusses about using the teachers‘ questions in developing language inputs: vocabulary,
structure/grammar and pronunciation. The language inputs are very important for the students to
master because their success in their language use or communication is determined by their mastery
on the inputs. However, the mastery of these language inputs becomes a problem for the students due
to some causes, namely, the unavailability of English speaking environment, the schools do not
provide enough opportunities for optimizing the language inputs due to the limited time available
and the teachers of English do not make use of the teaching to increase the students‘ language inputs
maximally. To help solve this problem, this paper suggests the use of the teachers‘questions to ask
during the teaching process.
1. INTRODUCTION
As a foreign language in Indonesia, English gives a lot of difficulties to Indonesian students
who study it at all levels.Being a foreign language, English makes indonesian students have to work
hard to master it because bahasa Indonesia they have mastered and English have a lot of differences.
The differences mainly lie on the vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. While this three
components are very important for one to use the language.
Vocabulary and grammar are involved in all language skills: speaking, listening, reading and
writing. Vocabulary is the first language component one masters or understands a language, either as
his mother tongue or as a foreign language. A person starts his language mastery from understanding
the vocabulary of the langauge. Even to communicate in that language, to master the vocabulary is
more important than the other language components such as grammar and pronunciation.
Grammar is also an important language component to master in order to be able to use the
language well and to communicate in a perfect way. However, eventhough it functions determinantly
in good langauge use, it is not as important and determinant as vocabulary is. Very often we find
cases of communication in which the grammar is incorrect or inappropriate, the communication can
succeed. In other words, it means the communication between the two sides can still happen. Of
course, a better and more fluent communication can happen if both vocabulary and grammar use by
the communicators is good.
The other language component which is also as important as vocabulary and grammar is
pronunciation. Pronunciation --in general-- is how to pronounce or utter words of the language. It is,
of course, inseparable to the vocabulary of the language. Pronounciation also plays a very important
role in the mastery of the language because wrong (very wrong) or inappropiate (very unappropiate)
pronunciation may result in the misunderstanding by the listener. That is why pronunciation must, at
least, be comprehensible to run communication (Finocchiaro and Brumfit, 1983, in Brown, 1994).
From the explanation above, it is clear that the three language components are very important
for one‘s communicating his ideas in a language. Of course, for the best use of the language, one
should master the three components.
In relation to the English language teaching in our schools, from the junior high schools to
the senior high schools, and even to the unversities, therefore, the three components must get serious
attention in order that the students become (very) good language users.
As a matter of fact, very many students of junior and senior high schools, even in the
universities are still lack of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. Very many of them cannot use
the language fluently because of the insufficent mastery of the language components.
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For this reason, a teacher of English in those levels education, especially at the junior high
schools and senior high schools should make use of his teaching process to develop the three
language components : vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. One of the ways that can be used for
this purpose is to make use of the teachers‘ questions in teaching-learning process. The teachers‘
questions have some characteristics that can help students learn and develop their mastery of the
language components as discussed in the ―Discussion‘‘ of this paper.
2. DISCUSSION
A. Teachers’ questions
A question is simply any statement which requires an answer from a person being asked. The
question has an interogative function. In a classroom setting, teachers‘ questions are defined as
instructional cues or stimuli that convey to students the content to be learned and direction for what
they are to do and how they are to do it. (Cotton, 2003 in Novriyana, 2015).
Furthermore, Novriyana (2015) quoting some experts describes the teachers‘ questions as
follows :
Teachers‘ questions are all types and structures of utterances classified, either syntactically
or functionally, as questions by a teacher before, during and after a teaching in order to elicit
responses from the students (Tsui, 1992). Teachers‘ questions are also defined as a semantic class
used to seek information on a specific subject (Quirk et al in Shoomoossi, 2004)
From the explanation above, it can be summarized that teachers‘ questions can be defined as
any statement which has an interogative function to elicit responses from the students.
B. The purposes of teachers’ questions.
The teachers‘ questions have some purposes in the teaching-leaarning process in the
classroom. The teachers use this kind of question to see if the learners have acquired the imparted
knowledge; to stimulate logical, reflective or imaginative thinking of issues being discussed ; to
direct attention to and keep the students involved in the lessons ; to give space and participation
(Saun, 2010)
From the explanation about purposes of the teachers‘ question above, it is easily understood
that the teachers‘ questions are very important to apply in the classroom. Teachers‘ questions can be
used to see whether the students have acquired the knowledge and how much and how well they have
understood the knowledge ( the lesson, of course) being taught. The teachers‘ questions also
encourage the students to use –even- to increase their logical, reflective or imainative thinking.
Another benefit of using the teachers‘ questions in the classroom that they can direct the students‘
attention and keep the students involved in the teaching-learning process. It is clearly believed that
attention and involvement of the students are very important to make them perform better in the
lesson as Krashen (1982) says that students with high attention perform better.
The teachers‘ questions also provide space for the students for self-expression and increase
motivation and participation. These help students to succeed in their learning. Krashen (1982) also
adds that students with high motivation perform better.
concerning a topic, to focus on particular issue or concept, to develop an active approach to learning,
to stimulate students to ask questions of themselves and others
Fourth, the teachers‘ questions have the ability to grab the students‘ attention.
Fifth, the teachers‘ questions can be used to check the students‘ understanding, to elicit
information and to control their classroom.
Sixth, the teachers‘ questions can be used to find out what students do or do not know and
understand, to challenge or stimulate their thinking.
Seventh, the teachers‘ questions can function as a controller in the classroom, namely to
control the classroom behaviour.
Eighth, tshe teachers‘ questions can function to keep the students involve themselves during
the lessons so that they can express their ideas and thoughts and to help teachers evaluate their
students‘ learning and revise the lesson if necessary.
Ninth, the teachers‘ questions can help their students focus their attention, exercise
disciplinary control in the course or instruction, and encourage students‘ participation and move the
lesson forward.
Literal questions refer to an understanding of the simple meaning of the text such as facts,
vocabulary, etc. These questions can be answered directly and explicitly from the text.
Reorganization requires students to obtain information from various parts of the text and combine it
for additional understanding. In inference questions students combine their literal understanding with
their own knowledge and intuitions. Prediction involves students to make a prediction about what
might happen next by their understanding and their own knowledge of the topic. Evaluation
questions requires students to give a comprehensive judgement about a certain aspect of the text.
Personal response level question requires an answer or a response depending on the students feeling
about the topic. Appreciation deals with the psychological and aesthetic impact of the selection on
the students.
About the forms of the questions, Day and Park (Fajri, 2015) classify comprehension
questions in to five forms, namely yes/no , alternative , true/false , wh and multiple choice.
E. Language Inputs
According to Cahyono (2013), input refers to the material that composes something. So,
language input can be defined as the language material that composes students‘ repertoire. By using
the language input, students can interact and communicate in that langauge. It is understood from
Norman et al (1986) that the language inputs are vocabulary, structure (grammar), and pronunciation.
The mastery of these language inputs will determine the development of students‘ language.
The problem is that it is not easy for the students to develop their own language because –
especially for students in Indonesia – they do not have any environment to use the language except at
their schools. Unfortunately, the schools still do not provide enough opportunities for optimizing the
language inputs due to the very limited time offered in the curriculum. Another possible reason is that
teachers of English do not make use of the teaching time for the increase of students‘ language inputs
maximally, such as asking questions about vocabulary, structure/grammar and pronunciation during
their teaching. There are slots, actually, that can be used by the teachers to help students develop their
language inputs while taching any language skill.
The language inputs taught to the students must have the characteristics: comprehensible,
interesting, and / or relevant, not grammatically sequenced and sufficient in quantity (Krashen,
1982).
Cahyono (2003) suggests that to provide the comprehensible, interesting, and / or relevant,
and sufficient inputs the teachers can do intensive interaction as he did an experiment to her daughter
who was four years old. The experiment was done in one year. Ater the experiment he found that the
daughter could speak fluently and developed a lot of English vocabulary.
In developing the language inputs, Krashen (2013) suggests this formula : i+1. ― i ‖
represents the last rule we have acquired, our knowledge of the world, and context. In other words,
―i‖ can also be understood as the position where the students are in his language mastery. Whereas ―
1 ‖can be defined as a symbolic place the teachers wants to bring his students. To develop the
students‘ language inputs the teacher has to constantly push them forward. In the classroom setting
the input development can be carried out in three forms; in the whole class, in pairs or small groups
and working individually ( Norman, et.al, 1986).
To summarize, the language inputs can be defined as the language materials that compose
the students‘ repertoire which are in the forms of pronunciation, struture/grammar and vocabulary.
In the teaching – learning process, the language inputs cannot be easily developed due to the
following reasons:
1. The unavailability of English speaking environment to support.
2. The schools do not provide enough opportunities for optimizing the language inputs due to
the limited time available.
3. The teachers of English do not make use of the teaching time to increase the students‘
language inputs maximally.
The language inputs provided to the students must be comprehensible, interesting and /
or relevant, not grammatically sequence, and sufficient in quantity.
F. How to implement the teachers’ questions to develop students language inputs
As mentioned previously, the language inputs meant in this paper are structure (grammar),
vocabulary, and pronunciation. These three language components must be mastered by the students
in order to master the language (in this paper : English). To master a language means to be able to use
these components to communicate, namely to use them in listening, speaking, reading and writing
appropriately.
In relation to the communicative language teaching, mastering the four language skills is
very important. It is clear that in order to be able to listen, speak, write and read, the students must be
good enough at the three language components. Unfortunately, as mentioned previously in this paper,
very many students at junior and senior high schools and universities are not good enough at
mastering them. Actually, the teachers of English of the school levels can help the students develop
the knowledge about vocabulary, structure (grammar), and pronunciation by familiarizing and
maximizing themselves to asking questions about the components of the language in any teaching
they do. They can make themselves be accustomed to asking questions about the vocabulary,
structure (grammar) and pronunciation during the teaching-learning process. They have to make
themselves in the habit of asking questions to help the students know and remember the vocabulary,
structure (grammar) and pronunciation. To do so, it is also suggested that the teachers visualize the
points they are asking about by wiriting them on the board and ask the students about the meaning
and the pronunciation of the words. For the grammar, they should and make sure that the students
uderstand it without giving lengthy explanation.
REFERENCES
Brown, H. Doughlas. 1994. Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language
Pedagogy. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. Inc.
Chyono, Bambang Yudi. 2013. ―The Role of Teachers in Determining Success of English
Language Teaching in Indonesia‖. In SELT Proceeding, pp.17-18.
Fajri. 2015. ―An Analysis of the Question Levels of Reading Comprehension Questions in The
Textbook Entitled ‗Bahasa Inggris: English for Senior High School Grade X‘. Unpublished
Thesis. Padang: English Dept. State University of Padang.
Krashen, Stephen D. 1982. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Oxford:
Pergamon Press.
Norman, David., et al. 1986. Communicative Ideas: An Approach with Classroom Activities.
London: Commercials Colour Press.
Novriyana, Sisma. 2015. ―An Analysis of Teachers‘ Questions in Teaching and Learning
Process (A Study at SMA N 10 Padang)‖. Unpublished Thesis.Padang: English Dept.
State University of Padang.
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Saun, Saunir. 2010. Panduan Micro/Peer Teaching Program Pendidikan Profesi Guru. Padang:
Prodi Pendidikan Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris.
Abstract
The widespread of English learning videos nowadays reveal that technology has been integrated in
English language realm. There are numerous videos that can be deployed as English learning media
or sources. As commonly known, the use of video in English Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms
can facilitate the students to get more interested in learning and also enhance their communicative
competences because they can get rich learning experiences. However, in this advanced technology
era, the teachers have to face some challenges in utilizing the video in the classrooms, such as variety
of video formats, technology devices, and video techniques. In this case, the teachers have to be able
to choose appropriate video, deploy the technology devices, and present it in more interesting and
meaningful ways. If the teachers do not know how to figure out the challenges, the video will not work
effectively to achieve the teaching and learning objectives. Considering great benefits and
challenges of using video in the EFL classrooms, this paper discusses theoretical background to
present some meaningful ways of deploying video. It is expected to provide information for English
Language teachers to successfully employ the video in their classrooms.
1. INTRODUCTION
The widespread of English learning videos nowadays reveal that technology has been
integrated in English language realm. The use of video can facilitate the students in more interesting
learning activities because they can get different learning experience when it can be implemented by
teachers effectively. Harmer (2006) states that video can give essential extra benefits for students‘
learning experiences; enrich the students‘ experience about language in use, improve their cross
cultural understanding, develop their creativity, and increase their motivation in learning. However,
in this advanced technology era, the teachers have to face some challenges in utilizing the video in
the classrooms.
The first challenge that the teachers have to face relates to their capability in deploying video
in the classroom and utilizing other technology devices. Computer, laptop, projector, earphones, and
some other programs or tools are commonly found in EFL classrooms. The teachers have to be the
one who knows very well how to use the devices to facilitate the students during the teaching and
learning process. Even they did not learn about technology in specific, but they have to be
knowledgeable figures. Then, they have to be able to apply some techniques in using the video and
the other devices, and also figuring out some barriers that may appear in the class that can influence
the students‘ impressions in learning.
On the ground survey in a school, researcher found that a group of students in a class were so
excited when they knew from their teacher that they would be taught a new lesson by using video.
Then, after a few couple of minutes waiting for the video on, the students‘ mood were slowly down
because they seemed getting bored and tired of waiting the video because the teacher got technical
problem, she did not have any idea to handle it. In this case, the teacher failed to build up the
students‘ interest in learning because of technical problem in using the video. Obviously, that matter
was not expected to happen by every teacher when using any devices, so the teachers have to enrich
themselves with some techniques to figure out some problems that might appear. That kind of
condition has to be anticipated by the teachers because it will influence the teaching and learning
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process. Overall, the teachers should enrich themselves with good understanding of deploying
technology in EFL classrooms.
Then, another challenge in utilizing video in EFL classrooms is the teachers‘ capability in
selecting appropriate video that can effectively support the students in developing their
communicative competence. Actually there are numerous English videos produced nowadays, they
can be accessed or downloaded easily in internet. However, the videos that will be used in the class
should be in line with the purpose of teaching the language. The video should be selected based on
some criteria, such as students‘ learning topics that refer to syllabus of the school and also students‘
English level. Unfortunately not all teachers realize about those things, so it influences to the
effectiveness of learning process by using video. In short, the teachers have to be able to provide
appropriate videos that will be presented based on the students‘ needs.
Furthermore, the teachers have to have rich techniques in teaching by using video. It means
that the video should be presented in various interesting and meaningful ways. When the video is
presented, the teachers do not only let the students to watch it and ask them to answer some questions
relate to the video or make the students to be passive viewers, but the teachers also need to encourage
them to be active viewer. The teachers have to be able to understand and apply various techniques of
teaching by using video, such as full viewing, freeze framing technique, silent viewing, and others (
Harmer, 2006) . If it is just presented in common way, it probably can get the students‘ interest, but it
may not meaningful for the students. The students may enjoy watching the video, but they may get
difficulties to get, share, practice the information that they watch form the video.
The last but not least challenge is the teachers have to develop themselves as creator,
producing video to fulfill their students‘ needs in learning activities. Through intensive use of videos,
the students will demand something that more interesting than the one that just created by someone
else. The teachers have to be able to facilitate the students‘ needs and create effective videos that can
support the students‘ learning activities successfully. If the teachers just deploy some videos that they
gathered from internet or bought in stores, the videos are probably not fresh from the oven anymore
for the students. They might have watched the video, so it could not be really effective for the
students. The teachers are needed to develop their creativity in creating more applicable videos for
the students.
Considering great benefits and challenges of utilizing video in the EFL classrooms
nowadays, this paper provides ways for using video meaningfully, it expected to present valuable
information for the teachers, especially EFL teachers about some ways that they can implement when
teaching English by using video. So, the students do not only get interested when the teaching and
learning activities are run by using video, but they can get valuable and long lasting information
through the video presented by the teachers.
language used in real context of communication. It also allows the students to know about English
native speakers‘ culture based on the setting of the story in the video. Then, it can develop the
students‘ creativity and communicative competence because they can create their own video while
using or practicing the language. Moreover, the students can get more interest in learning because
they have opportunity to see the language in use as well as learn it from audio recorder. In this case,
the use of video provides advantages for the students.
Harmer (2006) also adds that the teacher needs to be aware of some problems that might
appear during the teaching and learning activities by using video:
1. Nothing new syndrome can influence the effectiveness of using video in the class. It
happens because the teacher cannot facilitate the teaching and learning activities in more
interesting way, so the students just consider that the teaching and learning activities by
using video are as same as the other common learning activities.
2. Poor quality video also another factor influences the effectiveness of employing the
video in the class, for example the students will get problem to see how the language is
used in real context of communication.
3. Poor viewing condition can affect the effectiveness of using video. When using video in
the class, the teacher has to ensure that the situation in the class will facilitate the
students to see the video clearly. In some cases, the video is just brought into the class
without considering the eligibility of the condition in the class.
4. Stop and start technique in using video might also fail to get the students‘ interest in
learning because the teacher does not know very well how to apply the technique.
5. The length of the video used in the classroom should be counted. It is not going to be
effective if the duration of the video takes too long, they may fall asleep or lose their
attention. Using short video will be one of the ways to get the students‘ attention in
learning activities.
6. Technical problems might appear during the teaching and learning activities. The
teachers should get familiar with all the tools that will be used to support the classroom
activities.
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the classroom due to some challenges that cannot be figured out well by the teachers as facilitator in
the classrooms, such as limited knowledge about techniques of using video in the classrooms.
Therefore, the following information reviews some techniques of using video in EFL classrooms.
they repeated the teacher‘s orders to support teaching and learning activities in the
classroom.
2. Reproduction activity
Let the students to watch the video and encourage them to try what they have
learned. This is expected to provide the students to have experiment in using the
language through the video.
3. Dubbing activity
It is an interesting activity that can be implemented in the classroom to invite the
students actively using the language by asking them to fill in the missing dialogues
after watching sound of video episode.
4. Follow up activity
After watching video, teachers have to provide follow up activities for students to
have further extended oral practice, such discussion. The students will have a chance
to develop sharing and co-operative skills.
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This last point is the most influential; the teaching and learning activities will not run
effectively if the teachers do not prepare what the teachers and students have to do during
the class. In this part, the teachers‘ capabilities to run appropriate techniques are needed.
3. METHODS
This study was designed in descriptive qualitative research; the data were collected from
some related literature about the implementation of video in English language classrooms. Then,
they were analyzed in three steps; data reduction, data display, and conclusion/verification. Firstly,
information that relates to the use of video in EFL classroom was collected. Then, the information is
presented based on the roles of video and techniques of employing video. Both of the components
were expected to represent great roles of video in EFL classroom and some ways that can be applied
by the EFL teachers in teaching by deploying video. The last, some conclusions were drawn to attest
more meaningful ways in deploying video in the classrooms.
4. DISCUSSION
Deploying video in the English as Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms can bring positive
values during the teaching and learning activities, even some problems inevitably appear, (Harmer:
2006). In this case, the teachers as facilitators in the class need to prepare appropriate learning
sources and implement effective ways when using video in the classrooms. The existence of video in
the language teaching realms is not only as a device used during the teaching and learning process,
but it is an effective tool that connects to the development of students‘ language skills.
Speaking
Listening
The chart above shows that video can be used as a media to develop EFL learners‘ skills in
English, (Woottipoong, 2014). Video can be very relevant media and source of learning if it is
presented well by the teachers. Based on some theories that had been written before, there are few
numbers of ways/techniques that can be implemented to support English language learners to learn
about the language, (Harmer 2006; Mohammed 2013; Gromik 2015). In this case, teachers as
facilitators in the classrooms have to be able to design and run effective and meaningful learning
activities.
To deploy video as powerful tool during the teaching and learning activities, preparation is
one of the main ways to make it more meaningful before implementing some other ways to
encourage the students to be active learners. Then, the teachers are also required to design learning
activities that can keep the students in active learner modes. In this case, the teachers are challenged
to involve the students actively during the teaching and learning activities by using video.
Based on references presented in this study, there were some ways that can be implemented
when using video in EFL classrooms, such as Harmer (2006) who mentioned about; Viewing
Techniques (Fast Forward, Silent Viewing, Freeze Framing, Partial Viewing) and Listening (and
mixed) Techniques (Picture less listening, Picture or Speech). Then, Çakir (2006) also added some
other ways; active viewing, freeze framing and prediction, silent viewing, sound on and vision off
activity, repetition and role play, reproduction activity, dubbing activity, and follow up activity. In
addition, Gromik (2015) who talked about the Smartphone Video Camera as a tool to create Digital
Stories for English Learning Purposes. In this case, all of those techniques can be effective ways that
teachers have to apply in their EFL classrooms. The list of the ways can be seen in the following
group :
The chart above clearly shows some ways that can be implemented by the EFL teachers during the
teaching and learning process. Actually, some of the teachers might get familiar with those ways, but
this article provides information about three phases of teaching English by using video. Then, there
will be some ways that can be applied by the teachers to make it meaningful.
Pre-Activities
In many classrooms, before playing a video, teacher usually delivers some questions to
activate students‘ background knowledge in order to help them in understanding what information
that they are going to learn. However, the teacher sometimes has to face difficulties to encourage the
students to respond to his/her questions because the students prefer to be quiet in the class or having
no idea about the teacher‘s question. In other words, questioning technique or asking some questions
before playing the video is not always appropriate to be implemented in the class. The students need
to be guided to respond the questions. It sometimes appear as a problem because the teachers
sometimes get difficulties to guide the students. So, in this part, silent viewing/ prediction/ partial
viewing can be ways out as pre activities that can be implemented by the teachers to invite the
students to actively participate in teaching and learning activities. It is line with Harmer‘s statement
(2007), silent viewing/prediction/partial viewing can encourage the students to predict what
information that they will learn. The students‘ interest to involve in the lesson can be easily activated
when they can observe something. In other words, the teacher can apply the following ways to start
his/her class when deploying a video:
Names of the Concepts Tips to make it more
techniques meaningful.
Silent Viewing & Guiding students to watch a The teachers can prepare
Prediction video without playing its some cards to let the
sound, and inviting them to students share what
predict what the video is about. information they got.
The teachers listed the
Partial Viewing & Partial viewing and prediction : best work and reward a
Prediction Playing a part of a video and few of them. Then, the
guiding the students to predict teachers should facilitate
what information that they will the students to focus on
find from the next part. what they watch.
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Based on the information in the table above, it is possible for the teachers to apply both of the
ways in pre learning activities. The teachers can encourage the students to actively participate during
the teaching and learning process because those ways; silent viewing and prediction, and partial
viewing and prediction were designed to invite the students to be active learners by showing the
partial part/ component of the video. In addition, to make it more meaningful, the teachers can use
some pieces of papers or cards to help the students to note important information in the video.
Main Activities
When teaching English by using video, commonly teachers use the video in the classrooms is
by just playing it without involving it as an interactive part of the lesson. It affects the quality of the
teaching and learning process in the classrooms. In this case, the teachers have to be able to invite the
students to be active viewers. It means that the students do not only watch the video when it is
presented by the teachers, but they also could gather valuable information that can enhance their
English skills. As stated before, deploying video in the class can facilitate the students to learn big
things that will support their communicative skills in English, such as culture and language used in
various contexts. In this case, the teachers have to be able to design interactive activities that can
affect the students‘ skills in English. Hence, there are some ways that can be implemented by the
teachers; sound on vision off, active viewing, freeze framing, and dubbing (Çakir, 2006; Harmer;
2007).
Names of the Concepts Tips to make it more meaningful
Techniques
Sound on vision off Playing the video without showing its The teachers should be able to
picture. choose appropriate video that match
Active Viewing Providing chance for the students to watch the students‘ needs and conditions.
the whole video and asking them to share In other words, selecting short
what they have watched in written and oral videos with 7-10 minutes length will
forms. be effective to keep the students‘
Freeze Framing Playing the video by cutting some parts of the mood on. Then, the teachers should
video. prepare guidelines for the students‘
Dubbing Asking students to fill in the missing activities
information after watching video.
Figure 4 : Main Activities in Using Video
Post Activities
In this phase, the teachers are also needed to design appropriate learning activities that have
to be completed by the students. As the last part, it also can be very influential during the process of
learning. In other words, each phase has connection among others Here, the teachers also need to
apply appropriate techniques to make the teaching and learning activities become meaningful in the
closing part of this stage. In some cases, this part was only encountered as closing activities in which
the teachers just gave some tests to the students in order to know how well the students can learn from
the video that they watch. Obviously, the teachers need to prepare what the students' need.
Names of the Concepts Tips to make it more meaningful
Techniques
Follow up Providing an opportunity for the students In this step, the teachers have to be
to discuss about what they have watched. able to guide the student with
The students will have a chance to challenging questions that invite the
develop sharing and co-operative skills. students to share their idea. Then,
prepare reward for the students who
Reproduction Encouraging the students to try what they can complete the challenges given.
have learned from the video. This is
expected to provide the students to have
experiment in using the language through
the video.
In relation with all of the information above, there are three main phases of teaching and
learning activities in deploying video. Each phase was designed in some ways which were expected
to encourage the students to be active learners and viewers, so those ways can be meaningful ways
for the students to enhance their English. The teachers may adopt a part or whole stages presented in
this paper based on the students‘ needs.
5. CONCLUSION
Although the use of video in many EFL classrooms is not something new anymore, but more
positive responds are still addressed by the students. However, the teachers are challenged to be able
to deploy the video effectively due to numerous types of video that can be found and presented in the
classrooms. In this case, the teachers as facilitators have to be able to prepare appropriate video based
on the students‘ need and design some ways to make it effective, especially in encouraging the
students to be active viewers. So, the teachers have to be able run some effective ways to involve the
students during the teaching and learning activities by using video. Actually, there are many ways
that can be implemented by the teachers, they are; fast forward, partial viewing, active viewing,
repetition and role play, follow up activity, silent viewing, picture less listening, prediction,
reproduction activity, freeze framing, picture or speech, sound on and vision off, dubbing activity. In
this paper some of the ways were classified into three phases to provide more meaningful ways for
the teachers in deploying the video.
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Abukhattala, Ibrahim. 2015. The use of Technology in Language Classrooms in Libya. International
Journal of Social Science and Humanity, Vol. 6, No. 4, April 2015.
Berk, R. A. 2009. Multimedia teaching with video clips: TV, movies, YouTube, and mtvU in the
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Technology and Teacher Education, 10(1), 1-6.
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Smeda, et.all. 2014. The Effectiveness of Digital Story Telling in the Classrooms: A Comprehensive
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Wang, Zhaogang. 2015. An Analysis on the Use of Video Materials in College English Teaching in
China. International Journal of English Language Teaching Vol. 2, No. 1;2015. ISSN
2329-7913 E-ISSN 2329-7921.
Woottipoong, Kretsai. 2014. Effect of Using Video Materials in the Teaching of Listening Skills for
University Students. International Journal of Linguistics,Vol.6, No.4, ISSN 1948-5425.
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Abstract
This qualitative research is aimed to design teaching media for science subject at junior high schools
in Semarang (both private and state schools). It is designed in bilingual language (Indonesian and
English) and based on offline-game. The science subject focuses on Porifera and Coelenterata. This
experiment research is done for the junior high school students at the seventh level and the choice of
the class was based on the material or subject in SMP (junior high school) syllabus. It is about the
living things. Questionnaire and interview, as the instruments, were given to science teachers in
SMP. Before distributed to the SMP teachers, the three main elements (content of the subject,
appearance design, and bilingual use) were evaluated by the experts. It showed that this offline-game
media can be applied in that school and developed into different subjects.
1. INTRODUCTION
The rapid advancement of technology affects the use of teaching media at schools. An
alternative to develop teaching media is that by integrating IT, science and language (either
Indonesian or a foreign language). This situation demands teachers to be creative in order to design
that kind of learning integration model. Creativity comes from in an integration of pieces
information, received by students as a form of knowledge that achieved in a whole understanding.
The integration knowledge possessed by students is that they should be able to operate computer (as
the most important basic competence in IT for Junior High School students) and the use of basic
English, and English –Indonesian mastery. The ability to classify animals demands students to gain
complete information from understanding to identifying. That is why, skills to make students be able
to identify and summarize in their learning activities need to get used to it in the application since the
skills to understand and identify animals scientific names must be achieved by junior high school
students. By doing so, a suitable learning media is needed to reach the aim.
Offline game is an alternative teaching media that can be developed and integrated with
bilingual learning. The game is emphasized in learning so that students can be more interested and
make them easier to classify animals based on the characteristics. Not only they can get used to listen
but also pronounce the English in the daily life.
2. RESEARH METHOD
This research employs a research and development method. The developed product in this
research is a teaching media, manifested in an offline game. The development model employed in
this research is an adaptation and development of steps served by (Brog & Gall, 1983) that involve
needs analysis, learning design, product development and evaluation, consisting of formative and
summative evaluations. Formative evaluation consists of one to one, small group and field
evaluations with a standard used by the developer. The model is occupied because of the simplicity,
accuracy and feasibility. Based on the development model, there are five steps to be covered in order
to conduct the research, as the following chart presents.
Needs Analysis
Learning Design
Analyzing and
Defining Basic
Competence
Identifying
learners’ initial
character
Media Production
Formative Evaluation
Experts’ Analysis Revision Personal Analysis Revision
validation for Trial
materials and
media
Experts’ Analysis
validation for
Revision Personal Analysis Revision
materials and Trial
media
Parties as the subject that involved testing this media development are experts in English
materials and media. Validation is given by the competent experts in order to provide inputs and
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suggestions to enhance the media for betterment and one of them is an expert in media. The rubric to
score the media include: design, material contents, quality of the offline game and the use of English.
How to analysis the data is that by adopting mix-method triangulation design by (Creswell,
2008) done by running simultaneous analysis from a combination of quantitative and qualitative data.
The result of analysis is used to understand the research problems. The rationale from this data
analysis design is lack of one kind of data that will be completed by another kind of data. In this case,
the quantitative data serves a way to generalize, while the qualitative data serves information about
context and setting.
A quantitative test is statistically conducted in order to investigate the gain character that is
developed from each treatment at the field of validation stage. Meanwhile, at the stage of previous
study, a descriptive qualitative analysis is done using questionnaires, interview and observation
sheets and learning transcript and it is also done in the implementation of using the media. During the
validation field, Chart 3 clearly identifies data analysis technique that leads to research problems.
The next triangulation process is separately conducted by analyzing quantitative and qualitative data
and comparing the results. The next step is done by making an interpretation whether the data has a
mutual support or go against. Technique and data analysis results are shown as follow in Chart 1.
Chart 1
Technique and Analysis Results
NO Research Problems Data Technique Analysis Analysis Results
1 The appropriateness Descriptive qualitative Feedback from
between Science data analysis include experts in media
learning media Offline questionnaires, interview, and teachers
game-based and observation sheets and toward the
materials concept learning transcript development of
assignment learning media in
Quantitative analysis data, offline
analyzed with Anova game-based
toward students‘ learning
motivation
2 Language Use Qualitative and Responses to the
quantitative triangulation use of English
data is analyzed during the toward teaching
implementation of offline media
game media for field
validation at the stage of
revising the model
The data gained in the validation sheets which the scores provided by the experts are
analyzed in descriptive quantitative manner using categorization and percentage techniques.
3. FINDINGS
The trial is conducted and limited to Junior High School teachers. It is done to test the
appropriateness of the offline game media that was designed and developed through validation,
revision and simulation processes. The trial at this stage can be preceded to wider users applied in the
next year. The analysis of materials development and graphic design, media development and the
English use are presented in chart 2.
Chart 2
An Expert Response toward Materials
No Indicator Mean Criteria
1 The relevance toward the aim of learning 5
adjusted with the Main Competence and Basic Very Good
Competence
2 The use of cartoon animations help to 4
Very Good
understand the concept of invertebrates
3 The animation of cartoon pictures does not 4
Very Good
raise misconceptions about invertebrates
4 The materials are appropriate with the Basic 5
Very Good
Competence in the level of Junior High School
5 The material illustrations are performed in a 4
systematic way and the logic flow is clearly Good
captured in a whole
6 The program provides evaluation to learners 5 Very Good
7 There are stimulus responses given to learners 5 Very Good
8 Materials provided in the program represent the 4
Good
whole classes about invertebrates
9 The program serves materials that can be easily 4
Good
understood by learners
10 The program uses standard language 4 Good
11 The use of hyperlink can widen and enrich the 4
Good
concept of invertebrates lesson
12 References taken from the materials are 4
Good
provided
Mean 4,333
Invertebrates materials Quality Good
Chart 3
The Data Result of Graphic Design
No Indicator Mean Criteria
1 Pictures are simple, relevant with the concept of 5
Very Good
invertebrates and the size
2 Carton pictures‘ size are proportional 4 Good
3 Texts in the storyboards are readable 4 Good
4 Symbols are used consistently 5 Very Good
5 Animation cartoons are suitable with the 4
Good
concept of Invertebrates
6 Animation cartoon and pictures help learning 4
about the concept of invertebrates become Good
meaningful
7 Information provided in each picture scheme is 4
Good
available in storyboards
8 The game interfaceshave different characteristic 5
Very Good
from other offline games
9 The interface and layout present invertebrates‘ 5
Good
profile
Mean 4,55556
Graphic Design Quality Very Good
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Tabel 4
The Data Result of the Offline Game Media
No Indicator Mean Criteria
A Software
1 Maintainable (easily maintained) 3 Very Feasible
2 Usabilitity (Easy to use and simple in the 3
Very Feasible
operation)
3 Compability (learning media can be installed/ can 2
Feasible
be ran in other available hardware and software)
4 Reusable (Parts or all of the learning media 3
programs can be reused to develop another
learning media)
Very Feasible
Chart 5
The result of Using English toward the Offline Game Media
No Indicator Mean Criterion
1 Meaningfull 3,5 Easily understood
2 Pronuciation 3 Easily understood
3 Fluency 3,5 Easily understood
4 Vocabulary 3,5 Easily understood
5 Sentence Construction 2,5 Less can be understood
6 Punctuation 3,5 Easily understood
7 Appropriateness in 3,5
Easily understood
translation
Mean 3,28572
The use of English in the quality Easily understood
4. DISCUSSION
After conducting tests analysis toward the offline game-base in science served in bilingual, it
can be stated that this media can be used as a means for learning. The statement is proposed based on
the following analysis elaboration data, gained from experts in the following fields:
1. Materials expert
The response from the materials experts toward the quality has a score 4.333, meaning
good. So, Invertebrates materials that classified in Phylum Porifera and Coelenterates are feasible
as a learning media that is created in the offline game. The decent material indicators in the
development of the offline game learning media are materials presentation that covers
appropriateness with the learning materials, Main Competence, Basic Competence and
Indicators. Cartoon animations are used for symbols or icons only. Then, when it comes to the
lesson, real species pictures are presented. It is applied in order to prevent misconception about
the concept itself. Materials description is systematic and the logic flow is clear and
comprehensive. The program that is created to make evaluation for learners is responded. The
proposed materials have represented the whole classes of invertebrates and easily understood, so
the use of standard language is also needed. The materials are suggested to provide hyperlinks that
can widen and enrich the concept of Invertebrates mastery.
The appropriateness of criteria and indicator in this research are in line with Walker & Hess
(Azhar Arsyad, 2010: 175-176) state that quality in learning should have: preciseness,
importance, completeness, balance, appeal, normality and appropriate with students‘ situation to
provide chances to learn, the instruction is flexible, relations between other teaching programs
and evaluation.
2. Graphic Design
The response from the expert that states about Graphic Design quality shows a score
4.55556, meaning very good. So the offline game is very feasible to be used as a learning media.
From the result of validity, the criterion is achieved because this research fulfills the
following indicators: The pictures of the game are simple, relevant with the concept of
Invertebrates and the size is proportional, texts that are available in the storyboard are clearly
readable. Symbols are used consistently, the use of animation cartoons are suitable with the
concept of Invertebrates and give more meaningful learning. Besides that, there is information
that is used in the storyboard and has different characteristics compared to other offline games.
3. Media Expert
The result from three media experts and three Junior High School Science teachers can be
summed up that from the software has a mean score 2.75, meaning feasible. Another aspect that is
Audio Visual Communication has a score 2.8, meaning very feasible.
The very feasible criteria can be reached because it can achieve several indicators as
follow:
a. The software is maintainable, usable, compatible and reusable (Parts or all of the teaching
media programs can be reused to develop another teaching media)
b. The aspect of Audio Visual Communication involves: communicative (according to a message
and acceptable/ in line with the target), Creative in ideas and delivering ideas, also interesting,
audio (narration and back sound),
The criteria or decent indicator for the graphic design and media employs Walker and Hees
(Axhar Arsyad, 2010 : 175-176) states that technical quality includes: readability, easiness to use,
interface quality, handling students‘ response, the quality for program maintenance, the quality for
documentation and other technical quality that is more specific.
4. Expert in English
The appropriateness about use of English described in Chart 5 shows a mean score 3.28572,
meaning easy to understand. The result is obtained from two experts in English and concluded
that the English is easy to understand by the seventh grade of Junior High school Students.
Based on the criteria, the use of English that is gained from the validity result shows that it
completes the following indicators: Meaningful, Pronunciation, Fluency, Vocabulary, Sentence
Construction, Punctuation, and Appropriateness in translation.
The criteria of English are adopted from The Practice of English Language Teaching by
Jeremy Hermer 2002, Pearson Education limited, Malaysia. The book explains that the use of
English applied in language learning and teaching media should be taught in formal, clear and
accepted pronunciation, fluent in the pronunciation, the word choices are suitable for the learners‘
level and the sentences are suitable with the grammar.
The result of the study that we investigated in the first year is in line with Azhar Arsyad,
2002 that teaching media can assist students to increase understanding, provide an interesting and
reliable data, and make data can be easily understood and firm in the information. In short, the use
of this offline game can explain massages and information well so that it can enhance the process
and the learning results.
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5. CONCLUSION
The teaching media of this offline game becomes one of alternatives for a learning media that
can be developed based on the competence for junior high school students. The result shown is based
on an analysis that employs research and development method and informs that this offline game
teaching media can be used as an interesting bilingual teaching media. So by using this media
students can easily understand and be able to master the language learning. It is expected that by
using this offline game, students can be able to use English in the daily life and make them assume
that using English is not taboo and difficult to apply in academic or non-academic learning activities.
From the result of the properness test toward the offline game-based bilingual teaching media that is
assed from the following indicators: meaningful, pronunciation, fluency, vocabulary, sentence
construction, punctuation, and appropriateness in translation, this offline game teaching media is not
only suitable in the learning process, but also in delivering science materials to junior high school
students. Bilingual Offline Game-Based teaching media is a teaching media innovation product
which has a feasibility test from several aspects. By applying this learning activity using this product,
it is expected that active, innovative, creative, educative and fun learning can be manifested. It is also
expected that after using this product, students can be smart and competitive and also have global
knowledge with Information and technology mastery.
REFERENCES
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Academy of Political and Social Science, 391, 72-85
Bryk, A. S. (1988). Musings on the moral life of schools. American Journal of Education, 96(2),
256–290.
Campbell, E. (2003). The Ethical Teacher. New York: Open University Press.
Darmiyati Zuhdi, (2011). Pendidikan Karakter. Dalam Perspektif Teori dan Praktik. Yogyakarta:
UNY Press
Fenstermacher, G.D. (1990). Some moral considerations on teaching as a profession. In J.J. Goodlad,
R. Soder, & K.A. Sirotnik (Eds.), The moral dimensions of teaching (pp. 130-151). San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Goodlad, J. (1992). The moral dimensions of schooling and teacher education. Journal of Moral
Education, 21 (2), 87-98.
Hansen, D. T. (1993). From role to person: The moral layeredness of classroom teaching. American
Educational Research Journal, 30, 651-674.
Hill, T.A., 2005. Character First! Kimray Inc.,
http://www.charactercities.org/downloads/publications/Whatischaracter.pdf.
Josephson Institute for Ethics, (2011),CHARACTER COUNTS! Coalition
(US).Tersedia:www.richard-hooker.com/pdf/heros_research/heros_research_1.pdf
Kementrian Pendidikan Nasional, (2011), Pendidikan Karakter: Tanggung Jawab Bersama Sekolah
dan Masyarakat. Dalam Policy Brief Direktorat Jendral Pendidikan Dasar. 4, 16-19.
Rigby, K (2000). Bullying in school: Guidelines for effective action. PrqfessionalReading Guide for
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Suroso, (2012), Menggali Nilai-Nilai Luhur Budaya membangun Karakter Bangsa, Makalah
disampaikan dalam Seminar Internasional Bahasa, Sastra, dan Budaya Nusantara. Indonesia
dan Goethe University German, Kamis 16 Februari 2012
Tom, A. (1984). Teaching as a moral craft. New York: Longman.
Abstract
This research aimed at developing a one-semester ESP syllabus, particularly for the tourism
management students of the second semester in academic year of 2015/2016 of STIM Sukma Medan.
Therefore, the research and development (R&D) design was conducted to investigate the students‘
needs in ESP class on the second semester and to develop the appropriate syllabus. There were two
instruments used to collect the data, namely; questionnaire and interview. The questionnaire was
given to 12 prospective students who would attend ESP class on second semester. Meanwhile, the
interviews were projected to three different participants, namely an ESP lecturer, two prospective
students, and a student working in the tourism field. Based on the data revealed, it was found that the
students need to extend their speaking and writing skills. Speaking was used to communicate with the
clients in spoken register in the future work field. Meanwhile, writing was used to communicate with
the clients in written register in the future work field. Therefore, the development of syllabus was
focus on speaking and writing followed by listening and reading respectively.
1. INTRODUCTION
English is considered as a very important language to be mastered in this globalization era, as
English is used in many aspects of life and communication. It plays its role in many different fields
such as social environment, schools, and work fields. Tourism is one of the work fields which
requires English to be a medium language among the involved people. For example, Indonesia is an
archipelago country which provides magnificent beauty to attract tourists‘ attention, when foreigners
come to visit Indonesia for some vacations, they obviously need to communicate with the natives.
Thus, the native involved has to be able to communicate in a medium language, in case of English.
Since tourism is a developing sector, its work field always has a chance to employ many employees
every year. The candidates of employees mostly hired from the students who took the tourism
management major in their previous colleges or school.
The ability of students in using English has become an additional value to support their
career in the future. Mastering English can guarantee one‘s opportunities and success in work,
academic and social life (Boroujeni & Fard, 2013). This condition forces learners from non-English
speaking countries to learn more about English, especially the learners who concern in the field of
tourism. Tourism has become a well-established field within English for Specific Purposes (ESP).
The application of English learning then will be integrated in developing curriculum and syllabus.
The syllabus which is going to be designed is expected to cover all the materials, method, and
assessment needed by the tourism management students. But nowadays, it is still found the syllabus
which doesn‘t suit for the tourism students. Whereas, a suitable syllabus will provide good
information and knowledge for learners‘ need in their future career.
Therefore, this research was conducted to investigate the need of tourism management
students about the ESP subject in STIM Sukma Medan. There were two instruments used in this
research namely; interview and questionnaire. Those instruments were used to gain information
about the students‘ needs and expectations toward the ESP course. As the result of the need analysis,
the researcher developed a product of ESP in the form of one-semester syllabus for the tourism
management students of the second semester in academic year of 2015/2016 of STIM Sukma Medan.
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2. RESEARCH METHOD
This research used a research and development (R&D) design, since it is the most
appropriate method to be used in the field such as education, research and development of product.
According to Borg & Gall (2007), educational research and development is a process used to develop
and validate educational product. Regarding to its purpose, the researcher in this case as the course
designer as well, developed a product in the form of one semester syllabus for the tourism
management students of the second semester.
3. PARTICIPANTS
The data of this research was obtained from the first semester of tourism management
students of STIM Sukma Medan, who would attend ESP class on the second semester. This research
also involved three different participants, namely an ESP lecturer, 12 prospective students, and a
student working in the tourism field, Santika Dyandra Hotel, Medan, North Sumatera.
The ESP lecturer had been teaching English for about nine years. Yet, he has been teaching
ESP class in STIM Sukma Medan since 2013. His good English proficiency and the need of ESP
class in STIM Sukma Medan led the head of department to choose him as the ESP lecturer. Twelve
prospective students were the students who would attend the ESP class on the second semester. The
last participant was a student working in the tourism field, who had the real experience in the work
field. From the data obtained, the researcher developed a syllabus.
4. INSTRUMENTS
There were two instruments utilized in this research, namely questionnaire and interview.
The questionnaire was given to 12 prospective students who would attend the ESP class on the
second semester. The questionnaire was aimed at finding out the students‘ attitudes toward English
and their needs of ESP material on the second semester. The questionnaire was formed in likert
scales. The students were asked to give a tick (√) to choose the most suitable statement according to
them on the provided space. The items of statement were arranged by the researcher herself.
Meanwhile, the interviews were projected to three different participants, namely an ESP
lecturer, two prospective students, and a student working in the tourism field. The interviews item
were designed by the researcher herself. All of the items were semi-structured interviews. The first
interview was projected to the ESP lecturer. There were two main points of interview, namely
students‘ language problem and syllabus design for following ESP class. The second interview was
projected to two prospective students who would attend ESP class on the second semester. The
interview included the students‘ background information, career demand, English ability and
expectation on ESP class on the following semester. The last interview was projected to a student
who was working as a room attendant in Santika Dyandra Hotel, Medan, North Sumatera. The
purpose of interviewing him was to get the real experience and information regarding on the use of
English in the real work field.
The second group of questions was regarding to the students‘ ability in mastering four
English skills namely, speaking, reading, listening and writing. It was revealed that tourism
management students had mastered writing skill only for 10%, which then followed by 27% of
speaking and listening skills.
Table 2. Students’ Ability in Mastering English
No. Items Percentage (%)
1 Speaking 27%
2 Reading 36 %
3 Listening 27 %
4 Writing 10 %
The third group of questions was related to the priority use of English skills for the students‘
future career. It was found that the majority of students‘ needs were speaking and writing skills.
Speaking was used by the students to communicate with their clients after getting into their career
field. Meanwhile, writing was used by the students to write down any important things for the clients,
such as the list of menu, the list of tourism objects, important messages and memos. The need of
speaking and writing skills led the course designer to give bigger portion of these two skills in
developing syllabus.
Table 3. The Use of English Skills for the Future Career
No. Items Percentage (%)
1 Speaking 28%
2 Reading 23%
3 Listening 23%
4 Writing 26%
The fourth table was the result of questionnaire which was given to the students, there were
several materials related to tourism management which had been presented on the questionnaire. But,
only few materials which dominantly chosen by the students that would be developed on the second
semester syllabus.
Table 4. List of Material Needed by the Students’ in the Second Semester
No. Material
1 Common expressions used in tourism field
2 Etiquette for tourism agent
3 Handling clients‘ demand
4 Hotel and accommodation promotion
5 How to be a flight attendant
6 Local tourism object
7 Specific vocabularies for tourism
8 The field and subfield of tourism
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At the end of this study, the students were expected to be able to communicate with their
clients by using English, whether foreigners or local people. To communicate with their clients, the
students had better to use appropriate expressions and vocabularies related to tourism field. Later on,
they were expected to be able to write any documents related to tourism field, such as, memo, reports,
CV, letters, e-mail, application form, and etc. The ability to write those kinds of documents was
crucial, since oral communication was not the only way to communicate with the clients.
Besides, the students were also expected to develop their listening and reading skills to
support their future career. Listening skill was useful for the students to be able to understand the
clients‘ utterances and demands. In the syllabus, listening skill was developed by some mediums,
such as audio/video and taped conversation. In addition, reading skill was developed to help students
understanding the meaning of written form text, such as brochures, message from phone, statistical
graphs, complaint letters, and etc.
Regarding to the needs of students for the second semester ESP, there were 16 meetings
arranged for them, consisted of 12 meetings for teaching learning process, 2 meetings for lesson
reviews, 1 meeting for mid-semester test, and 1 meeting for end of semester test. The researcher
followed the rules of meeting settled by STIM Sukma Medan. The materials in this syllabus covered
the real condition in the real tourism field.
In this second semester syllabus, the researcher also added some elements which weren‘t
existed on previous syllabus. The researcher added learning method, medium of learning, assessment
and time allocation. The learning methods were adjusted to the material which was being learned on
a meeting, it purposed to keep the continuity between the learning material and the way of teaching.
Medium of learning was used to make the teaching learning process more active and attractive.
Those materials which had been learned then would be assessed by the teacher according to the skill,
the scoring of assessment would be designed by the ESP teacher. Finally, the researcher put the time
allocation to give the limitation of time to the teaching learning process.
REFERENCES
Basturkmen, H. 2010. Developing Courses in English for Specific Purposes. Hampshire: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Brown, H. D. 2010. Language assessment principles and classroom practices (Second edition). New
York, USA: Pearson Education Inc.
Gall, M. D., Gall. J. P., & Borg, W. R. (2007). Educational research: An introduction (8th ed.). New
York: Pearson.
Harding, Keith. 1998. Going International: English for Tourism. London: Oxford University Press.
Rahmawati, Meti & Husna, Rosyida Asmaul. 2015. Needs Analysis to Develop an ESP Syllabus for
Biology Students. 1st edition, 421, Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
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Abstract
The purpose of this research was to evaluate the quality of English textbook for grade VII of junior
high school in Indonesia entitled ―When English Rings a Bell - Revised Edition‖. This research
employed a document analysis (Cresswel, 2012). The evaluation of the textbook was conducted
qualitatively through adapted checklist developed by Litz (2005). The checklist was six criteria
including practical consideration, layout and design, activities, skills, language type, subject and
content, out of seven criteria in Litz‘s checklist were selected for this research.The results of this
research revealed that the ―When English Rings a Bell - Revised Edition‖ textbook fits the criteria of
good English textbook in term of practical consideration, layout and design, activities, and skills.
However, this textbook needs to provide workbook and audio-tapes as supporting aids, detailed
overview instead of general overview, grammar points and vocabulary items, and highlights and
practices natural pronunciation. In term of language types this textbook needs many improvement or
revision, such as there are no authentic, i.e. real-life English language used, there are no brief and
easy example and explanation of grammar, and there are no language represents a diverse range of
registers and accents. And in terms of subject and content, this textbook needs to improve the variety
in the subject and content of the textbook in order to make this textbook interesting, challenging and
motivating.
1. INTRODUCTION
Textbooks are considered as the vital and crucial element in English language teaching. It is
widely accepted that the textbook lies at the heart of any English language teaching situation
(Sheldon, 1988; Hutchinson and Torres, 1994). They offer advantages for teachers and language
students alike, and they constitute a useful resource for both teachers and learners. According to
Cunningsworth (1995) textbooks provide educational text which can be used as source of material
for teaching and learning. They provide objectives for the teaching process, so the teacher can choose
which objective that will lead the learning process (Richards, 2001). Textbooks are a major source of
providing instructions to the teachers and students, that‘s why it is stated that textbooks are the
backbone of every educational system. They help in designing the assessment and evaluation system
for the students, shaping the process of classroom teaching and learning (Mahmood, 2011).
Dialogues and worksheets are also provided in the textbooks. The teacher does not need to make or
design some exercises for the students, if the exercises available in the textbooks used are qualified
and varied enough.
According to Sheldon (1988) the following reasons justify the widespread use of textbooks
in the teaching of English as a foreign or second language throughout the world. Firstly, textbooks
are indispensable in ELT contexts because it is difficult for teachers themselves to create their own
teaching material. In addition, textbooks lessen preparation time by providing ready-made teaching
texts and learning tasks. Finally, textbooks can serve both as a syllabus and as a framework of
classroom progress, a measure by which teaching can be evaluated by external stakeholders. Besides,
textbooks play multiple roles in ELT: as a resource for presentation material (spoken/written), as a
source of activities for learner practice and communicative interaction, as a reference source, as a
syllabus, as a resource for self-directed learning or self-access work, and as a support for less
experienced teachers (Cunningsworth, 1995).
Sheldon (1988) suggest that textbooks "represent the visible heart of any ELT program"
(p.237). They consists of objectives, materials, and assessment intruments to ease the teachers for
teaching and the students for learning. Even though textbook is the simple way to get instructional in
teaching and learning process, teacher needs to be careful in selecting textbook as their source of
material in the class. The textbook that the teacher chooses would satisfy his and his students‘ needs.
For teacher who use the textbooks as the main source of materials, they should be careful in selecting
the textbooks. Since, it may mislead the students who learn English as a foreign language (EFL) if the
textbooks are not appropiate with the learners. Inappropiate textbook can be found if the textbook
does not match with the learners‘ need and characteristics, such as age of the learners, level of the
learners and also the learning style of the learners. If the textbook are not appropiate with age, level
and learning style of the learners it could mislead the learners.
Previous studies claimed that there are some textbooks which are not appropiate with the
students‘ needs. Gustin and Sundayana (in Anshar et.al., 2014) found that there are some
inappropriate textbook for learners characteristics. They found that there are some textbooks for
junior high school which do not consider the level and the learning style of the learners in senior high
school. Yusuf (in Anshar et.al., 2014) also found some weaknesses, in high school textbook. Rahayu
Y.E. (2013) in her study found that the English e-book entitled English in Focus for Grade IX Junior
High School still needs some improvements to make it better. Especially in learning activities,
method, illustrations and pictures, and also audio-tapes. Ahour T., et al (2014) evaluated the
appropriateness of ―English Textbook 2‖ for Iranian EFL second grade high school students from the
teachers‘ perspectives. The results of the study revealed that teachers‘ perceptions about these criteria
were not favorable in general. There are much more disadvantages than advantages in ―English
Textbook 2‖. Naseem, et al. (2015) in their study found that the evaluated English textbook for
matriculation programme (9th class) prescribed by Punjab Textbook Board, Lahore, Pakistan did not
fulfill the general objectives of the target language.
Indeed, finding ―perfect‖ textbook is almost impossible. We are not looking for the ―perfect‖
textbook which meets all our requirements. But rather the best possible fit for what the teachers and
the students need. For that reason, textbook evaluation is necessary to be conducted. Tok (2010)
describes that course book analyses and evaluation help the teachers to improve them and help them
to attain useful insights into the basis of material.
Recently, the Indonesian government launched new curriculum namely curriculum 2013. In
line with that, the government published English electronic books both for students and teachers,
which have to be used by piloting schools as the first implementer of Curriculum 2013. The
government also distributed its printed books to all students and teachers in those piloting schools
that are 6221 schools, consists of 2598 of elementary schools, 1437 of junior high schools, 1165 of
senior high schools, and 1021 of vocational high schools (news.detik.com:2014).
Even though those textbooks are published by the government, the teacher should be able to
evaluate, adapt, and supplement for the books as source of materials which are adapted to the
characteristics of their class. The present research aims to evaluate English textbooks for Junior High
School for the seventh grade entitled ―When English Rings a Bell -Revised-edition‖. The research
questions of the present research was : To what extent does the English textbook for the seventh
grade of Junior High School entitled ―When English Rings a Bell-Revised Edition‖ fulfill the criteria
of a good English textbook based on related theories in terms of:
1. practical consideration?
2. layout and designs?
3. activities?
4. skills?
5. language type?
6. subject and content?
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3. RESEARCH METHOD
This research uses qualitative research design that applies a descriptive study as its
framework (Cresswel, 2012). To find out the aspects of textbook which fulfill the criteria of good
textbook in terms of practical considerations, layout and design, activities, skills, language type,
subject and content, conclusion, this study employs a document analysis (Cresswel, 2012). The data
of the research is English textbook of Grade VII of Junior High School in Indonesia entitled ―When
English Rings a Bell – Revised Edition‖ which are prescribed by Indonesian government to be used
by the piloting schools which implemented Curriculum 2013. To make the present research more
reliable, two English teachers at one of Junior High Schools in Bengkulu are involved as respondents
and also as the second and the third evaluator of the textbook.
Two data collection methods are employed in this research: document analysis and
interview. The procedure of analyzing data are: first, analyzing and interpreting the data. Second,
interviewing the second and the third evaluator as inter-rater, and the third reporting the results of the
research descriptively.
Table 1
The Result of Checklist from the Practical Consideration of the Textbook
No Main Aspect (s) assessed E1 E2 E3
Criteria
1 Practical The price of the textbook is reasonable √ √ √
Consideration The textbook is easily accessible √ √ √
The textbook is a recent publication √ √ √
A teacher‘s guide, workbook, and audiotapes √ X X
accompany the textbook
The author‘s views on language and √ √ √
methodology are comparable to mine (Note:
refer to the ―blurb‖ on the back of the textbook).
Notes:
√ = agree (fulfill the criteria)
x = disagree (inadequate)
According to the table, it was found that evaluator 1, 2, and 3 (E1, E2, and E3) agreed that the
price of the textbook is reasonable, since this textbook is given by the government for free to the
students and teachers who implement Curriculum 2013. In term of its accessibility, all evaluators
agreed that this textbook is easy to be accessed. As stated previously that this textbook is distributed
for free to all schools in Indonesia that have already applied Curriculum 2013, it is also available in
the website of Ministry of Education and Culture for free download.
Regarding of publication, all evaluators also agreed that this textbook is a recent publication,
because it has just been published in 2014, in line with the implementation of new designed
curriculum, namely Curriculum 2013. Even, this textbook also adopted the latest approach of ELT,
that is scientific approach which involves the following activities: observing, questioning,
experimenting/exploring, associating and communicating (Kemdikbud:2013).
Next category is supporting aids. Good textbook provided supporting aids that are useful to
help the teacher in using the textbook. It supports the teachers to prepare their teaching in a limited
time. The supporting aids cover teachers‘ note, audio cassettes/CD-ROMs, extra sources of materials
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and web links. It is in line with Richard (2001) who state that the textbooks should include supporting
materials such as teachers‘ guide, cassettes, worksheet and video which helps the teacher. In this case
(the existence of teacher‘s guide, workbook, and audio-tapes accompanying the textbook), different
from E1, E2 and E3 did not agreed. The reason why they had different opinion is answerable. This
happened since this textbook only accompanied by teacher‘s guide but unfortunately there are no
workbook and audio-tapes provided as the supporting aids. In fact, audio-tapes has very important
role to help students listening some expressions modeled by native speaker so students can learn how
to pronounce the expressions correctly and learn the accent of the native speaker. And, regarding the
researcher‘s views, all evaluator agreed the ‗blurb‘. It means all evaluators have similar views to the
researcher‘s on language and methodology.
The second research question was ―To what extent does the English textbook for the seventh
grade of Junior High School entitled ―When English Rings a Bell-Revised Edition‖ fulfill the criteria
of a good English textbook based on related theories in terms of the layout and designs?‖
Table 2 below shows the result of the checklist in term of layout and designs of the textbook.
Table 2
The Result of Checklist from the Layout and Design of the Textbook
No Main Aspect (s) assessed E1 E2 E3
Criteria
2 Layout and The textbook includes a detailed overview of the X X X
Design functions, structures and vocabulary that will be
taught in each unit.
The layout and design is appropriate and clear X √ √
The textbook is organized effectively. √ √ √
An adequate vocabulary list or glosarry is √ X √
included.
An adequate review section and exercises are X √ √
included.
An adequate set of evaluation quizzes or testing √ √ X
suggestions is included.
The teacher‘s book contain guidance about how √ √ √
the textbook can be used to the utmost advantage.
The material objectives are apparent to both the √ √ √
teacher and student.
Based on the table above, it is shown that all evaluators did not agree in term of the overview
of the textbook. Actually there is an overview in each chapter in this textbook, but it is too general; it
does not meet the criteria of a good textbook which should includes a detailed overview of the
functions, structures, and vocabulary that will be taught in each unit.
Regarding the layout and designs, evaluator 2 and 3 agreed of it, but evaluator 1 did not.
Layout and designs of textbooks has a significant influence on learning of the basic information in
the texts. Learners‘ curiosity and attention are attracted when the material is visually attractive and
well organized. Sheldon(1988), points that textbooks are physical artifacts, and the author needs to
recognize that layout, format, typography and graphics are also essential for a successful coursebook.
Grant (1987) states that attractiveness becomes one of consideration in selecting a textbook.
Attractive layout means that the layouts are arranged tidily. It does not make the reader confused in
reading the textbook. They should have enough space, if the textbooks used graphic and pictures.
They should know where the heading, chapters, subchapters, index, and appendices are placed. This
research found that the layouts of this textbook is adequately good. The letter of the textbook used big
fonts. Big fonts indicate readability. This book provides a lot of pictures with colorful illustrations. It
is good because the use of picture is a way to make input comprehensible. However, the pictures
used are less interesting, since all the pictures are monotonous drawings and there is no photos at all.
There are some drawings showing time that have unappropriate colors or situations, so they confuse
the students to do the tasks; i.e. to state whether it is morning, afternoon, evening or night. But
overall, the textbook provides appropriate layout and designs.
The next category is organization of the textbook. All evaluators agreed that this textbook is
organized effectively, since chapters and sub-chapters of this textbook arranged systematically. In
term of list of vocabulary or glossary, evaluator 1 and 3 agreed , but evaluator 2 did not agreed.
Indeed, there are list of vocabulary and glossary in it, but they are not adequate enough, actually. And
there are also very limited texts inserted in the book, whereas kinds of texts are able to enrich the
students‘ vocabulary. The next part is review section and exercises. Different from evaluators 2 and
3, evaluator 1 disagreed. Indeed, this textbook provides review section and exercise, however the
review section as the sources of input are very limited. Teacher should find other sources to enrich
those review section. The exercises in this textbook are vary; individually, pair-work and group work
exercises. The exercises are set in a systematic arrangement starting from the word moving two
simple sentences and finally coming to a text. It seems that this textbook is constructed based on
Krashen‘s natural order hypothesis. Krashen has stated that we acquire language rules in apredictable
or natural order (Brown, 2000). Those natural order states that children acquire language starting
from simple to complex.
In term of evaluation quizzes or testing, evaluators 1 and 2 assumed that there are adequate
evaluation quizzes or testing suggestion included in this textbook. But, evaluator 3 disagree and
stated that it was not adequate, since teacher should find or make other evaluation quizzes or testing
by him/herself. The next category is teacher‘s book. All evaluators agreed that the teacher‘s book
contains guidance about how the textbook can be used to the utmost advantage. It covers the lesson
plan that can be adopt and adapt by teacher to use this textbook, and also provides some
supplementary materials. And the last part is the objective of the textbook. All evaluators assumed
that the materials objectives are apparent and clear to both of the teacher and the students.This
textbook provides objectives in each chapter. The objectives are appropriate to the activities. A good
textbook should provide syllabus for the course to give aims and objectives of the course (Richard,
2001). It is also useful for giving direction and limitation for teacher and students on how the
materials to be taught or to be learned.
The third research question was ―To what extent does the English textbook for the seventh
grade of Junior High School entitled ―When English Rings a Bell-Revised Edition‖ fulfill the criteria
of a good English textbook based on related theories in terms of the activities ?‖
Table 3 below shows the result of the checklist in term of activities of the textbook.
Table 3
The Result of Checklist from the Activities of the Textbook
No Main Aspect (s) assessed E1 E2 E3
Criteria
3 Activities The textbook provide a balance of activities (Ex. There √ √ √
is an even distribution of free vs controlled exercises
and tasks that focus on both fluent and accurate
production
The activities encourage sufficient communicative and √ √ √
meaningful practice
The activities incorporate individual, pair and √ √ √
groupwork
The grammar points and vocabulary items are X X √
introduced in motivating and realistic contexts
The activities promote creative, original and √ √ √
independent responses
The tasks are conducive to the internalization of newly √ √ √
introduced language.
The textbook‘s activities can be modified or √ √ √
supplemented easily
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Table 3 above indicated that all evaluators assumed that this textbook provides a balance activities.
There is an even distribution of free vs controlled exercises and tasks that focus on both fluent and
accurate production. And all evaluators also agreed that the activities in this textbook encourage
sufficient, communicative and meaningful practice. The activities are vary: individually, pair-work
and also group work.
In the term of grammar, evaluator 1 and 2 disagreed of it, but evaluator 3 agreed. There is no
grammar rules explained in this textbook. Students are forced to learned the grammar automatically
from the limited context given in this textbook. Stern (1970) states that a small child simply uses of
language. He does not learn formal grammar. We don‘t have to tell him about verbs and nouns. Yet,
he learns the language perfectly. It is equally unnecesarry to use grammatical conceptualization in
teaching a foreign language. This book clearly follows Stern‘s argument. However, for Indonesian
students, this method is not quite effective since students are lack in English exposure. The only
English lesson they get is from school, because Indonesia is not English speaking country. So it not
enough to make them acquire the grammar automatically. Therefore, explanation of grammar still
needed to be inserted in this textbook. All evaluators agreed that the activities of this textbook
promote creative, original and independent responses. The questions are designed to be free to
answer; they may be have many responses. They are not designed for one single answer in order to
stimulate students and make them feel free to answer with their own opinion and own words. All
evaluators also agreed that the tasks in this textbook are conducive to the internalization of newly
introduced language. The tasks are always set in hierarchy level. Starting from simple tasks (finding
words or utterances for situation given) which can be considered as the process of of controlled
processing mechanism move to the automatic processing mechanism (need accomplished skill). And
the last term is supplementation. Evaluators 1, 2 and 3 agreed that the activities of this textbook can
be modified or supplemented easily. This textbooks provides limited activities and review sections,
and also quizzes, so it needs modification in the activities and supplementary materials as an
additional sources input.
The fourth research question was ―To what extent does the English textbook for the seventh
grade of Junior High School entitled ―When English Rings a Bell-Revised Edition‖ fulfill the criteria
of a good English textbook based on related theories in terms of the skills?‖
Table 4 below shows the result of the checklist in term of skills included in the textbook.
Table 4
The Result of Checklist from the Skills of the Textbook
No Main Aspect (s) assessed E1 E2 E3
Criteria
4 Skills The materials include and focus on the skills that √ √ √
I/my students need to practice
The materials provide an appropriate balance of √ √ √
the four language skills.
The textbook pays attention to sub-skill, i.e. √ √ √
listening for the gist, note-taking, skimming
information, etc.
The textbook highlights and practices natural X X X
pronunciation (i.e. –stress and intonation)
The practice of individual skills is integrated into √ √ √
the practice of other skill.
Table 4 shows that evaluator 1, 2 and 3 agreed that this textbook include and focus on the
skills that the students need to practice. They also assumed that this textbook provides an appropriate
balance of the four language skills: they are speaking, listening, reading, and writing. And this
textbook pays attention to sub-skill, i.e. listening for the gist, note-taking, skimming information, etc.
But, all evaluators disagreed in term of pronunciation. There are no highlights and practices natural
pronunciation (i.e. –stress and intonation) in this textbook, both written nor spoken (no audio-tapes
available as supporting aids). And in the last part, all evaluators agreed that the practice of individual
skill in this textbook is integrated into the practice of other skills.
The fifth research question was ―To what extent does the English textbook for the seventh
grade of Junior High School entitled ―When English Rings a Bell-Revised Edition‖ fulfill the criteria
of a good English textbook based on related theories in terms of the language type?‖
Table 5 below shows the result of the checklist in term of language type included in the
textbook.
Table 5
The Result of Checklist from the Language Type of the Textbook
No Main Aspect (s) assessed E1 E2 E3
Criteria
5 Language The language used in the textbook is authentic- i.e. like X X X
Type real-life English.
The language used is at the right level for my √ √ √
(students‖) current English ability.
The progression of grammar points are presented with X X X
brief and easy examples and explanations.
The language functions exemplify English that I/my √ √ √
students will likely to use.
The language represents a diverse range of registers X X X
and accents
Table 5 above indicates that all evaluators disagreed in term of language authenticity. It
means that they did not assume that the language used in this textbook is authentic-i.e. like real-life
English. It contains what Indonesian would normally find in their life. There is no ‗like real-life
English‘ materials in this textbook. Everything is very Indonesian. From the names of the person
involved until the pictures and contents strongly represent the culture of Indonesia. Actually it is
good for character buliding and nationalism of the students. However, this would bring bad impact to
the learners since the learning second implies some degree of learning a second culture. It is
important to understand the process of culture learning (Brown, 2000). This textbook does not
include anything about English culture. And this may be lead to the culture shock. There will be
misunderstanding and miscommunication between speakers which means that the students are fault
in using and acquiring English as their target language.
The next, all evaluators agreed that the language used is at the right level for the students
‗current English ability. This textbook uses simple language to the complex one, hierarchically. It
means that students will not move to the next acquisition before they acquire the previous level.
Regarding to the grammar points, all evaluators disagreed. In this textbook, there are no presentation
of grammar points progression in brief and easy examples and explanations. Grammar are
contextualized in a text. No explanation or review section about grammar. The next part, all
evaluators assumed that the language functions in this textbook exemplify English that the students
will likely to use. And the last, about the diversity range of registers and accents, all evaluators
disagreed with it. The language used in this textbook does not represents a diverse range of registers
and accents. There are no information about register and accent in this textbook.
The sixth research question was ―To what extent does the English textbook for the seventh
grade of Junior High School entitled ―When English Rings a Bell-Revised Edition‖ fulfill the criteria
of a good English textbook based on related theories in terms of the subject and content?‖
Table 6 below shows the result of the checklist in term of subject and content in the
textbook.
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Table 6
The Result of Checklist from the Subject and Content of the Textbook
5. CONCLUSION
Based on the result and discussion above, it can be concluded that in general ―When English
Rings a Bell-Revised Edition‖ textbook is considered good English textbook based on Litz‘s teacher
textbook evaluation checklist, in several aspects.
From the textbook evaluators‘ point of view, in term of practical consideration, this textbook
fits the criteria of good textbook; it has reasonable price, easy accessible, a recent publication, and the
author‘s views refers to the ‗blurb‘ on the back of the textbook are similar with the evaluators‘s on
language and methodology. Unfortunately, this textbook only accompanied by teacher‘s guide but
there are no workbook and audio-tapes provided as the supporting aids.
In term of layout and designs of the textbook. The overview in each chapter in this textbook
is too general, the layout and designs are adequate. The letter of the textbook uses big fonts, provides
a lot of pictures with colorful illustrations. However, the pictures used are less interesting, since all
the pictures are monotonous drawings and there are no photos at all. This textbook is organized
effectively, but there are not adequate list of vocabulary and glossary, the review section as the
sources of input are very limited, so teacher should find other sources to enrich those review section,
the exercises in this textbook are vary; and they are set in a systematic arrangement starting from the
word moving two simple sentences and finally coming to a text, there are evaluation quizzes or
testing suggestion included in this textbook but they are not adequate, therefore teacher should find
or make other evaluation quizzes or testing by him/herself. This book also accompanied by the
teacher‘s book which contains guidance about how the textbook can be used to the utmost
advantage.This textbook objectives are apparent and clear to both of the teacher and the students.This
textbook provides objectives in each chapter which are appropriate to the activities.
On the other hand, in term of activities, this textbook provides a balance activities. There is
an even distribution of free vs controlled exercises and tasks that focus on both fluent and accurate
production. The activities in this textbook encourage sufficient, communicative and meaningful
practice. The activities are vary: individually, pair-work and also group work. There is no grammar
rules explained in this textbook. It seems that explanation of grammar still needed to be inserted in
this textbook. The activities of this textbook promote creative, original and independent responses.
Activities are not designed for one single answer in order to stimulate students and make them feel
free to answer with their own opinion and own words. The tasks in this textbook are conducive to the
internalization of newly introduced language. The tasks are always set in hierarchy level. Starting
from simple tasks to the automatic processing mechanism which need accomplished skill. The
activities of this textbook can also be modified or supplemented easily. This textbooks provides
limited activities and review sections, and also quizzes, so it needs modification in the activities and
supplementary materials as an additional sources input.
Regarding the skills, this textbook includes and focuses on the skills that the students need to
practice. It provides an appropriate balance of the four language skills: they are speaking, listening,
reading, and writing. And this textbook pays attention to sub-skill, i.e. listening for the gist,
note-taking, skimming information, etc. But, in term of pronunciation, there are no highlights and
practices natural pronunciation (i.e. –stress and intonation) in this textbook, both written nor spoken
(no audio-tapes available as supporting aids). It is the weakness of this textbook which need to be
improved. And in the last part, the practice of individual skill in this textbook is integrated into the
practice of other skills.
In term of language types, this textbook does not provide authentic-i.e. like real-life
English.There is no ‗like real-life English‘ materials in this textbook. Everything is very Indonesian.
Actually it is good for character buliding and nationalism of the students. However, this would bring
bad impact to the learners since the learning second language implies some degree of learning a
second culture. This textbook does not include anything about English culture. And this may be lead
to the culture shock. There will be misunderstanding and miscommunication between speakers
which means that the students are fault in using and acquiring English as their target language. In
addition, the language used in this textbook is at the right level for the students ‗current English
ability. This textbook uses from simple language to the complex one, hierarchically. Regarding to the
grammar points, there are no presentation of grammar points progression in brief and easy examples
and explanations. Grammar are contextualized in a text. No explanation or review section about
grammar. And the language functions in this textbook exemplify English that the students will likely
to use.The language used in this textbook also does not represents a diverse range of registers and
accents. There are no information about registers and accents in this textbook.
The last category is subject and contents. In term of relevancy, the subject and content of this
textbook are relevant to the students‘ need as English language learners. It contain very Basic English
and daily language used. And the subject and the content of the textbook is generally realistic. The
subject and the content are real and contextual; connecting with the context of the students‘ personal,
social, and cultural circumstances (Johnson, 2009). However, the subject and content of this textbook
are uninteresting and unchallenging. It is as a result from insufficient variety in the subject and
content of the textbook. This textbook is lack of review section of the materials, reading texts,
listening material in the form of audio-tapes which native speaker as the model of pronunciation,
intonation and accents, and also lack of list of vocabulary. So, it forces the teacher to be creative;
finding out other suitable input sources as the supplementary materials. It takes extra time or extra
money to make the students have copies of them. And finally, this textbook are not culturally biased
and they do not portray any negative stereotypes.
From this research, there are some suggestions recommended for English teachers in junior
high school, for the textbook designer and publisher and decision makers, and for further research.
For English teachers, the result of this study is beneficial to give them information on areas where
this textbook can achieve its goals and on what parts will they need to use supplementary materials.
It informs them where they can make adaptation of the textbook or find other sources of materials to
make it best fit to the students‘ need. For textbook designers, publisher and decision makers, it is
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hoped that the result of this study will give them a feedback about the textbook and how it can be
developed. Finally for further research, the researcher who want to conduct a research of textbook
evaluation, it will be better if you also getting the data from teachers, students, and also expert point
of views.
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Hutchinson, T., & Torres, E. The Textbook as Agent of Change..ELT Journal, 48(4), 1994. Print.
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Pembinaan Sekolah Menengah Pertama. Kurikulum 2013. Materi Pelatihan Guru
Implementasi Kurikulum 2013. Jakarta: Depdikbud, 2013. Print.
Littlejohn A. And Windeatt. Beyond language learning:Perspective on Materials Design. In RK
Johnson (ed) The Second Language Curriculum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
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Littlejohn, A. The analysis of language teaching materials: Inside the Trojan horse. In B. Tomlinson
(ed.) Materials development in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University
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Mahmood, K. Conformity to Quality Characteristics of Textbooks: The Illusion of Textbook
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Rahayu, Y.E. A Review of English E-Book entitled English In Focus for Grade IX Junior High
School. 2013. State University of Malang. Indonesia. Web.17 August 2015.
Richards J.C. Curriculum Development in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2001. Print.
Sheldon, L.E. Evaluating ELT textbooks and materials. ELT Journal, 42(4):237-246. 1988.Print.
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Tok, Hidayet. TEFL textbook evaluation: From teachers‟ perspectives. Educational Research and
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Williams, D. Developing criteria for textbook evaluation. ELT Journal 37(3): 251-255. 1983. Print.
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Sri Hartiningsih
University of Muhammadiyah Malang
Malangharti2001@yahoo.com
Abstract
Cross culture understanding is really needed for communication in this globalization area as no
country denies interaction with other country. As different country, it shows different language used
that has own culture so it is necessary to learn cross culture understanding in order not to have
misunderstanding as proper expression in one culture may be considered contrary in another
culture. Ascross culture understanding is important in communication, it is used as a source of
teachingEnglish for communication that is really suitable with the needs of the students to
communicate with foreigner although they are different levels of study, department as well as region.
The purpose of this research are to describe the cross culture understanding used as material for
teaching English for communication in language for communication and the meaning in foreign
language course in Malang Raya. Descriptive qualitative research is used. As it is known the
number of teachers a lot it will take purposive sampling so the subject is the teachers at foreign
language course. The instruments used are interview and observation as well as questionnaire. The
finding shows that cross culture understanding for communication is found for greeting and daily
activity that shows its culture while the meaning is quite different among foreign languages and
Indonesia. Some of them show the meaning is almost the same but the others are contradiction.
1. INTRODUCTION
This era is called globalization. Consequently no country denies interaction with the other
country as it is known borderless age as the rapid development of sophisticated technology so
travelling is needed as there is a great hunger to see the ―other‖ that travelling makes one know the
others as a proverb in Indonesia says ―tidakkenalmakatidaksayang‖. That is why it is needed to a
mean to interaction that is language. Because of importance of language people need to learn for
communication but also to study its culture that is why they learn English at Foreign Language
Coursein Malang Raya that consists of Bat cityMalangdistrict and Malang city as there are a lot of
schools and universitiesin private and state institutions.
Language is a tool for communication. It has characteristic, patterns and also function as well
as its culture also accompanies its language. It means that learning foreign language also learns its
culture so it is necessary to learn in order not to have misunderstanding as proper communication in
one culture may be seen contrary in another culture as ― You‘ve put on weight‖ in Africa means you
look healthy and prosperous. It is great compliment but in America it is an insult (Hybels & Richard,
2004:23) and also gesture or the body language which vary from culture to culture. Sometimes the
same gestures can mean different things in different countries as Y. Reisinger (1997:129-130) stated
below:
―The reasonfor interaction difficulties is that when tourists (traveller) and hosts (native
people) interact socially in their own culture they know which behaviour is proper and which
is wrong. They behave in a way accepted by their respective cultures. They accept proper and
reject wrong behaviour. Those who are engaged in socially unacceptable behaviour are
considered as ill-mannered. Those who are engaged in socially acceptable behaviour are
considered as well-mannered. But when tourists and native people interact with someone
from another culture, they do not know what behaviour is proper and what is wrong. The
behaviour which is seen as proper in one culture is not always seen the same way in another
culture‖.
Relating to the same gestures can mean different things in different countries, Winardi(
2005:270) gives example as thumbs up which is the gesture of praise in many countries, is considered
a rude gesture in Australia. Bulgarian says ‗no‘ by nodding their head, and says ‗yes‘ by shaking the
head side to side. Americans shake hand when they meet new people while Japanese bows to each
other; Arabic kiss each other on the cheek. People think and handle things differently and it is
interesting to explore the differences. That is it is needed to learn cross culture understanding in
communication on foreign language course in Malang Raya as it is really needed that someone faces
misunderstanding of the other language in communication will be considered as impolite one as the
consequently gets cultural shock.
Preventing misunderstanding of cross culture understanding, CCU is used as a source of
communication material in English at foreign language course in Malang Raya as teaching learning
material is one of the very crusial elements that has to exist to conduct in teaching learning activities
(Harsono: 2007). Therefore the aims of this research are to dig out cross culture understanding and its
meaning found in communication at foreign language course in Malang Raya.
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3. RESEARCH METHOD
Research metod consists of research design, population and sample, instrument, data
collection and analysis.
Research Design
This research employs descriptive qualitative research design because the researcher
describes cross culture understanding for communication on foreign language course in Malang Raya
especially cross culture understanding for communication and the meaning on foreign language
course in Malang Raya.
Population and sample
The population of this research is the teachers of foreign language course in Malang Raya
while the sample is the teachers in KBA UMM. As the total number of population is a lot so the
sampling is taken purposively. The reason is KBA UMM is a course that has 7 foreign languages in
Malang and it is not known the total of teachers, time of teaching foreign language is not like
university as semester, having short time to learn as it is going to use. The research is done in 2014
and 2015 from September2014 up May 2015.
Research Instrument
To collect the data are needed instrument that are interview and questionnaire. Unstructured
Interview is done to the English teachers of foreign language while observation is done in the process
of teaching foreign language course.
Data Collection
The data are mainly taken from the result of questionnaire and interview. There are some
steps applied in collecting the data. They are:
1. Conducting observation to know the cross culture understanding
2. Interviewing the teachers of foreign language course.
3. Integrating the data taken from the questionnaire and interview.
Data Analysis
The procedure of analysing the data was following the procedures below:
1. Tabulating data from interview and observation
2. Coding the data
3. Analysing the data to find out the answer of the statement of the problems.
4. Writing the result of the research descriptively.
5. Drawing conclusion.
4. DISCUSSION
The finding elaborates two things; those are the cross culture understanding in
communication and its meaning. It elaborates one by one.
Cross Culture Understanding in Communication
Based on the observation done in teaching learning process on foreign language course, it is not
always found the cross culture understanding used in communication as it is taught based on the topic
but it is dig out from interview and questionnaire as follows:
Based on interview and questionnaire are found 17 cross culture understanding in
communication in English as table below:
Table 1. Cross Culture Understanding
No Cross culture understanding
a. How do you do?
b. What is your name?
c. Thank you
d. Good night
e. Wash my hand
f. Have a business
g. Don‘t mention it
h. Make up your mind,
i. Stay in touch
j. It is about time
k. Go Dutch
l. Down to earth
m. Get to the point
n. Would you do me a favor?
o. Supper
p. I am afraid I can‘t
q. Stay tune
Table above shows there are 17 cross culture understanding found in communication at
foreign language in elementry level.How do you do?is expressed for greeting for first meeting
whereasWhat is your name? is used to ask name while Thank you is the expression used in receiving
something and Good nightis expressed to leave, Wash my handis asking permission, Have a
businessis used to do something, Don‘t mention itis the ecpression to respond the kindness, Make up
your mindis the expression to ask to decide, Stay in touchexpreses connection, It is about timeis
expression to show the ending, Go Dutchis used to make a share, Down to earthis giving suggestion,
Get to the pointis used to make a suggestion, Would you do me a favour? Is the expression to ask,
Supperis talking about food, I am afraid I can‘tis the expression of apologising, Stay tune is used to
ask,.
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with the result of research that the dominant reason of learners in Kursus Bahasa Asing in University
of Muhammadiyah Malang learn English is to increase the ability of speaking (Hartiningsih, 2013).
One example of cross culture understanding found in English communication is Good night.
It is right language used in parting in the night in Indonesia but it has different meaning Have a nice
sleeping. It creates a problem when one or the guest comes to one‘s house in the evening by saying
Good night as the host or hostess answers Good night by closing the door. It makes misunderstanding
how the guest is not allowed to enter the house moreover the host or hostess closes the door. It leads
prejudice later conflict. This could be avoided if one learns its language culture in English.
As a source of English for communication material at foreign language coure, cross culture
understanding makes the learners self confidence in speaking as it deals with real situation as
Tomlinson (1998:7-21) said thatmaterialls should expose the leaners to language in authentic use.
As every foreign language has its own culture, it also has the meaning but the meaning of the
language expression could be different usage. This is the reason the learner and the teacher of foreign
language course should be aware about it. By practice one will learn cross culture understanding that
avoid shock culture especially language shock.
5. CONCLUSION
Cross culture understanding for communication is found for greeting and daily activity that
shows its culture. This is useful and autentic material for learning communication while the meaning
is quite different among foreign languages and Indonesia. Some of them show the meaning that is
almost the same but the others are contradiction.
Based on the finding of this research, it is suggested to:
1. The teachers of foreign language course should be aware of cross culture understanding and
apply it in teaching learning foreign language and explain it in order the leaners understand
it, not having cultural shock especially language shock.
2. The leaners of foreign language course should also learn its culture in order not having
culture shock or language shock when use foreign language in communication especially
with foreigners.
REFERENCES
Hartiningsih, Sri. 2013. Teaching Method on Learning Foreign Languages at Kursus Bahasa Asing
(KBA) in University of Malang. Malang: University of Muhammadiyah Malang
Harsono, Y.M. 2007. Developing Learning materials for Specific Purposes.TEFLIN Journal,
Volume 18 number 2
Hybels, Saundra and Richard Weaver II. 2004. Communication Effectively.
Reisinger, Y. 1997. The Earthscan Reader in Sustainable Tourism: Social Contact Between Tourists
and Hosts of Different Cultural Backgrounds. UK: Earthscan Publication Ltd
Winardi, Andreas. 2005. Representation of Cultural Values in Language and Literature: The
Utilization of Literature to Develop The Understanding of Other Culture. Semarang:
Soegijapranata Catholic University.
www.kwintessential.co.uk/cultural-service/articles/cross-cultural-understanding.htm
www.lingtech.com/media.
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Abstract
Legal English (LE), like such other ESPs as Business English, Medical English, Nursing English,
English for Accounting, English for Aviation, English for Banking, and many others, has a large
number of specific words that the learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) need to acquire.
In term of LE, it is necessary for the EFL learners, especially those of law students, to master the
specific vocabularies frequently used in legal settings. Without having enough mastery of LE
vocabularies, it is certainly difficult for them to use their English skills in legal context such as
reading or writing legal documents, listening to the legal reports or news from radio or from
television, and presenting the case in the courtroom. To meet their need for the acquisition of LE
vocabularies, it is therefore important for the EFL teachers (especially those teaching English to law
students) to use a certain approach called lexical approach for his or her teaching in the classrooms.
With this approach, they are hopefully able to develop the EFL leaners‘ acquisition of LE
vocabularies. In the framework of this development, this paper will then focus its discussion on
understanding of LE, overview of lexical approach, importance of lexical approach to teaching LE,
exploration of LE vocabularies for teaching materials, and samples of teaching materials design of
LE vocabularies.
In term of ESP study, this quite current study is focused on Legal English (LE) which is
frequently known as English for Law. This ESP, like other ESPs, certainly has a large number of
specific words that the EFL learners need to acquire. Without having enough vocabulary of LE, it is
of course difficult for them to use their English for reading, writing, listening, and speaking in legal
settings. Concerning the importance of vocabulary mastery, Wilkins (1972:111) says that ... without
vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed. In the words of Milton (2009:3) it is noted that words are the
building blocks of language and without them there is no language. This fact of the importance of
vocabulary acquisition for EFL learners to develop their English skills may become ―the most
fundamental issue for second language acquisition‖ (Spiri, 2010). As a consequence, a growing
number of researchers and teachers are turning to be concerned with the intentional study on
developing vocabulary acquisitions.
Up to the present time after Michael Lewis coined the term lexical approach in 1993, many
scholars have devoted their attention to the studies focused on this approach as well as those of
vocabulary acquisition development. In term of the lexical approach, for example, Harwood (2002)
describes two key principles which are claimed to be at the core of teaching according to lexical
approach. In term of vocabulary acquisition development, Karoly (2005) discusses the importance of
increasing the collocation awareness in developing the vocabularies of intermediate learners of
English. ZU Feng-xia (2009) examines and argues about the use of lexical approach to teach
vocabulary. In addition, Lessard-Clouston (2013), in his introductory chapter of Teaching
Vocabulary, reminds us that vocabulary is very important to language learning. Consequently, these
studies can be considered as evidence that the development of vocabulary acquisition becomes an
increasingly interesting topic for researchers, teachers and others involved in English language
teaching and learning.
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Moreover, although many studies are focused on the lexical approach and the development
of vocabulary acquisition, it is still interesting and necessary to carry out another further study
concentrated on the same topic, that is, the important use of lexical approach for teaching
vocabulary. For this reason, this current study certainly differs from the previous ones because of the
different foci of study. The former studies are more focused on vocabularies of General English (GE)
where as the latter is concentrated on the vocabularies of ESP in term of LE or known as English for
Law.
As presented in the previous paragraph, LE, as a form of ESPs, has a large number of its own
specific words. In this sense, Supardi (2010) describes that the word ―sentence‖ is frequently found in
both GE and LE. Furthermore, he explains that according to dictionary this word has two functions as
noun which means ―kalimat and hukuman‖ and as verb which means ―menghukum‖. Not only the
words used in both GE and LE as the specific vocabularies, the EFL larners of law students also have
to master a large number of words frequently used in legal documents. According to Supardi (2015),
such words as complaint, contract, damages, defendant, liability, litigation, negligence, plaintif, and
many others are found in civil law and the words, namely accused, assasin, burglar, criminalize,
fraud, hijacker, murder, prosecutor, suspect and others are found in criminal law. Unless those law
students are not familiar with these LE vocabularies, it will be difficult for them to practise their
English skills in legal settings. It is therefore necessary for the EFL teachers of law faculty to take
account of a certain approach to his or her teaching of LE vocabularies.
To be concerned with teaching LE vocabulary, this quite current study firstly provides an
understanding of LE. In addition it overviews the lexical approach coined by Michael Lewis in 1993
and the importance of lexical approach to teaching LE. With this approach, the EFL teachers are
hopefully able to develop the LE vocabulary acquisition of the EFL learners of law students. In the
framework of this LE vocabulary acquisition development, it is then focused on the exploration of
LE vocabularies for teaching materials and samples of teaching materials design of LE vocabularies.
These are presented in the following sections.
acquisition is the ability to comprehend and produce lexical phrases as unanalyzed wholes, or
―chunks,‖ and that these chunks become the raw data by which learners perceive patterns of language
traditionally thought of as grammar. For this reason, the lexical approach can be defined as a
language teaching method which concentrates on developing learners‘ proficiency with lexis, or
words and word combinations.
Since its emergence, the lexical approach has greatly influenced the world of foreign
language teaching and learning practices which were previously overemphasised on grammar and
underemphasised on lexis. Moreover, in recent years the lexical approach to foreign language
teaching has received interest as an alternative to grammar-based approaches. According to
Harwood (2002), there are two unique features of Lexical Approach. On the one hand, it constitutes
the rejection of a dichotomy between grammar and vocabulary and views lexis as not only the single
words but also as the word combinations stored in our mental lexicons. On the other hand, it is the
designation of various tasks in language classrooms.
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People in Courtroom
This subsections presents a lis of the people who are usually involved in the trial courtroom.
It was retrieved from http://www.stickyball.net/vocab/477.html.
People Definition
criminal a person who has broken the law
defendant (also: accused) when suspects are in court, they are called
―defendants‖ or ―the accused‖
defense attorney the lawyer who works for the defendant
judge (BrE = magistrate) the person in court who makes the decisions
jury the group of people (usually 12 people) who
decide if a defendant is guilty or innocent
lawyer (AmE = attorney; BrE a person who studies the law and argues in court
= solicitor)
prosecutor the lawyer who works for the government and
argues for the people
suspect the person who the police think is guilty
victim a person who is hurt or killed by
someone/something else
witness a person who sees a crime happen, or a person
who has information that can be used in court
Figure 2: People in courtroom
Words of Crime
The words of crime presented in this subsction are about types of crime and criminals. The
words related to the types of crime were adapted from the three websites, namely
https://www.englishclub.com/english-for-work/police-crime.htm,
http://www.engvid.com/english-resource/vocabulary-crime-criminals/ and
http://stickyball.net/docs/vocab%20sets/crimes.pdf. The list of the words related to the types of
crime can be seen in the following figure.
Crime Definition
abduction/kidnapping taking a person to a secret location using force
armed robbery using a weapon to steal
arson setting fire to a place on purpose
assault hurting another person physically
killing a leader or important person (usually for political
assassination
reasons)
attempted murder trying to kill someone (but failing)
bribery paying money to influence a government official
burglary going into another person's home or business with force
child abuse injuring a child on purpose
domestic violence physical assault that occur within the home
drug trafficking trading illegal drugs
drunk driving driving after having too much alcohol
embezzlement stealing from an employer (one kind of ―theft‖)
writing another person‘s signature (on a contract or check, for
fogery
example)
fraud lying or cheating for business or monetary purposes
hijacking holding people in transit hostage (usually on a plane)
Criminals Definitions
arsonist a person who starts fires to damage or destroy something
bank robber a person who steals from a bank
burglar a person who steals from a building
hijacker a person who takes control of a vehicle (plane, ship etc) by force
and diverts it
kidnapper a person who takes people away by force and demands money to
free them
mugger a person who attacks someone to steal their money.
murderer a person who kills
pickpocket a person who steals things out of pockets or bags secretly.
robber a person who steals money etc, using force or the threat of force
shoplifter a person who steals from shops.
smuggler a person who takes things or people to or from a place secretly and
illegally.
thief a person who steals property from other people (without using
violence).
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Based on the techniques of teaching vocabulary suggested by both Nation and Kilickaya, the
lists of LE vocabularies presented in the previous subsection can be designed for teaching materials
as in the following samples.
Sample 1
Topic : People in Courtroom
Activity : Sentence completion
Instruction : Look at the table below and complete the sentences in the passage
under the table.
People Definition
criminal a person who has broken the las
defendant (also: accused) when suspects are in court, they are called
―defendants‖ or ―the accused‖
defense attorney the lawyer who works for the defendant
judge (BrE = magistrate) the person in court who makes the decisions
jury the group of people (usually 12 people) who
decide if a defendant is guilty or innocent
lawyer (AmE = attorney; BrE a person who studies the law and argues in court
= solicitor)
prosecutor the lawyer who works for the government and
argues for the people
suspect the person who the police think is guilty
victim a person who is hurt or killed by
someone/something else
witness a person who sees a crime happen, or a person
who has information that can be used in court
The main __________ in the murder of 21 year ‐ old Jenny Page appeared in court today. His name is
Jason Black, and standing next to him was his __________, who argued that Mr. Black was not guilty
because he was at work when the __________ was killed. However, according to the __________,
there are no __________ who can testify that they saw Mr. Black at work. Therefore, the prosecutor
argues that Mr. Black is guilty and he is a dangerous __________ who should be sent to prison. The
12 people on the _______ have listened to the two lawyers‘ arguments and considered the evidence,
and they have heard the instructions from the __________. Now, they must go deliberate and decide
if Jason is guilty or innocent.
Sample 2
Topic : Type of Crime
Activity : Sentence Completion
Instruction : Fill in the blanks below with words from the box.
1. The person who broke into a house and stole a TV was convicted of __________.
2. The woman who lied on her income tax forms was charged with ___________.
3. The men who used knives to take over an airplane were guilty of ___________.
4. The man who attacked me and hit me over and over was convicted of _________.
5. The woman who stole money from her employer was charged with ___________.
6. The businessman who offered money to the politician is being accused of ______.
7. The person who got in a fight with his friend and killed him committed ________.
8. The man who burned down his house for the insurance money is charged with insurance fraud and
___________.
9. The person who took my children and demanded that I pay $1,000,000 was convicted of
___________.
10. I signed my mom‘s name on one of her checks, so I was charged with _______.
11. The man who shot the president was convicted of ___________.
Sample 3
Topic : The Criminals
Activity : Fill-in and Multiple-choice
Instruction : Fill in the blank by choosing a, b, c or d for your correct answer.
1. A ......... is a person who attacks unknowing people on town or city streets in order to rob
them of their wallets, purses and other belongings that have monetary value.
a. musician b. paramedic c. arsonist d. Mugger
2. A ......... is someone who kills or has killed a person or people.
a. rapist b. jury c. juror d. murderer
3. A ......... is someone who forces himself/herself onto someone else in a sexual way without
consent. Men usually commit this crime more often than women do.
a. vandal b. rapist c. typist d. screenprinter
4. A ......... is someone who steals money and property from someone else.
a. renter b. violinist c. officer d. robber
5. A ......... is someone who steals property or merchandise from a retail shop or store.
a. shoplifter b. tramp c. hitchhiker d. practitioner
6. A ......... is someone who inflicts terror onto others and uses various means of intimidation
and fear tactics in order to cause or impose pain.
a. juggler b. hunter c. terrorist d. runner
7. A ......... is someone who intentionally damages or destroys public or private property.
a. vagrant b. wanderer c. blacksmith d.vandal
8. A ......... is someone who steals money or property from a residence at night.
a. trafficker b. dealer c. burglar d. agent
9. A young ......... is a person who commits a crime but is under 18-years-old and often subject
to more lenient laws because of his/her age. However, sometimes they are charged as adults
depending on the severity of the crimes.
a. novice b. offender c. orphant d. tutor
10. A ......... is a person who illegally and secretly transports illegal drugs or other items that
violate local or national laws.
a. stripper b. prostitute c. barista d. smugler
7. CONCLUSION
Since Michael Lewis coined Lexical Approach in 1993, vocabulary teaching has become
more interesting topics for English teachers, researchers, and theorists who argue that intentional
study on vocabulary is effective and desirable. To master Legal English, it is important for the EFL
learners of law students to have a wide range of vocabulary. To develop their LE vocabulary
acquisition, the EFL teachers need to pay a better attention to a certain approach called lexical
approach as well as the tecniques of teaching vocabularies. With this approach and techniques they
are hopefully able to teach LE vocabulary effectively and the students can broaden their LE
vocabularies.
REFERENCES
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Harwood, Nigel. ―Taking a lexical approach to teaching: Principles and problems.‖ International
Journal of Applied Linguistics 12 (2) (2002) : 139-155.
Hutchinson, Tom and Waters, Alan. English for Specific Purposes: A learning-centered approach.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
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Karoly, Adrienn. ―The importance of raising collocational awareness in the vocabulary development
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Milton. Measuring second language vocabulary acquisition. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters,
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Supardi. ―Developing Materials for Teaching Legal English Vocabularies with the Internet Use.‖
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Supardi. ―English for Specific Purpose: Teaching Legal English to Law Students via E-learning.‖
The 62nd TEFLIN International Conference 2015 Proceedings: Teaching and Assessing L2
Learners in the 21st Century. 14-16 September 2015. Denpasar, Indonesia: Faculty of Letters
and Culture, Undayana University, 2015. 417-428.
Wilkins, David Arthur. Linguistics in Language Teaching. London: Edward Arnold, 1972. Print.
Wyatt, Rawdon. Check Your English Vocabulary for Law. London: A & C Black Publishers, 2006.
Print
ZU Feng-xia. 2009. ―Using lexical approach to teach vocabulary.‖US-China Foreign Language,
Volume 7, No.8, Serial No.71, (2009): 44-47.
Internet
http://www.british-legal-centre.com/en/what-is-legal-English.html
http://www.stickyball.net/vocab/477.html.
https://www.englishclub.com/english-for-work/police-crime.htm,
http://www.engvid.com/english-resource/vocabulary-crime-criminals/
http://stickyball.net/docs/vocab%20sets/crimes.pdf.
http://www.manythings.org/vocabulary/lists/a/words.php?f=criminals
https://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/criminals.htm
Suswati Hendriani
State Institute for Islamic Studies (IAIN) Batusangkar, West Sumatera, Indonesia
suswatiamor@gmail.com
Abstract
Teaching English Tenses to Indonesian students is not easy. It is even a quite more challenging task
for a teacher who teaches grammar when the teaching of grammar is aimed at making the students
able to use the Tenses to communicate in the foreign language. The different grammar systems that
Bahasa Indonesia and English have, have caused difficulties for the English teacher to teach English
Tenses to Indonesian students. What should the teacher do to overcome the difficulties? There are
many possibilities that he or she can do. Yet, as a good teacher, he or she should try to find effective
approaches to help his or her students master English Tenses. One of the Tenses that EFL students
should master is Present Progressive? How to teach the Tense to make the EFL students master the
Tense (can use the tense in communication)? Based on the writer‘s experience in teaching the Tense,
students‘ native language, actions, pictures, and questions help very much. This paper, therefore, is
written to show the readers the way to teach Present Progressive by taking advantage of the students‘
native language, actions, pictures, and questions.
Keywords: teaching Present Progressive, students‘ native language, actions, pictures, questions
1. INTRODUCTION
Teaching English Tenses to Indonesian students is not easy. It is even a quite more
challenging task for a teacher who teaches grammar when the teaching of grammar is aimed at
making the students able to use the Tenses to communicate in the foreign language. The different
grammar systems that Bahasa Indonesia and English have, have caused difficulties for the English
teacher to teach English Tenses to Indonesian students. What should the teacher do to overcome the
difficulties? There are many possibilities that he or she can do. Yet, as a good teacher, he or she
should try to find effective approaches or methods to help his or her students master English Tenses.
McKay (2002: 116) rightly notes, ―There is no one best method, and no one method that is best for a
particular context‖.
One of the Tenses that EFL students should master is Present Progressive? How to teach the
Tense to make the EFL students master the Tense (can use the tense in communication)? Should the
mother tongue be used in language classrooms? Is it useful to use the mother tongue in language
classrooms? In foreign language education, such questions are often raised and debated. Should the
teacher use pictures to help the students? Should the teacher use actions? Should the tense be
explained or taught through questions? Based on the writer‘s experience in teaching the Tense,
students‘ native language, actions, pictures, and questions help very much. This paper, therefore, is
written to show the readers the way to teach Present Progressive by taking advantage of the students‘
native language, actions, pictures, and questions. In other words, the students‘ mother tongue,
actions, pictures and questions will be used to teach Present Progressive how
A. Why Using Native Languages, Actions, Pictures, and Questions?
Maybe, you will question why students‘ native languages, actions, pictures, and questions
should be used. To convince the readers, the writer will show some advantages of using students‘
native languages, actions, pictures, and questions to teach Present Progressive in the following part
and each will be presented in turn.
There are disputes among scholars whether to teach English as a foreign language by using
the students‘ mother tongue or avoiding using it. Many suggests that English teachers just use
English itself. Yet, the writer tends to use students‘ native languages to foster their English learning.
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Deller and Rinvolucri (2002) list over a hundred teaching ideas involving the use of the students‘
native language or mother tongue.
There are several reasons why the students‘ mother tongue or their native language is used.
First, ―In fact, if we did not keep making correspondences between foreign language items and
mother tongue items, we would never learn foreign languages at all‖ (Swan 1985: 85). We are able to
draw on our existing knowledge as a point of comparison, rather than having to learn to understand
the world and everything in it all over again. Second, the key for the teacher seems to be using the
mother tongue appropriately and avoiding the over use which will make learners feel that they cannot
comprehend the input of the foreign language until it is translated into their native language
(Atkinson, 1987). Recent studies demonstrate that the appropriate use of L1 has a facilitating role in
L2 classroom (Mart:2013). Studies confirm that complete removal of native language in foreign
language classrooms is not appropriate (Damra and Al Qudah: 2012). Third, in another study by
Tang (2002) about the use native language of students in EFL classes, it was found that the use of L1
does not reduce students‘ exposure to the target language; on the contrary, it aids the learning of the
foreign language. Fourth, Brooks and Donato (1994) encourage the use of L1 as it helps students
with comprehension and communication effectively. Fifth, the use of translation provides students an
opportunity to notice similarities and differences between L1 and L2. Ross (2000:63), particularly,
points out the importance of translation in foreign language learning as:―Translation holds a special
importance at an intermediate and advanced level: in the advanced or final stage of language
teaching, translation from L1 to L2 and L2 to L1 is recognized as the fifth skill and the most
important social skill since it promotes communication and understanding between strangers‖. He
continues to states that translation develops three qualities essential to all language learning:
accuracy, clarity, and flexibility (Ross, 2000:61) that will help students learn effectively. Sixth,
students‘ native language is ―of great help in stimulating the learning of a foreign language‖ (Bowen,
1982, p.1).
In her article, Auerbach (1993: 9) in Mahmutoglu and Kicir (2013) listed the reasons of using
mother tongue. They are: 1. Negotiation of the syllabus and the lesson. 2. Record keeping. 3.
Classroom management. 4. Scene setting.5. Language analysis. 6. Presentation of rules governing
grammar. 7. Phonology, morphology and spelling. 8. Discussion of cross- cultural issues;
instructions of prompts. 9. Explanation of errors. 10. Assessment of comprehension.
Samadi (2011) in Mahmutoglu and Kicir (2013), also mentioned the role of L1 and the
benefits on foreign language learning. Samadi (2011: 17) stressed that the teachers used the L1
mostly for establishing a non-threatening classroom environment, explaining grammar, translating
vocabulary, managing the classroom, and giving instruction.
Besides, Harbord (1992: 352) in Mahmutoglu and Kicir (2013) gave the following reasons
for the teachers‘ use of the mother tongue:
1. Facilitating teacher-student communication.
2. Facilitating teacher-student rapport.
3. Facilitating learning.
In his article, Atkinson (1987: 242), Mahmutoglu and Kicir (2013) states that ―another
important role of the mother tongue is to allow students to say what really want to say sometimes
(surely a valuable ‗humanistic‘ element in the classroom)‖. The purpose of such exercise is to
provide the students with the occasion to express themselves more efficiently. Especially, the
learners who have limited vocabulary of the target language need opportunities to express
themselves. Forcing the students to speak English in the classroom may prevent them from
participating in the conversation. It is essential in learning that the students volunteer to speak.
Teachers should always encourage students to articulate their opinions in mother tongue when
students show difficulty doing so in the target language.
To use the students‘ native language, an English teacher should consider the students‘ level
of learning, whether they are still at early levels, at intermediate levels or at advanced levels.
Atkinson (1987: 243-244) provided extensive knowledge on where to use mother tongue in language
classrooms:
1. Eliciting language (all levels)
2. Checking comprehension (all levels)
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First, motivate student learning and fuel curiosity; Second, foster intellectual development and
stimulate critical thinking; Third, Assess student understanding; and Fourth, Guide discussion and
shape a positive learning environment.
To use questions as techniques or strategies of teaching, The Teaching Centre (2016)
suggests general strategies for asking questions, as follow:
First, when planning questions, the English teacher should keep in his or her mind his or her
course goals. He or she should ensure about the core concepts he or she wants students to master. She
or he should be sure about what questions to ask? The teacher should develop the students‘ critical
thinking skills. The questions you ask should help them practice these skills, as well as communicate
to them the facts, ideas, and ways of thinking that are important to their learning in your course.
Second, Avoid asking ―leading questions.‖ A leading question is phrased in such a way that it
suggests its own answer and therefore discourages students from thinking on their own.
Third, follow a ―yes-or- no‖ question with an additional question. For example, follow up by
asking students to explain why they answered the way they did, to provide evidence or an example, or
to respond to a yes-or-no answer given by another student.
Fourth, aim for direct, clear, specific questions. During class discussions, rather than
beginning with a single question that is multilayered and complex, use a sequence of questions to
build depth and complexity. Essay questions on exams or paper assignments, on other hand, often
provide an appropriate opportunity to ask multi-layered questions. If your exam will include
multi-layered questions, use questions during class time to walk students through the process of
answering multi-layered questions.
Fifth, in class discussions, do not ask more than one question at once. When you ask more
than one question, students often do not respond because they are unsure which question you want
them to answer. When you plan each class session, include notes of when you will pause to ask and
answer questions. Asking questions throughout the class will not only make the class more
interactive, but also help you measure and improve student learning. Do not save the last two minutes
of class for questions. Students are unlikely to ask questions when they know that only a few minutes
remain.
Sixth, ask a mix of different types of questions. To test students‘ comprehension and
retention of important information, an English teacher should use ―closed‖ questions, or questions
that have a limited number of correct answers. The teacher should also ask managerial questions to
ensure, for example, that his or her students understand an assignment or have access to necessary
materials. ―Open‖ questions, which prompt multiple and sometimes conflicting answers, are often
the most effective in encouraging discussion and active learning in the classroom. For examples of
―open‖ questions and the purposes they can serve.
The explanation above show you how students‘ native language, action, pictures, and
questions can help in a foreign language teaching. In the following part, the writer will show the
readers how to teach Present Progressive by taking advantage of students‘ native languages, actions,
pictures, and questions.
saying ‖Buka pintu itu!‖. Then the teacher asks the other students to answer ―What is she doing at
present?‖ They will say ―She is opening the door‖. Then, the teacher asks the student performer
to write on the board by saying ―Tulis namamu di papan tulis! And then ask the other students
‖What is she doing right now?‖ The students will answer by saying ―She is writing her name on
the board? This kind of activity can be done by two or three more students.
3. The teacher, then, asks a student to come to the front of the classroom. The teacher writes
something or ―an action that the students should act‖ on a piece of paper. Then, the student says
―Can you guess what I am doing?‖ while acting the word. The other students try to guess what he
or she is doing and say ― You are swimming‖ for instance. If their guessing is true, the student will
say‖ Yes, you are right. I am swimming‖. But if they are wrong, the student (performer) will say
―I am not…….‖ Please guess what I am doing by still continues doing the action until the other
students say the correct answer. This kind of activity is repeated for five to six new words.
4. After this activity is finished, the teacher will show some pictures to the students while asking
yes/no questions. The teacher should ensure that the students will answer the question by ―NO‖.
For example, ―Is the man running?‖ The students will answer by ―No, he is not. He is not running.
He is walking.‖ The teacher can show different pictures and asks the same type of questions.
5. The teacher divides the students into several groups. Each group consists of three to four students.
In each group, one or two students are asked act something, one student asks ―What is s(he)
doing/What are they doing?‖ Another student will answer the question.
6. The students are, then, asked to work in pairs. One student is asked to act another student asks
―Are you ………ing?‖
7. The students are asked to fill in a guided conversation given by the teacher to check their
understanding.
8. After doing the exercise, the students‘ answers are checked together.
3. CONCLUSION
Teaching Present Progressive can be done by taking advantage of the students‘ mother
tongue, action, pictures and question. The use of the students‘ mother tongue will help the students
know what is happening. The actions and the pictures will help the students understand the tense
better. The questions will provide the students with vehicles to master the tense better. The
combination of the students‘ mother tongue, action, pictures and questions will make the students
master the tense well.
REFERENCES
Atkinson, D. (1987), ―The mother tongue in the classroom: a neglected resource?‖, ELT Journal,
41(4): 241-247, http://eltj.oxfordjournals.org/content/41/4/241.full.pdf (accessed 6.6.2012).
Bowen, B.M. (1982). Look here: Visual aids in language teaching, Cambridge University Press.
Brooks, F., & Donato, R. (1994). Vygotskian approaches to understanding foreign language learner
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Broughton, G., C. Brumfi t, R. Flavell, P. Hill, and A. Pincas. Teaching English as a Foreign
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Brown, H. Douglas. (2001). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language
Pedagogy. 2nd ed. NY:Addison Wesley Longman.
Cline, Brandon. (2016). Asking Effective Questions. Illinois: Divinity School and Teaching
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Damra, Heba Mohammad and Al Qudah, Mahmoud. (2012). The Effect of Using Native Language
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Danan, M. (1992). Reversed subtitling and dual coding theory: New directions for foreign language
instruction. Language Learning, 42(4), 497-527.
Deller, S. & Rinvolucri, M. 2002. Using the Mother Tongue: Making the most of the learner‘s
language. London: Baskerville Press Ltd.Eldridge, J. 1996. Code-switching in a Turkish
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Harmer, Jeremy. 2007. How to Teach English: An introduction to the practice of English language
teaching. Harlow:Addison Wesley Longman.
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Horn, R. (1998). Visual Language: Global Communication for the 21st Century. Bainbridge Island,
WA: Macro VU Press.
Mahmutoglu, Huseyin and Kicir, Zahide. (2013). The Use of Mother Tongue in EFL Classroom.
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Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences. January 2013, Vol. 3, No. 1 ISSN:
2222-6990
Mayer, R. & Sims, V. (1994). For whom is a picture worth a thousand words? Extensions of a
dual-coding theory of multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Technology, 86, 389-401.
McKay, S. 2002. Teaching English as an International Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ross, N. J. (2000). Interference and Intervention: Using Translation in the EFL Classroom. Modern
English Teacher, 9 (3), 61-66.
Samadi, M. R. (2011), Role of The L1 in FL Classrooms: Learner and Teacher Beliefs, Attitudes and
Practices, A Master‘s Thesis, Kansas State Universit, (unpublished)
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(accessed 6.7.2012).
Swan, M. 1985. A critical look at the communicative approach (2). ELT Journal, 39/2, 76-87.
Tang, J. (2002). Using L1 in the English Classroom. English Teaching Forum, 40(1), 36-43.
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The Teaching Centre. (2016). Asking Questions to Improve Learning. St. Louis: Washington
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Abstract
Undoubtedly, teaching English requires thorough process of assessment. Such process usually, or
traditionally, use the three stages: pre-teaching, whilst-teaching, and post-teaching. Thus, we tend to
use rubric score and focus on how well students can cope with what we teach and how good they
answer the questions we made in the final examination. At this point, we skip one important thing: the
students‘ voice on what they have learned. As such, this research aims to reach out the students‘
personal ―colors‖ as a way to see how far one teaches English writing. The theory used in framing
this research is the post-process pedagogy. Meanwhile, the context is geared toward the activity of
learning English as a Foreign Language in Indonesia, especially in Padang city. This research is
closer to qualitative research with the method of analysis applied is document analysis. The purpose
of analyzing students‘ personal self-evaluation essays is to describe their ―colors‖ after learning in
the researcher‘s class. The result of the analysis is that the students have their inclination to see our
class through different ways, and therefore, they will firstly see us as the thing they see all the time,
then the process of what they learn become the aspect they see. Students who are lack of critical
thinking usually comment on the lecturer‘s performance than the overall process of the classroom.
The sequence of the self-evaluation and final score resemble that the connection of these two things
remain intact within the view of post-process pedagogy.
The word is written with intelligence in the mind of the learner - Jacques Derrida
1. INTRODUCTION
A common belief that exists among EFL teachers, or lecturers, in Indonesia is that the idea of
teaching English means teaching grammar or teaching how to find syntactical errors on sentences,
finding correct choice over four to five provided answers as the form of reading comprehension test,
and finding the right answer of the questions provided in the listening comprehension session.
However, a fact that happens is that Indonesian teachers who are teaching English rarely touch the
aspect of writing skill in their teaching practice. It could be because of the limitation of curriculum or
assigned teaching materials by the government. Another picture that is vividly seenable is that
moving from senior high school to university or college learning atmosphere is often times baffling
for students. Synchronization between the curriculum of senior high school to university is far away
from realization because in senior high school, the students are forced to learn subjects as many as the
government demands while the subject that they will choose later on in the university is excluded
from their studying concentration in the high school. Very rarely these days from 2000 up to 2016 we
can find high school that provides language concentration for their students as a way to get into
language department in the university. In terms of learning writing, it can be estimated that it is less
than 10% students learn this skill if we see it through the hours of learning and teaching approved by
the provincial government. Not only in Indonesia, the United States also faces the same problem.
David Bartholomae mentions that ―writing is always hard, but for students making the transition
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from high school to college, it is especially so‖ (Dombek dan Herndon 1). In that case, students are
often seen as learners that are pushed to curriculum and standard learning outcomes, which are on the
level of their personal life, such type of learning is boring and, to some aspects like curiosity or
independent learning, students had been shaped into a shape that they actually are not interested to
become.
Following what Bartholomae mentions earlier, teaching writing skill in a specific classroom
direction is very rare to be found in Indonesian schools. If we can find such class in the country, it
might be a class of adult learners who will apply for scholarship, which in turn making such class as
a need-based orientation. For younger learners in university level, learning English writing is
commonly taught within English department, and for other departments, students encounter
TOEFL-ITP and rarely they could get such learning material from their classrooms. This gap has led
the researcher to see that students may learn something more in their classes that are taught on
campus, but to arrive at their very own achievement in the form of possessing writing skill is,
undoubtedly, difficult to achieve. Hence, ―it is obviously true that writing is the least used of the four
skills for the average foreign language user‖ (Cross 268). As a matter of fact, since many of the
departments and study program in many different universities in Indonesia demand students to write
thesis in bahasa Indonesia; therefore, these types of students only know how to call their memory on
how to write proper abstract of their thesis. To ask them to write clearly in English is the challenging
part. In this research, the researcher discovers the students‘ personal ‗colors‘ as a form of students‘
achievement, which is at some points better than traditional assessment with questioning-answering
type. Understanding students‘ writing up to the personal level is an insightful activity to be
researched.
The complexity of teaching writing is seen when we incorporate the understanding of writing
as a ―social act‖, and when the students write, we give them vivid understanding about ―academic
and cultural issue‖ so their writing can sound better (Greene dan Lidinsky v). However, this task is
not simply as it is said. The good understanding of the background culture of where English being
spoken on daily basis is also a prerequisite to reach the level of social competence in learning
English. ―Knowledge of the target culture remains an important part of language learning, especially
at higher levels‖ (Prodromou 47). As such, the problem of teaching writing in university is much
more than teaching the students about what academic writing is; how writing is; or what genre a
writing has. Indeed, teaching writing means giving a sort of elaboration to the students to know what
they are learning and how they know what they are learning as well as to be able to give
self-evaluation about what they have learned. Therefore, this point of view is the cornerstone for why
this kind of research is conducted. Bridging the theories of teaching writing from the American and
English perspectives to the context of Indonesian versimilitude of learning writing is considered as a
scholarship activity.
Indonesian students, in general, have their culture and so do the people who speak English as
their daily language in American continent or in the British isles and the United Kingdom. The
challenging part of teaching writing to Indonesian students, as the researcher dares to say, is to bring
them into a new way of looking at things without even letting go their own identity as Indonesians.
What the researcher touches upon at this point is the idea of what it means to be open-minded. In
essence,
―Learning to be truly open-minded takes effort. Everyone has deeply rooted beliefs, some of
which even border on supersition. When these beliefs are challenged for whatever reasons, no
matter how logical the reasons offered are, we resist—sometimes against our own better
judgement. Beliefs often operate the realm of intellectual control and are entwined with our
values and emotions‖ (White dan Billings 75).
The word ―beliefs‖ in the above statement mean more than a concept emerging in a spiritual
side, but it also means the idea of what is wrong or right in the social circumstances where the
students live. As a country with thousands of islands, Indonesia emerges as a nation that has wide
variety of traditional cultures across the archipelago. Therefore, within each of the traditional
cultures, certain ideologies exist and such ideologies are made in line with Pancasila ideology, as a
national ideology of the country, and religious ideology. Now, the question that the researcher has in
mind is that, within all of these diverse ways of looking at what it means to teach English writing in
Indonesia, in what way we could notice our students have learned much, or even well-enough, from
our class? Would it be unfair enough to stand on grammar-error-or-right mode in assessing our
students‘writing? Could we apply our individual taste in assessing the students‘ writing? What
should we learn from our students after we teach them about writing in one semester course? Thus,
answering these questions are the goals of conducting this research. The fresh perspective that the
researcher explains in this article hopefully becomes a new way of looking at the students‘ learning
process in writing within the perspective of post-process pedagogy.
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common to academic writing‖ (Weigle 20). Writing, for post-process pedagogues, is more than
sitting in the classroom and write. Therefore, assessing students‘ writing quality cannot be measured
only from the mid-term test or final test per se. The quality of the students‘ writings should be seen
from the process itself and how the students come to the understanding that writing is a social act and
a medium of individual expression over academic realm. ―When we evaluate students on the basis of
one sample writing done within a time limit determined by administrative case and efficiency, we
should at least recognize that the sample may not be representative of their capability‖ (Brooks 340).
With that in mind, the researcher focuses on viewing students‘ self-evalution essays not as a way to
determine how far they could achieve good scores in our writing classroom, but it also means to reach
the quality of the classroom process in which the students present insightful ideas on which aspects of
the class that they are interested in observing.
In spite of applying post-process pedagogy means focusing on the after-process of writing
learning, a classroom designed within this pedagogy is geared toward the improvement of the
students‘ schemata. If they already know A and all about A, they should know about B in order to
understand C and D until Z. The alphabets represent the image of how their learning process is given.
As Andre and Phye conclude from their readings, they wrote that ―according to many cognitive
psychologists, then, new learning is based upon prior knowledge, which is utilized to understand new
situations; this in turn changes students‘ prior knowledge structures, and it can later be used interpret
other unfamiliar situations‖ (Gillin 171). By reading the students‘ self-evalution essays, we come to
know the resemblance between what they already know about what they have learned and what
would they want to know more about what they have learned in the writing classroom. Due to the
their categorization as in the EFL learners, they might have something in common one another as
opposed to comparing ENL speakers with these students. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis claimed that
people who come from different cultures sound and think differently one another (Rowe dan Levine
218). Because the students in this research come from similar background, therefore, to understand
their ‗voice‘ through self-evalution essays might be a big deal. As such, we could link what the
students have in mind about their learning with what they accomplish after learning writing. Ausubel,
as a learning theorist, believes that ―the cognitive structure refers to the totality of knowledge that an
individual possesses in any subject area, and new knowledge is aquired by linking fresh facts to
already-existing structures‖ (Gillin 169). In the self-evaluation essays, we could see clearly the
students‘ cognitive structure, but, since the focus of discussion in this article is geared toward the
how far the students‘ learn writing, therefore, the central issue to be found in the essays is the ‗voice‘
of the students in relation to their evalution of classroom in personal point of view.
A different theory as opposed to the Sapir Whorf Hypothesis, ―...teachers of EFL students
need to be consignant of the effect of context rather than working on the assumption that learner
characteristics are static across place‖ (Exley 1). This idea could also lead us to know that even in the
most similar background, students‘ individuality might emerge as colorful nuances. Consequently,
the perspective of such colorful nuances become the primary goal of this article. In order to reach
such nuances, process approach in teaching English is conducted. About the product that the students
composed, post-process pedagogy is applied. In the teaching of English writing, three dominantions
that largely are acknowledged: product approach, process approach, and genre approach. ―Process
approaches see writing primarily as the exercise of linguistic skills, and writing development as an
unconscious process which happens when teachers facilitate the exercise of writing skills‖ (Badger
dan White 155). The unconscious part as Badger and White argue above is in sequence with the
notion of ‗voice‘ in writing. ―Voice is the distinctive sound of the writing—the presence of the writer
as perceived by the reader‖ (Dietch 72). The unconsciousness is revealed in the writing, but of
course, the one who knows about it is the practitioners who teach the students—the researcher, in this
case. They had been in interaction for sixteen weeks, so it is quite fit to say that the researcher can see
the students‘ personal voice about their classroom process. Furthermore, students, as the learners in
our class, are known as learning target, which has three fundamental needs: needs that link to
―necessities‖; needs that cover the ―lacks‖, and needs that fulfill the ―wants‖ aspect (Hutchison dan
Waters 55). We have to be sure enough to provide specific instructions in teaching English writing so
the necessities, lacks, and wants become the aspects of where we take off the lesson plan.
3. RESEARCH METHOD
As for the research methodology, the type of research that this article presents is categorized
into nonparametric research, which ―examines groups of writers as they are, without attempting to
generalize to larger populations‖ (Beach 219). This research can also be called as descriptive
empirical research, which means that it is simply known as research that are ―less technical‖ and
―accessible to a wider range of educators‖ compared to experimental research (Beach 221).
Moreover, the approach used in this research is qualitative. It makes this research can be categorized
into qualitative research. Qualitative research ―presents problematics in the area of
researcher-to-subject relations‖ (Kirsch dan Sullivan 3). Meanwhile, method for this type of research
is defined as ―as a technique or way of proceeding in gathering evidence‖, and methodology, as
Harding points out, as ―the underlying theory and analysis of how research does and should proceed‖
(Kirsch dan Sullivan 2). The method of collecting the data is by giving instruction to the students and
collecting the documents.
The data that are taken from the students‘ writings is indeed in the form of sentences and
written expression that the students‘ wrote in their self-evaluation essays. This technique is
acceptable in qualitative research. The way the research analyzes the documents is by conducting
document analysis. ―Qualitative data are collected mainly in the form of words or pictures and
seldom involve numbers. Content analysis is a primary method of data analysis‖ (Fraenkel dan
Wallen 435). In addition, ―the natural setting is a direct source of data, and the researcher is a key part
of the instrumentation process in qualitative research‖ (Fraenkel dan Wallen 435). The natural setting
in this research is actually Writing 2 course. One class had been taken as a sample. From this class,
seven students‘ writings is taken into consideration as the primary source of data for this research. In
that way, this research applies the concept of double purposive sampling. ―Researchers who engage
in a qualitative study of some type usually select a purposive sample. Several types of purposive
samples exist‖ (Fraenkel dan Wallen 436). The purpose of choosing the sample is to see which
students in the available classes are suitable for the purpose of this research.
In line with the techniques applied in this research, written texts—in the form of students‘
self-evalution essays—are used as the object of this research. The exact method of conducting
writing research is to use texts, especially the written texts. In this case, texts mean ―study of
authentic examples of writing used in a natural context‖ (Hyland 145). He also clearly emphasizes
that ―a major source of data for writing research is writing itself: the use of texts as objects of study‖
(Hyland 149). Besides, the activity that the researcher does during this research took place was still in
engagement with the students in the practice of teaching and learning English writing.
Linking the Theories and Research Methodology
As it has been discussed earlier, post-process pedagogy is one of many theoretical
pedagogies that are applicable in the sense of teaching English composition. Essentially,
―post-process theory encourages us to reexamine our definition of writing as an activity rather than a
body of knowledge‖ (Breuch 98). Students‘ self-evaluation essays as they are also called as
classroom evaluation essays in this research are considered as a way of knowing instead of knowing
itself. Students still need to learn more about writing, although they have learned it in a given
semester. At that point, process pedagogy is in distinctive form with post-process pedagogy and they
are different in terms of the ―what-centered‖ and ―how-centered‖ in writing classroom (Breuch 106).
Students‘ writings are their products, but the essential part of knowing what writing is, according to
the post-process pedagogy, is insufficient. The students‘ need to learn more about writing. Learning
writing in one semester does not mean that the students can be considered as knowing all other things
of writing beyond what had been taught in the classroom and ―...the value in post-process scholarship
appears not to be the rejection of process, but the rejection of mastery—the rejection of the belief that
writing can be categorized as a thing to be mastered‖ (Breuch 108).
Document analysis and content analysis are basically the same patterns that are used in
qualitative research. Another term for this kind of analysis is known as text analysis. It is closely
related to discourse analysis, but the medium is different because text analysis ―is more likely to
apply to written texts in somewhat conventionalized genres such as narratives, student essays, ...‖
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(Anson 324). Discourse analysis might be connected to a certain approach toward linguistic
perspectives, while text analysis is analyzing texts that have specific forms as the abovementioned
within the view of composition theories in this research.
Student‘s writing, as in the Fig. 1, shows her admiration toward writing after learning
Writing 1 and 2 course. Started from the understanding of paragraph writing in Writing 1 up to the
understanding of essay in Writing 2, this student has developed her motivation toward learning
writing. She could remember the specific activity during the classroom process, which was going to
the library. It turned out that this student has potential to be good learners since she has strong driven
motive from insider herself. Her expectation to learn again with her lecturer teaching Writing 1 and 2
reflects that the lecturer could motivate her. In that way, a unique character of this student, as we can
see from her writing, is that she gives attention to activities conducted in the writing classroom.
Furthermore, this student gives us an ample picture of what it means to learn writing from the
student‘s perspective. The first, second, and third paragraph reflect how the student captures the
process of learning in the classroom. Meanwhile, the fourth paragraph indicates how she gives
responses toward what she has learned in the class. When she mentioned that writing is linked to the
process of activating imagination, she actually tries to say that the aspect of inventing ideas to write is
the challenging part. Besides, her reaction toward the instructor in the classroom also resembles her
expectation. It can be seen from her statement, ―enjoyable‖, ―knowledge‖, and ―writing material‖.
The way she used the words on her writing show that she expected that the class should be enjoyable.
As such, she also expected that it gave her knowledge about what has to learn. The last expectation is
that she demands that the class provided her with writing materials. She might not mention other
aspects of what expected before entering the class, but she has actually mentioned her fulfilment after
learning writing 1.
The third sample of the student‘s writings is seen in Fig. 3. The student-writer shows many
grammatical and mechanical errors. However, the voice that she is that she is uncertain with what she
learns, but she tries to give her opinion about writing in the beginning of her essay. It can be seen in
this statement, ―...making essay writting learn to make essay was initially very difficult..‖ Knowing
how hard she graplled with essay writing indicates the she already knew what essay writing is. As in
the post-process pedagogy views it, this student has gone unto the process pedagogy; nevertheless,
she still needs further guidance on essay.
Furthermore, Fig. 4, on the next paragraph, has different outlook than Fig. 3. Student in Fig.
4 started her writing from an abroad perspective. This student has her voice as if she liked essay
writing. The second and third paragrah have solid views on how she developed her understanding of
essay writing. What she needs to improve more is the syntactical, mechanical, and punctuation
aspect. All these things can be edited in the editing stage. Once this kind of writing undergoes the
editing process, this student has a bigger chance to have a solid essay. However, omission might be
needed in relation to the disconnected introductory paragraph in her essay. Her ability to recognize
what her lecturer taught her—the ―theory and practice‖ as in the last line—predicts that she has grasp
the writing theory, but in terms of skill, she still needs further training and allocated time to write and
receive proper feedback for her essay. The style of paragraph development that starts from the broad
range of statements into personal statement about the classroom is unique. In spite of the fact that
traditional way of looking at writing has been so regimented on scoring rubrics, with limited ways of
grading, this writing, as it is written by the students in Fig. 4, could have a bigger chance to be seen as
a condenced writing.
on the everyweek assignment indicates that she agrees on the process pedagogy—as it can be read in
the second paragraph. However, almost of all her sentences show that she satisfies with what she
learned in Writing 2, although fear still exists, especially when the lecturer gives feedback on her
essay. In the perspective of post-process pedagogy, this student has passed the learning objectives of
Writing 2 course.
DISCUSSION
From the above five samples of students‘ self-evaluation essay in the class of 2014 D, we
could figure out that in the lense of post-process pedagogy the students already pass the Writing 2
course; however, if the students need to master what writing actually is, they need to have further
training on writing. Their mastery on writing is disrecognized by the post-process pedagogy because
writing one essay within one classroom process per se cannot signify their ability to know all things
about writing. Vygotsky claimed and ―stressed the social aspects of learning and the importance of
community in the learning process‖ (Strickland dan Strickland 339). Since the students‘ community
is the 2014 D class; therefore, the writing lecturer can use the community to help the students‘ grow
beyond their individual border. However, since ―most writing is slower than most talking‖ (Emig 9);
consequently, the process should be made in sequence with the students‘ pace and how the
community exists. One of ideas that language has is that ―languages are intimately related to the
societies and individuals who use them‖ (Daniels 7). In spite of that, we should never neglect the
cruciality of critical thinking. One of steps for connecting writing and critical thinking is that when
we assign formal writing, we should treat what the students write as a process, rather than a solid
product that does not need further revision or edition (Bean 1). As such, ―the students are individuals
who must explore the writing process in their own way, some fast, some slow...‖ (Murray 5-6). In
other words, we need to be clear on what we want to read from the students‘ writing (Gabrielatos 1).
Thomas Kent, a leading figure of post-process pedagogy, views writing as in three nuances: ―writing
is public; writing is interpretative; and writing is situated‖ (Breuch 110-116). Consequenly, it is
undeniable to say that what the students write in our classroom is often time situated into their
personal condition. If we push them into writing something they are not, we might receive writings
that sound awkward and unrealistic. We, of course, necessarily do not want that to happen, right?
5. CONCLUSION
Believe it or not, writing has to be personal. If it means to be serious in terms of academic
demands, the writing can still be academic. However, what we often forget is that all writings have
the authors. Authors are, of course, humans. Humans have personal views on what they do.
Therefore, writing has to be personal. In addition, ―behaviorists believed that language is learned like
anything else. Learning depends on the response of the individual to the environment‖ (Freeman dan
Freeman 2). If writing is seen as a rigid stuff, then, it will sound emptiness rather than collection of
stored information. In fact, real voice, as Peter Elbow points out, means that ―the writing has the
lively sound of speech, it has good timing. The words seem to issue naturally from a stance and
personality‖ (Elbow 292). Meanwhile, real writing, as a form of engaging text for readers, ―has
personal meaning to the writer. Real writing applies to the real life of the writer right now‖ (Babbage
46). The students‘ self-evaluation essays as they are seen earlier have shown a clear message that
real-voice and real-writing exist. These two things can exist because we want to hear it on our
students‘ writings. On top of that, ―learners experience the same teaching in different ways‖ and
―learners will approach learning in a variety of ways and the ways we teach may modify their
approaches‖ (Fry, Ketteridge dan Marshall 22). Each and every student will response to our class in
different ways, even too different that we do. Indeed, what the situation that the students have will
eventually change the writing they make (Breuch 116). All in all, the answers of all questions that the
researcher posed in the introduction section of this article had been answered in detail. The sentences
that show the answers might not be found, but if the readers really do follow what had been written in
this article, they will find answers more than what the researcher had descriptively presented.
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Tatang Sopian
taso1009@yahoo.com
Sekolah Tinggi Pariwisata Bandung
Jl. Dr. Setiabudhi 186 Bandung 40141
Abstract
Working as teacher in a tourism higher "education" that is running diploma program in hospitality
services is quite challenging. The diploma programs emphasize development of student professional
competency that includes knowledge, skills, and attitude. In term of English language teaching the
heavy is put on developing speaking competency, especially to those programs that require direct
guest-contacts such as Food and Beverage program that produces among others waiters, or Rooms
Division program that produces among others receptionist. Finding effective and efficient ways to
evaluate students performance is not an easy task. Taking notes of students‘ performance during an
oral role-play practice of handling complaint topic can be challenging. So is when the teacher
evaluates students‘ written works on the same topic. Teacher will have to note many ‗empirical
examples‘ using easy to follow ways that later when it is used as feedback will be understandable for
students so that students learning may improve. Empirical examples notes of students‘ performances
may vary from word-choice to grammatical mistakes, but this study focus on the employment of
Blum-Kulka‘s five apology strategies that is used in handling complaint situation. The five apology
strategies are 1) Illocutionary Force Indicating Device (IFID), 2) Taking on Responsibility, 3)
Explanation or Account, 4) Offer of Repair, and 5. Promise of Forbearance. A model of assessment is
made by applying simple coding of the possible combinations use of the five strategies. The apology
strategies are coded 1 to 5 while possible combination use the five strategies are coded a to z and
more. So, for example a combination is coded ―k‖ represents the use of apology strategies of 1+2+4
or IFID + Taking on Responsibility + Offer of Repair. The assessment model was applied to measure
the use of apology strategies in handling complaint situations to students of four well-known tourism
higher educations in Indonesia located in Medan, Bandung, Makassar, and Bali. There were eight
complaint situations in the DCT or Discourse Completing Test questionnaire in which students have
to complete a dialog in written form. These parts of student answer then identified and categorized
into one type of combination in the model based on answers given. It is a worth trying alternative of
students‘ performance evaluation that is helpful for teacher.
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper is a continuation of previous study on the topic of apology strategies. In the
previous study the writer found out that having this model to analyze students used of apology
strategies was helpful. It helped to parse elements of students‘ apology through identifying the head
of each clause or sentence produce by students. The results of this parsing process, the elements were
identified and coded using alphabet letter, and numbers. The number represents apology strategies
that is 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 in which it is based on Blum-Kulka‘s five apology strategies. Then the
alphabet letters is used to represent or to code students‘ choice of apology expression that were vary,
starting from a single choice or one apology strategy to the double or multiple used of different
apology strategies. The possible combination were coded ‗a‘ to ‗cc‘. The coding scheme of the
apology strategy assessment model had helped the writer to produce clearer discussion of the
obtained data in the above study.
In this paper the writer would like to see whether or not the assessment model of the use of
apology strategies can be also use in class teaching and learning activity, especially for class of hotel
academy in dealing with the topic of managing guest complaint in hotel and restaurant. The writer
wish to disseminate the idea at the conference as well as to seek for feedbacks and input from
audience so that the idea can be developed well and hope could be beneficial to other teachers in the
future.
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could be misspelling guest name. Even though the receptionist has already borrowed guest ID, still he
or she typed the guest name in a wrong way. This could drive the guest to complain and in this case
unless the receptionist admit that he or she had committed that he or she is the one who did the error
or the one who takes the blame for the mistake the apology will not fully accomplished because it is a
personal mistake.
Apology, in linguistics study, belongs to speech act. Speech act refers to ―a theory which
analyses the role of utterances in relation to the behaviour of speaker and hearer in interpersonal
communication‖ (Crystal, 2008). According to Crystal apology belongs to expressive category of
speech act. Expressive articulates speaker‘s feeling such as apologizing, welcoming, sympathizing,
etc. In the above example, internal communication refers to conversation between hotel receptionist
and guest about complaint. The utterance used by the receptionist part is the concern of the study
where the writer wanted to identify and describe whether or not the apology strategy chose by
students in representing receptionist fit to the context of situation.
Apology strategies:
Below is the five apology strategies (Blum-Kulka, House, & Kasper, 1989):
1. Illocutionary Force Indicating Device (IFID)
2. Taking on responsibility
3. Explanation or account
4. Offer of repair
5. Promise of forbearance
According to Blum-Kulka et al apology can be performed by any one of the above strategies,
or any combination or sequence. In this article the use of apology strategies will be seen as individual
occurrence and as sequence or combination of strategies. The following example is taken from
Blum-Kulka (1989:290) where all five strategies are used in sequence:
This category covers any external (+/- human) mitigating circumstances offered by the
speaker. i.e. ‗objective‘ reason for the violation at hand. For example:
The traffic was terrible
My tutor kept me late
4. Offer if repair
If the damage or inconvenience which affected by the hearer can be compensated for, the
speaker may choose to offer repair; this offer must be directly related to the offence perpetrated: in
other words, you can only repair a reparable. For example:
I‘ll pay for the damage
I‘ll go and enquire in the kitchen
5. Promise for forbearance
Whenever the speaker‘s sense guilt is strong enough, he or she may feel the need to promise
that the offensive act will never occur again. For example:
This won‘t happen again.
Teaching and assessing student learning:
This study concerns with evaluation of students‘ learning. Students‘ learning is important to
be measured by the reason that there are lots of aspects have potential impacts to students learning.
―Assessment and evaluation are essential components of teaching and learning…‖ (Atlantic Canada
English Language Arts Curriculum, p. 263), adding that, ―Without an effective evaluation program it
is impossible to know whether the students have learned, whether the teaching has been effective, or
how best to address students learning needs.‖
In assessing the use of apology strategies by tourism students in handling complaint
situations the writer utilize a gathering data tool called discourse completion test (DCT). DCT was
first used by Blum-Kulka (1982) in her famous research called Cross Cultural Speech Act
Realization Patterns or CCSARP. The study was in the field of pragmatics and since then DCT is
widely used for studying topics such as speech act.
Followers confirm that it can help teacher to assess students‘ performance on certain speech
act such as apology (Aufa, 2013). The written responses given by student can easily be analyzed by
teacher to help student improve.
The next step after identifying students‘ performance is to give them feedback. Feedback is
an important part of the learning cycle, but both students and teachers frequently express
disappointment and frustration in relation to the conduct of the feedback process (Spiller, 2009).
Some of the causes are it is unclear or not helpful enough.
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Following the order of apology strategies in Blum-Kulka‘s research, the apology strategy
types are code in number 1 – 5 where 1 represents IFID, 2 represents an explanation of account of the
cause of offence, 3 represents an expression of the doer responsibility for the offence, 4 represents an
offer of repair, and 5 represents a promise of forbearance.
Meanwhile, the coding scheme for patter are as shown above represented by letter a until cc
with combination of apology strategies represented by numbers on its right column. To have a clear
understanding letter ―k‖ represents pattern of combination of apology strategy 1 + 2 + 4 or IFID
followed by explanation, and then an offer of repair.
Below is excerpt from the writer previous study as exemplification of how the assessment
model was used and in what ways it could help the researcher (TEFLIN, 2015). The result from this
study is presented in order of the questions asked on the DCT. For each question, the most significant
findings will be discussed. An overall discussion of the total apology strategies employed and the
patterns of the used apology for each question is discussed at discussion part of the report.
Question 1:
You are a waiter in a restaurant. A guest wants to bring her Chi Hwa Hwa dog inside the restaurant.
But, the restaurant rule says, ―Pets are not allowed inside restaurant‖.
Customer: ―This is mad… You know, I never leave my dog alone, wherever I go - she goes with
me.‖
You: ________________________________________________________
Table 1a
Bandung Bali Medan Makassar Total
n = 40 (M:17, F:23) n = 39 (M:20, F:19) n = 40 (M:14, F:26) n = 38 (M:19, F:19) N = 157
APOLOGY
Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female
STRATEGY
# actual used
% of subject using # % # % # % # % # % # % # % # % # %
strategy
1. IFID 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 9 1 1 1 1 1 99.
7 0 3 0 0 0 9 0 4 0 5 6 9 0 9 0 5 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6
2. An explanation or 1 7 1 8 1 9 1 8 1 7 2 8 1 8 1 1 1 85.
3 6 9 3 8 0 7 9 1 9 2 5 6 4 9 0 3 9
account of the cause 0 5
of offence
3. An expression of the 1 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0.6
doer responsibility
for the offence
4. An offer of repair 1 7 2 8 1 7 1 7 7 5 2 7 1 5 9 4 1 69.
3 6 0 7 4 0 5 9 0 0 7 1 8 7 0 4
9
5. A promise of 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
forbearance
Total 4 6 5 5 3 6 4 4
4 2 2 1 2 7 6 7
The design of question number 1 is that the cause of offence is ―rule‖ of the establishment, in
this case a restaurant, which says that ―Pets are not allowed inside restaurant‖. The case of situation
requires students to give reaction to a customer complaint related to this rule where the customer do
not feel satisfy with the rule as she never leave her Chi Hwa Hwa dog alone.
Table 1 shows recapitulation of apology strategies used by tourism students from Bandung,
Bali, Medan and Makassar to the above case of question 1. Here are some significant findings based
on table 1:
The most significant findings are as follow. Firstly, IFID: female of Medan 96% vs other
100%. Since the design of case is complaint situation, at first the writer assumed that the use of IFID
or Illocutionary Force Indicating Device will 100%, but the data shows that female of Medan
recorded 96%. This means there is one respondent who choose not to use the IFID in completing the
given dialog. How did the respondent handle the complaint situation, here is the data: …
An explanation or account the cause of offence: the highest – female of Makassar 100%, the
lowest – male of Bandung 76%. The cause of offence in question 1 is establishment‘s rule or
regulation that forbid customer to bring her pet inside the restaurant. This challenges the respondent
to provide certain explanation or description about the rule. To the writer surprise, the use of apology
strategy code 2 i.e. explanation or account of the cause of the offence is vary. The highest percentage
of use of this strategy is by female of Makassar at 100%. On the other hand the lowest percentage of
use is by male of Bandung which is only 76%. What is that supposed to mean? It means that many of
male student in STP Bandung prefer not to use the strategy, 13 out of 17 uses this strategy and 4 of
them do not use it. Here is some example of how male of Bandung complete dialog to handle the
given complaint situation: …
An expression of the doer responsibility for the offence: male of Bandung 1 or 6% is the only
one who used it. Another surprising data is there is one male respondent of Bandung who uses the
strategy code 3 that is an expression of doer responsibility of the offence. Here how the respondent
used the strategy: …
An offer of repair: the highest female of Bandung 87%, the lowest – female of Makassar
47%. To overcome the situation many of respondent are really creative in using the strategy code 4
that is an offer of repair. The situation created in question 1 in some degree requires the respondent to
be able to neutralize situation so that a mutual communication can be built after explaining the cause
of offence. What is interesting is the way the respondent to handle the situation are really creative,
here are some examples of them … A promise of forbearance: all 0%
The next table (Table 1a) shows how apology strategies come up in combination as answer to
each question in the questionnaire. Blum-Kulka et al says that apologies ―may be performed‖ by any
one of the five major strategies or ―any combination or sequence‖ of them (1989:289) and in the
obtained result of the DCT questionnaire shows that they come in combination or sequence. To ease
the process of data interpretation here are the coding system that it used to represent possible strategy
combination. On the left column is the five major apology strategy while on the right column is the
codes of possible combination of apology strategy as the writer has identified. The number 1 – 5
represent each of the five apology strategy and the alphabetical letter a – cc represent possible
combination of apology strategy. For example, ―a‖ means respondent only choose to use the IFID (1)
while ―k‖ means that the respondent choose to use ―1 + 2 + 4‖ combination i.e. ‗IFID‘ plus ‗an
explanation or account of the cause of offence‘ followed by ‗an offer of repair.‘
The next table (Table 1c) showing the recapitulation of the use of apology strategies as
shown in the obtained questionnaire for each item of question. Table 1c show the recapitulation of
combination or sequence of apology strategy for question 1.
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Table 1b
a b c
Q1 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
a b c
M 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 4 0 1 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
BANDU
NG 1
F 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6
1
M 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2
BALI
1
F 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3
M 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 3 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
MEDAN 1
F 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5
M 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 3 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
MAKAS
SAR 1
F 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
4 2 8
TOTAL 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 2 6
4. CONCLUSION
What the model can do:
1. The assessment model can help user to identify different types of apology strategies used by
students
2. The assessment model can identify the use of apology strategy as individual and as combination
by writing number codes for types of apology strategy and alphabet codes for multiple or
combination of different types of apology strategy
3. The data gathered by the assessment model can be used to help display number and percentage of
each
4. The data gathered by the assessment model can be used to help display number and percentage of
each apology strategy user and can be very helpful for researcher in drawing conclusion
The future use and development of the assessment model:
1. The model should be developed and expanded so that it can also accommodate other aspects of
understanding complaint and how proper responses can be made such as identify cause of
offence, severity of offence, and doer of offence. That way it will be very helpful for student user
to help decide the most suitable apology strategy to the context and situation of the complaint.
2. The model should be made into different version based on its function. For example for
researcher who is dealing with apology strategy topic, for teacher who is shaping students‘
performance in using apology strategies properly, for individual student who is self-studying or
group students who are peer-studying, etc.
REFERENCES
Atlantic Canada English Language Arts Curriculum. (n.d.). Assessing and Evaluating Student
Learning. Toronto, Canada.
Aufa, F. (2013). The Assessment Tool of L2 Learner's Pragmatic Competence: Written Discourse
Completion Test. IPEDR, 113-117.
Blum-Kulka, S., & Olshtain, E. (Vol. 5, No. 3). Requests and Apologies: A Cross-Cultural Study of
Speech Act Realization Patterns (CCSARP) 1. Applied Linguistics, 196-213.
Blum-Kulka, S., House, J., & Kasper, G. (1989). Cross-Cultural Pragmatics: Requests and
Apologies. Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Crystal, D. (2008). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Malden: Blackwell Publishing.
OALD, O. P. (2016). Oxford Learner's Dictionaries. Retrieved April 14, 2016, from Oxford
Learner's Dictionaries: www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com
Spiller, D. (2009, February). Assessment: Feedback to Promote Student Learning. Waikato, New
Zealand.
TEFLIN, T. A. (2015). Exploring Apology Strategies Used by Tourism Students in Handling
Complaint Situations. The 62nd TEFLIN International Conference 2015 (pp. 233-240).
Denpasar: English Department Faculty of Letters and Culture Udayana University.
Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Abstract
Vocabulary plays an important role. It is one element that links the four skills of speaking, listening,
reading and writing all together. Before they master the four skills they have to know some
vocabularies to support them in learning English. Using games is one such method and it is a
popular contemporary trend in Indonesia in Junior High School level. In this research, the
researcher wants to know teaching English Vocabulary through Game: Views from the Students. The
participants were the students of 7.1 who studied English at SMPN 14 Kota Bengkulu. The
instruments to collect the data used interview for the students. While the data analysis and
interpretation were based on data from the interview to the participants. The data show that Majority
of the students‘ comment were positive. They said that playing the game is fun, more interesting,
challenging, amusing and they enjoy it. Students‘ positive attitude toward games and activities may
show that the students really enjoy the activity with the game. They also give positive views about
teachers‘ teaching vocabulary though game. First, games bring in relaxation and fun for students,
thus help them learn and retain new English words more easily. Second, games usually involve
friendly competition and they keep the students interested. Learning vocabulary through games is
one effective and interesting way that can be applied in any classrooms. Game is really avoiding the
students from being bored in their usual classes where they sit passively.
1. INTRODUCTION
In learning a foreign language, vocabulary plays an important role. It is one element that
links the four skills of speaking, listening, reading and writing all together. Before they master the
four skills they have to know some vocabularies to support them in learning English. This is because
vocabulary is an important and essential element in language learning. In order to communicate well
in a foreign language, students should acquire an adequate number of words and should know how to
use them accurately.
In my English classes in Junior High School, the students have nothing to do in a vocabulary
learning section but to listen to their teacher. Students only think of vocabulary learning as knowing
the primary meaning of new words from the teacher or check the meaning from dictionary. Some
researchers such as Nguyen and Khuat (2003) and Uberman (1998) have shown that students are
tired of learning vocabulary in traditional methods such as rehearsing, writing words on papers or
learning passively through teacher‘s explanations, and this has created severe problems with learning
skills. Nguyen and Khuat (2003) believe Students prefer to learn language in a relaxed environment
such as vocabulary games. They believe that in an interesting and communicative class learners can
learn 80 percent of what they exposed to. According to Freeman (1986), learners enjoy language
games they enjoy communicative involvement in the classroom. He believes that games can provide
a healthy and constructive competition. Games can encourage learners discovering and voluntary
involvement to the learning process, it can also establish a better bonding between teacher and
learners. A good designed language games can create a real communication context in the classroom
which can help learners to improve their speaking ability. The students usually only acquire new
vocabulary through new words in their textbooks or when given by teachers during classroom
lessons. For example, students find many new words in a text and then they ask the teacher to explain
the meanings and usages. Learners just wait for teachers to provide new forms of words then they
write those words in their notebooks or complete their exercises in their exercises book (LKS:
Lembar Kerja Siswa).
Some of learners may share the same experience of looking up words in a bilingual
dictionary to find their meanings or definitions when they encounter new words. They may even
write down lines of new words without any idea of the real use of them in context. Working this way,
after a short period of time, many students may find out that learning vocabulary in lists does not
satisfy themselves, and they think the cause for it is just their bad memorization.
Traditional classroom activities mostly emphasize grammar rules (forms). Teacher in these
classes imagine that learning the grammar is equated with learning the language while students are
not pleased with grammar. But in communicative approaches such as games, the emphasis is on the
meaning and students feel free to interact. Most of the traditional classroom activities consist of many
drills which emphasize accuracy and consume a lot of time but communicative activities develop
communication skills which stress fluency. The teacher governing the traditional classroom activities
corrects students' mistakes when they've made it but in communicative approach it is believed that
students should comminute each other. They claim when students are able to communicate, their
mistakes will be corrected automatically.
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an element of fun. Teachers should also consider the advantages of games: the ability to capture
students' attention; lower students' stress; and give students the chance for real communication.
Lastly teachers need to assess how to use games appropriately in the classroom. It is important to
choose an appropriate time and integrate them into the regular syllabus and curriculum.
Teachers should be careful about choosing games if they want to make them advantageous.
First of all, the teacher should decide on the purpose of a game. A game may seem appropriate and
useful. The fact that games are the most suitable instructional activities for young learners.
Nedomová (2007) argues that ―young learners are not able to pay their attention for more than 10-20
minutes and after that they start to be bored and tired.‖ So that, the teachers have to decide the best
game for their students. Nedomová (2007) underlines the fact that we ―should consider whether the
game-like activity is for children only to make the lesson more attractive and protect them from being
bored or whether we tend to revise and practice some particular part of grammar, vocabulary, etc.‖
Teachers have to decide the level of game for the level of the student. Considering the level of the
game is equally important while choosing games. Teachers must decide whether the level of the
game fits students‘ language level because a game may become difficult when it is beyond the
learners‘ level or it may become boring when learners find it too easy to carry on. When a game‘s
value in grammar teaching is considered, teachers tend to use them for practice or to reinforce a
specific grammatical aspect of language only if a game is suitable for learners‘ level so that the
grammatical knowledge can be used easily as they are playing the game. If the game is beyond the
students‘ level, it can make them bored easily in doing that game.
To avoid the feeling bored of the students, teachers should consider some factors in choosing
the appropriate game to their students. The factors are about the number of the students in the
classroom, level of age, level of grade, time duration of the game, and the difficulties of the game.
According to Carrier (1990) teachers should first consider the level of the game to fit their students'
language level. They should choose the game that fits the purposes of that class or the content.
Moreover, teachers should consider students' characteristics: whether they are old or young,
serious-minded or light-hearted, and highly motivated to learn or not. They should also consider
when the game should be used.
Teachers should be well aware of their roles while using games in their classes. Since it is
rather difficult to find a game that meets all the needs of the learners, careful preparation of the
teacher is necessary. The teacher should organize the game before the instruction. The teacher may
need some extra equipment or materials to play the game and most of the time these equipment and
materials are not available in the classroom. Before explaining the rules to the class, the teacher
should first understand how the game is played. Especially when working with children, the teacher
should always be prepared to adapt the game to the givens of the class. After choosing the game, the
teacher should explain its rules to the learners in a direct and non-complicated way. Especially for
young learners, it may be necessary to use the mother tongue because if these learners cannot
understand how to play the game, there is no educational purpose in playing it. Therefore,
demonstrations may be beneficial because they can help young learners understand the rules clearly
and easily.
From the view above, we can be seen that teaching English vocabulary through game would
make teaching and learning process more interesting. The unforgettable moments when they play the
game will help students to memorize the acquired vocabulary easily or it will encourage students to
have long term memory about the vocabulary. By playing game, the students will be motivated in
learning English vocabulary. It also encourages and increases cooperation. In this case, it is assumed
that students‘ views about teaching English vocabulary through game would be fun, interesting,
challenging and effective. This study expected it would be useful for the contribution of strategy in
teaching vocabulary in Junior High School level especially at SMPN 14 Kota Bengkulu. This study is
also expected the result of this research would be useful for the next researchers who are interested in
teaching English through game in every level of education. This is not to prove any hypothesis and
confirm that these views are the best one.
3. METHODOLOGY
The present study was designed to know the students‘ views about teaching English
vocabulary through game that done by the English teacher. Researcher chose SMPN 14 Kota
Bengkulu as the place to carry out this study, because researcher is one of the English teachers in this
school and researcher felt convenience to carry out this study here. Convenience factor should be
taken into consideration to support the researcher to carry out the research (Aswasilah : 2009 cited in
Refdi: 2012). The researcher is also familiar with the participants as well as professional relationship
with them that also helped researcher to carry out this research even researcher does not teach
English in grade 7. Researcher herself is English teacher for grade 9. The participants of this study
were 20 students in Junior High School who studied at SMPN 14 Kota Bengkulu in grade 7.1. Before
doing interview to the students, researcher did observation in grade 7.1 English classroom in this
school. This observation was done to see the students‘ respond to the game that is used by the teacher
in teaching English vocabulary through game.
This study applied a descriptive qualitative method based on the classifications of the
research design from Djajasudarma (2006), this study can be characterized as a qualitative study and
it categorized as a case study because the research was carried out in a limited or small scale single
case and not to be generalized. In this study, the research only dealt with analyzing particular
document from the students‘ answering to the interview. Then, the result was not to be generalized as
general conditions of the whole students in Kota Bengkulu. The descriptive data analysis was
employed to analyze the obtained data. In analyzing data there are some steps proposed, transcribing,
coding and interpreting the data. The first step is transcribing the data; interview needs to be
transcribed to enable data analysis for this study. Transcribing the interviews is in fact initial data
analysis (Gibbs 2007; Rapley 2007; Bailey 2008, as cited in Liamputtong, 2009). In this study, data
were analyzed in detail by researchers herself. Researcher transcribed the interview herself.
Secondly, the data were coded in form of label. According to Charmaz (2006) as cited in Prisilya
(2014), that ―coding is the process of defining what the data about‖. The last step is interpreting the
data. These steps were conducted to ease the reporting step in finding and discussion section;
description of the finding of this study.
From the students‘ answering to the interview, they said that playing the game is fun, more
interesting, challenging, amusing and they enjoy it. They can remember the words easily. It is shown
as:
―Ambo ingat vocab bahasa Inggris kalo main game ini.‖
(I remember this English vocabulary if I play this game)
Students can acquire vocabulary more quickly and easily by doing actions during game
playing (Angelova & Lekova, 1995; Atake, 2003; Deng, 2006). According to Dewey‟s ―learning by
doing‖, children learn best by doing and by acting in the world (Pound, 2005). When children touch
something, they get to realize what the object is and how it feels; when they do some action, they get
to know its meaning. By using a game which offers children lots of opportunities to do, to act, and to
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move, children can acquire a greater quantity of meaningful vocabulary and they also not afraid of
making mistake in saying a new word. As one of their statement:
―Kami dak takut kalo salah ngucapnyo yang penting kawan kami ngerti maksud kami‖
(We do not afraid of making mistake in pronouncing the word, the important is our friend can
understand what I mean)
From the student‘s statement above, it could be seen that students felt confidence in saying
something in English without afraid of making mistake in pronouncing the word. Games help many
students to shed their inhibition and be able to participate more actively in the meaning making
process. As pointed out by Huang (1996) as cited in Pillai, N (2013), ―learning through games could
encourage the operation of certain psychological and intellectual factors which could facilitate
communication heightened self-esteem, motivation and spontaneity, reinforcing learning, improving
intonation and building confidence‘. Games can also help shy students to shed their inhibitions and
come up to the centre of the classroom. This added advantage helps in all students of the spectrum to
actively participate in the language classroom. Games are also advantageous in a sense that through
their use in the classroom, students are able to ‗interact‘ with each other more freely as compared to a
traditional teacher centered classroom. Another advantage associated with games is that students‘
anxiety towards language learning decreases as games are employed. In language classes, learners
feel stressful because they think that they have to master the target language that is unknown to them.
5. CONCLUSION
Learning vocabulary has been considered a boring subject for a long time and the traditional
way of learning vocabulary by mere copying and remembering has shown to be less than effective.
This research reveals that games contribute to vocabulary learning if they give students a chance to
learn, practice and to review the English language in a pleasant atmosphere. From the research, we
found that students are demanding a new way of teaching vocabulary, and they themselves are in
search of a new way of learning this subject as well. They also give positive views about teacher‘s
teaching vocabulary though game. First, games bring in relaxation and fun for students, thus help
them learn and retain new English words more easily. Second, games usually involve friendly
competition and they keep the students interested. Learning vocabulary through games is one
effective and interesting way that can be applied in any classrooms. The results of this research
suggest that games are used not only for more fun, but more importantly, for the useful practice and
review of language lessons, thus leading toward the goal of improving learners' communicative
competence.
Whole process of conducting this research about students‘ views about teacher‘s vocabulary
teaching strategy has contributed to my professional development in term of providing me as an
English teacher and other English teachers with knowledge of the strategies in teaching vocabulary
effectively. However, because of the limitations of the syllabus, games often cannot be used, as much
as they should be. Therefore, it may be challenging for teachers to try to add some games in class in
order to develop students' English proficiency of the target language. The researcher hopes that this
result of this study can give more information for the readers that game is one of strategies in teaching
English. This research can be used as reference or source to do the research with the same matter. The
area of teaching English vocabulary among teachers could very well be studied further.
REFERENCES
Angelova, T. G., & Lekova, B. C. ―A model of early childhood foreign language education through
playing motoric games‖. (1995). ERIC database. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service
No. ED397957). Web. October 22, 2009.
Atake, K. ―Using games to teach English in Japanese junior high school‖. (2003). ERIC database.
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED479748). Web. November 3, 2009.
Carrier, M. Take 5: Games and Activities for the language learner; (1990): 6-11. Print.
Chan, Y. C., & Lin, L. C. Competitive and cooperative games in EFL elementary school classroom.
Proceedings of ROCMELLA (2000): 123-147. National Taipei University of Education.
Chen, J. L. Using games in teaching English to preschool students. Unpublished master‟s thesis,
National Dong Hwa University, Haulian, Taiwan. (2007).
Deersi, A. ―Games in the ESL and EFL class‖. The Internet TESL Journal, 9.9 (2002). Web.
November 3, 2009.
Deng, Q. H. A study of using games in primary school English teaching .Unpublished master‘s
thesis, Northwest Normal University, Shensi province, China. 2006. Print.
Djajasudarma, F. Metode Linguistik – Ancangan Metode Penelitian dan kajian. Bandung: PT Refika
Aditama, 2006. Print.
Crookal, D. A practical handbook of language teaching. Harlow: Longman, 2000. Print.
Freeman, D. L. Techniques and principles in language teaching (2nd.). London: Oxford University
Press. 2000. Print
Hadfield, J. Elementary communication games. London: Nelson, 1984. Print.
Jiang, L. The use of games in teaching children English. Unpublished master‘s thesis, Shandong
University, Shandong province, China. 2008
Kuo, Y. L. The effect of games in fifth graders‘ English speaking ability in an elementary school in
Taipei County. Unpublished master‟s thesis, National Taipei University of Education,
Taipei, Taiwan. 2008.
Liamputtong, P. Qualitative Research Method 3rd Ed. Victoria; Oxford University Press. 2011. Print.
McCallum, G. P. 101 word games: for students of English as a second or foreign language. Oxford:
Oxford University Press. 1980. Print.
Nedomova, A. Teaching grammar to young learners. Unpublished master thesis, Masaryk
University. Czech Republic. (2007). Web. March 28, 2008.
Nguyen and Khuat. ―Learning Vocabulary Though Games‖. Asian EFL Journal (2003). Web 2015.
Pillai. N. ―Intergrating Games and Vocabulary Teaching: An Exploratory Study‖. ELT Voices-India.
International Electronic Journal for the teachers of English. 3.2 (2013). Web. 2015
Pound, L. How children learn. London: Step Forward Publishing, Ltd, 2005. Print.
Prisilya, A. Which one is Better, KTSP (School-Based Curriculum) or 2013 English Curriculum?
Teflin, 2013. Book 1. English Education Department Teacher Traning and Education
Faculty. Sebelas Maret University. 2014.
Refdi, A. A systematic Analysis of High School Teachers‘ Argumentative Writing: A Case Study in
Bandar Lampung. S2 Thesis, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, 2012.
Richards, J. C., Platt, J.,& Platt, H. Longman dictionary of language teaching & applied linguistics.
Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1995. Print.
Uberman, A. ― The use of games for vocabulary presentation and revision‖. English Teaching
Forum, 36.1 (1998): 253-285. Print.
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Tuti Andayani
Postgraduate Program of English Education, Bengkulu University
HYPERLINK "mailto:tuttykinantihanif@gmail.com" tuttykinantihanif@gmail.com
Abstract
Code-switching is a very useful strategy in learning Eglish as a foreign language. Both teachers and
students employ it to ease the learning process. This study investigated the code-switching employed
by the students of SMPN 3 Sindang Kelingi. Four classes were recorded twice for about 25 minutes
each by a digital voice-recorder. Thoseclassroom-recordings were transcribed and analyzed to find
out the types, how, and why the students employed code-switching in the classrooms. The findings
showed the students employed all three types of code-switching, dominantly the word type, followed
by phrase and sentence code-switching. Moreover, the detailed analyses of the audio-recordings
revealed that the students switched freely from one code to another without following a certain
pattern or rule, especially in the informal situation when the teacher was not around but mostly they
employed the Indonesian-English-Indonesian pattern. Their reasons to employ code-switching is
based on their need to do the tasks given by the teacher correctly and quickly, to feel comfortable and
get some help while studying English.Suggestion was made for thejunior high school English
teachers to let the students employ code-switching since they are still at the elementary level of
English proficiency, but as their abilities grow up, the use of code-switching should be decreased.
1. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays it is important for people to master more than one language, especially people
from a country where English is not the first language. They need to be able to speak English as a
need of globalization where people from all over the world can get together in a system of
communication, education, and other aspects of living. The phenomenon of people having more than
one code or language is called bilingualism or multilingualism (Wardhaugh, 2010). Bilinguals often
switch from one code to another while talking which called code-switching.
There have been various definitions of the term code-switching. Poplack (1980) cited in
Horasan (2014) stated that code-switching is regarded as the seemingly random alternation of two
languages between and within sentences. People can and should shift, as the need arises, from one
code to another (Jingxia, 2010). A person is employing code-switching if he or she is using two
different languages or more while talking to other people during a conversation, usually without
changing topics.
. The studies on code-switching in the English as a foreignlanguage classrooms tends to
describe teachers‘ and students‘ first language and the target language use and/or make connections
between code-switching and student learning (Hobbs, 2008). It means that the studies investigated
only about the code-switching between two languages, the native language and the target language.
However, in SMP Negeri 3 Sindang Kelingi, the students often switch from one language to
another using three languages, namely the native languages (Javanese and Lembaknese), the second
language (Indonesian) and the foreign language (English).The students switch into more than two
language.
Based on the background, this research questions are:
1. What type of code-switching is used by the studentsin the English classes?
2. What patterns of code-switching do the students employ in the English classes?
3. What are the students‘ reasons of employing code-switching in the English classes?
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new person, it is easy to explain the switch (Holmes, 1992).The code-switching can be caused the
new comer does not familiar with the code being used or for other reasons, such politeness,
friendship, etc. Thechange of the language or code happens without the change of the topic.
There are several considerations while people employ code-switching. Sumarsih, Siregar,
Bahri, and Sanjaya (2014) stated that the considerations are (1) the other person, (2) speakers
themselves, (3) the presence of the third speaker, (4) create a sense of humor, and (5) increase a
prestige. Thus, people have their own reasons and consideration to switch the code in their
conversation.
2.3. Types of Code-Switching
Poplack (1980) in Jingxia (2010) identified three different types of switching which occurred
in her data, namely tag, inter-sentential and intra-sentential switching.
―Tag-switching is the insertion of a tag phrase from one language into an utterance from
another language. It seems that the fixed phrases of greeting or .parting are quite often
involved in switches. Since tags are subject to minimal syntactic restrictions, they may be
instead easily at a number of points in a monolingual utterance without violating syntactic
rules.‖ (Poplack; 1980 cited in Jingxia, 2010).
The following example of tag-switching in EFL classroomswas taken from Rezvani (2011)
when the teacher explained the grammar rules in the classroom. Bad az af aali mesle ‗enjoy‘ va
‗keep‘, -ing form of the verb estefaade mishe. (After verbs such as ‗enjoy‘ and ‗keep‘, the –ing form
of the verb is used).
―Inter-sentential switching occurs at a clause or sentence boundary, where each clause or
sentence is in one language or another. It could be considered as requiring greater fluency in
both languages than tag-switching since major portions of the utterance must conform to the
rules of both languages.‖ (Romaine; 1997 cited in Jingxia).
The following example of inter-sentential switching in EFL classrooms was taken from
Resvani (2011) when an English teacher retold a story to the students. The boy in the story had a few
mistake. Amaa belakhare, he passed the exam.Amaa belakharemeans ‗but eventually‘ in English.
―Intra-sentential switching takes places within the clause or sentence and is considered to be
the most complex form of switching. It seems most frequently found in the utterances,
though it involves the greatest syntactic risk since the switching between languages occurs
within the clause or sentence boundaries. Intra-sentential switching may be avoided by all
but the most fluency bilinguals,‖ (Poplack; 1980 cited in Jingxia, 2010).
The following example of intra-sentential switching was also taken from Rezvani (2011) when a
teacher explained the correlation of two things. The old woman can‘t hear the boy. Why? Chon
gooshesh zaeefe. (Because she is hard on hearing)
Moreover, Bokamba (1989) in Ayeomoni (2006) stated that code-switching is the mixing of
words, phrases and sentence from two distinct grammatical (sub) systems across sentence boundaries
within the same speech event. So, code-switching is a combination of two languages and more in
accordance with the rules of the incorporation of the language such as merging the word with words,
phrases with phrases and sentence with phrases.
2.5 The Reasons and Functions of Code-switching
Both teachers and students employ code-switching in EFL classrooms for several reasons
and functions. Teachers seem to effectively employ code-switching in their EFL curriculum as a tool
in various language learning activities and to introduce the meaning of concept words when
introducing a new unit (Kasperczyk, 2005). Employing code-switching in the EFL classroom makes
the teacher to run the classroom activities smoothly and meaningfully to the students.
In his research resulton the awareness of code-switching inbilingualclassrooms in Pakistan,
Gulzard (2010) stated that the code-switching mostly occurred in the classrooms to cater for the
needs of the students. He then listed the functions of code-switching in bilingual classrooms as a tool
to do clarification, ease of expression, giving instruction effectively, creating a sense of belonging,
checking understanding, translation, socializing, emphasis, repetitive functions, topic shift, and
linguistics competence.
Furthermore, Yataganbaba (2015) revealed that the functions of code-switching in EFL were
related to course content (translation, asking equivalence, giving instructions, making explanation,
message clarification, etc.). An English teacher prefers to use native language while
translatingunfamiliar words. It is considered to be easier. They also use the native language while
giving instruction in the matter of classroom management, such as arranging the students‘ sitting
while working in a group discussion, remainding the students about their unwelcomed bahaviour;
such as for being unpolite to their freinds or the teacher, asking the students not to be noisy, and so
on. They employ this in the reason of saving time. The classroom can be handled more easily, and L1
itself can be a kind of strategy to draw on (Cook, 1999, 2001, cited in Memonian and Samar, 2011).
The students‘ undesired behaviour such as being noisy, talking too loudly, disturbing other students,
or walking around for cheating could be handled easily by using their own first language.
3. RESEARCH METHODS
This qualitative research was done in four weeks in November2015. The primary data were
collected through audio-recordings and interviewing the participants.
The participants were the eight grade students of SMP Negeri 3 Sindang Kelingi selected
using convenience sampling technique. The reason in choosing the participants was that those
selected participants could give the best data needed in this research.
The data obtained from audio-recordings, all interactions between the students and their
classmates were mainly transcribed in accordance with Jefferson‘s Transcriptions Conventions from
Atkinson and Heritage (1984) cited in Yataganbaba (2015). In the first stage, in order to answer the
first research question, the data obtained from audio-recordings, all interactions between the students
and their classmates were mainly transcribed in accordance with Jefferson‘s Transcriptions
Conventions from Atkinson and Heritage (1984) cited in Yataganbaba (2015). The audio-recordings
were transcribed without using a program, then pauses and silences will not exactly be calculated.
Instead, (.) was used for short pauses and (…) for long pauses. In the Result and Discussion, all the
expressions were coded using three symbols; letter, number, and letter. First letter stood for the
language used by the students and the teacher. There were four languages. E stood for English, I
stood for Indonesian, L stood for Lembaknese, and J stood for Javanese. The number stood for the
number of expression in the transcript. The last letter stood for the types of code-switching employed
by the students. Letter N showed that the expression has no code-switching in it. Letter W showed
that the expression has word type of code-switching. Letter P showed that the expression has phrase
types of code-switching and letter S showed that the expression has sentence types of
code-switching. The students were coded by combination of letter and number, such as St1, St2, St3,
and so on. Teacher was code by letter T. For example, we find E8N St1: Volleyball is your hobby,
isn‘t. It meant the expression was in English, number 8 of the whole transcript, it has no
code-switching in the expression, and it spoke by the student number 1.
After the transcription, the instances of code-switching were analyzed to divide the types of
code-switching using the Bokamba‘s division of code-switching, cited in Ayeonomi (2006), namely
words, phrases and sentence code-switching. Word type of code-switching is the very simple
code-switching where only one word changed into another code. Phrase type of code-switching is the
switching of a phrase from one code to another. Sentence type of code-switching is the switching into
other language for the whole sentence.
The number of code-switching in each type found in the audio-recordings was calculated to
find out how many times each type of code-switching is used by the students. That was why the
expression with no code-switching in it and the teacher‘s expressions would not be calculated. Then,
there would be a list consisting of the most frequently or the most dominant type of code-switching
using in the English classes until the less dominant type of code-switching.
Secondly, the transcriptions of the recordings were analyzed once again to find out the
patterns of the code-switching employed by the students. The patterns mean how the students switch
from one language to the other one, then go back to the language they use first. The patterns can be
Indonesia – English - Indonesian, English – Indonesia – English, Indonesian – Javanese – Indonesia,
English – Lembaknese - English, and Indonesian – English – Lembaknese.
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Finally, to answer the third research question about the students‘ reasons in employing
code-switching in the English classes, the interview recordings were also transcribed and analyzed to
find out the students‘ reasons of employing code-switching.
1. Word 113 61
2. Phrase 41 22
3. Sentence 32 17
Total 186 100
As can be seen from the table above, comparing to the other types, word type code-switching
was the most frequently used by the students, followed by phrase and sentence types of
code-switching.
The Patterns of Code-Switching
The analysis of the transcriptions showed the patterns of code-switching employed by the
students. The patterns are how the students switch from one language to other languages during their
conversation in the English classrooms. The Table 2 illustrates the frequency of each pattern
employed by the students clearly.
English. To solve this, they prefer to look up the word in their English – Indonesian dictionary and
switch at once into Indonesian or their first language.
The topics of discussion also influent the students to choose the language they speak. While
talking about their daily activities or things out of the lessons, such as to have fun, telling funny story
and threat their friends, the students talk in their first language, but when talking about the lessons,
they usuallyspeak English and Indonesian.
The results show that the students of SMP N 3 Sindang Kelingi employ all of the three types
of code-switching; word, phrase and sentence code-switching during the classroom discussion
activities. The word code-switching is the most frequently employed by the students, followed by
phrase and the sentence code-switching. This finding is in similar to other studies have done before.
Jingxia (2010) proved in her research it is obvious that the instances of inter-sentential pattern occur
the most frequently among the three patterns, followed by the intra-sentential code-switching and the
tag code-switching. This is related to the language proficiency. Poplack (1980) cited in Nakamura
(2005) stated that fluent bilinguals tend to switch at various syntatic boundaries but non-fluent
bilinguals tend to choose switches between sentences; tag switches and single noun switches to avoid
fears of violating a grammatical rule of both languages. Since the students are at the elementary level
of English proficiency, they employ the word type of code-switching mostly.
The students‘ code-switching can be divided into five patterns. From those five patterns, the
Indonesian-English-Indonesian pattern was the most frequently employed by the students, followed
by the English-Indonesian-English pattern, Indonesian-Javanese-Indonesian pattern,
Indonesia-Lembaknese-Indonesian pattern and English-Lembaknese-English pattern. The
Indonesian-English-Indonesian pattern becomes the most frequently used by the students because it
is their second language and they all master it better than English, Javanese or Lembaknese. This
result is similar to the previous studies done by Gulzar (2010), Moghadam (2012), Jamshidi and
Navehebrahim (2013), Horasan (2014), and Yataganbaba (2015). The results of their studies proved
that the dominant use of the first language and the second language can be caused by several factors
such as the lack of vocabulary knowledge, informal environment and the using of non
English-English dictionaries. When the students get difficulties to find certain English vocabulary,
they contact the English-Indonesian dictionaries, thus they directly translate the English vocabulary
into Indonesian.
The code-switching also happens because of the presence of someone, such as other friends
or the teacher. The students usually change the language they use when the teacher is around them.
They speak Indonesian and English to the teacher, especially if the teacher asks them to do so.
Holmes (1994:23) stated that certain social factors – who you are talking to, the social context of the
talk, the function and topic of the discussion – turn out to be important in accounting in language
choice in many different kinds of speech communinity. For socializing between them while talking
about their daily activities, out of the lesson, telling jokes or playing pranks among them, the students
switched into their first language. Flyman-Mattsson and Burenhult (1999) in Gulzard (2010) define
the affective functions of code-switching in the domain of classroom, for example, the spontaneous
of emotions and emotional understanding in interacting with students.If the teacher is around, the
students switch into English or Indonesian.
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can be caused by several factors such as the lack of vocabulary knowledge, informal environment
and the using of non English-English dictionaries.
Third, the students employ the code-switching based on the need of finishing the task given
by the teacher correctly and quickly, socializing among them, showing a group members‘ solidarity
and having fun by telling jokes or funny things. The topic of discussionand the presence of certain
people, such as the teacher and friends from other tribe, can be the reasons for the students to employ
code-switching in the classrooms.
The pedagogical implications of the results of this study focus on the students employing
code-switching in the English classess. For the students, they employ code-switching as a
communication strategy to overcome the problem caused by their limited English vocabulary. They
have to switch to their own languages or they will keep silent. Teachers should pay careful attention
on these because let the students to switch all the time is not good for their English.
Since this study is very limited and only in a school, a further study with greater
participants and much more time is needed to get better understanding about students‘
code-switching and its implication in learning English.
Employing code-switching can make the students feel more confident and comfortable
during the teaching and learning prosess but actually, it indicates that their English vocabulary is
limited. However, they do not see this as a weakness since they are beginner level learners and it is
acceptable to use code-switching in lower level, yet it should be decreased as the level get higher. As
the level of learners gets higher and their competence gets better, the students have to force
themselves to speak only English in the classrooms. Then, it will be wise for the teachers to motivate
the students to use English mostly in the classrooms. It will ease them to face the real English
communication outside the classrooms.
REFERENCES
Ahmad, B. H. ―Teachers‘ code-switching in classroom instructions for low English proficient
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Arikunto, Suharsimi. Prosedur Penelitian: Suatu Pendekatan Praktis. Jakarta: Rhineka Cipta, 1998.
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speech community‖. Nordic Journal of African Studies (15th ed.). 2006. Print.
Bapir, M.A. Validity and Realibility in Qualitative Research. The University of Warwick. 2015.
Print.
Basuki, S. Pedoman Penelitian Sosiolinguistik. Jakarta: PB Pusat Bahasa. 2009. Print
Bensen, H. and Casuvoglu,C. ―Reasons for teachers‘ uses of code-switching in adult EFL
classrooms‖. Hasan Alt Yucel Egitim Fakultesi Dergisi, Sayv 20 (2013): 69-82
Gulzar, M. A. ―Code-switching: awareness about its utility in bilingual classrooms‖. Bulletin of
Education and Research 32.2 (2010): 23-44. Print.
Hobbs, V. ―Code-switching in Japanese language classrooms‖. Proceedings of the BAAL Annual
Conference, 2008. Web. 2016
Holmes, Janet. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. London: Longman, 1992. Print
Horasan, S. ―Code-switching in EFL classrooms and the perceptions of the students and teachers‖.
Journal of Language and Linguistics Studies 10.1 (2014): 31-45. Web. 2016
Jamshidi, A. and Navehebrahim, M. ―Learners use of code switching in the English as a foreign
language classroom‖. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences,7.1 (2003):
186-190. Web 2016.
Jingxia, L. (2010). Teachers‘ code-switching to the L1 in EFL classroom. The Open Applied
Linguistics Journal 3.1 (2010): n.pag. Web. 2016
Kasperczcyk, L.A. Implementing code-switching in the classroom. 2005. Web. January 09, 2016.
Lowi, R. Code-switching: an examination of naturally occuring conversation. Proc eedings of the 4th
International Symposium on Bilingualism. 2005. Web. 2016.
Miles, M.B. and Huberman, A.M. Qualitative Data Analysis. London: Sage Publication. 1994. Print.
Moghadam, S.H. Code-switching as a medium of instruction in an EFL classroom. Theory and
Practice in Language Studies 2.11 (2012): n.pag. Web. 2016.
BIODATA
Tuti Andayani teaches English at SMPN 3 Sindang Kelingi, Rejang Lebong. Received her Bachelor
Degree (S1) from Bengkulu University. Now she is a student of the Postgraduate Program of English
Education
Department of Languages and Arts, Bengkulu University
Cell phone number 085367191264
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Urip Sulistiyo
FKIP Universitas Jambi
Email: urip.sulistiyo@unja.ac.id
Abstract
This paper presents an overview of English language teaching and English as a Foreign Language
(EFL) teacher education in Indonesia. Several factors appear to impede the success of teaching and
learning EFL in Indonesia. Teacher qualifications and low English proficiency, classroom size,
students‘ motivation, classroom-oriented learning, and limited sources of learning are factors that
influence EFL teaching and learning success. There are several constraints at work between
language policy and language teaching classroom practices in Indonesia. First, students have very
different motivations and background traits, which make it difficult to design and resource a single
curriculum that suits all (or most) students across the country. Second, inadequate funds mean low
wages for teachers, poor resourcing and the likelihood of large class sizes. Low teacher salaries
cause the majority of teachers to work in additional jobs outside of school hours, which reduces the
time they can allocate to lesson preparation, efforts to improve teaching practices and undertaking
development to enhance their professional knowledge. Third, the influence of policy and curriculum
politics is a constraint to language learning. In EFL teaching and learning contexts, teacher
competence is essential to facilitating successful English exposure and learning during classroom
activities. A number of Indonesian scholars are aware of this importance—for example, Soepriyatna
(2012) identified the domains of EFL teachers‘ competence in Indonesia. These domains can inform
teacher education programs to design the curriculum in ways that align with the needs of EFL
teachers during their classroom preparation.
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper is part of a larger study investigating pre-service teacher language proficiency and
language teaching skills in an Indonesian University. It presents an overview of English language
teaching and EFL teacher education in Indonesia. It elaborates the information related to the role of
EFL in an Indonesian context, English language teaching policy, and teacher education programs for
EFL pre-service teachers.
The Study
The aim of this study was to use the available literature to update information regarding
English language teaching and EFL teacher competence in Indonesia. This literature review study
reviewed a number of articles ranged from 1990 to 2014. From these, four themes were generated as
the framework for the study. The themes were teaching English in Indonesia, English language
teaching policy, teaching profession in Indonesia, and EFL teachers‘ quality and domains of English
teacher competence in Indonesia.
Berns (1990) defined foreign language learning as learning a target language in a country
that does not use this language as a speech community. Thus, in a foreign language learning context,
there are few opportunities for learners to employ the target language outside the classroom because
the language (English, in this case) is not used as the main device of communication among people.
When a target language is seldom used outside the classroom, input and language use in the
classroom are essential (Suryati, 2013).
According to Sulistiyo (2009) there are several factors creating difficulties for teaching EFL
in Indonesia. First, EFL teachers must teach students in large classes, often with more than 50
students. Although the definition of a ‗large‘ class in language learning varies (Wright, 2005), this
number is not ideal for a language classroom. Second, not all students who attend English classes are
motivated. English is a compulsory subject, which means that students must learn the language for
examination purposes; however, their exposure to English occurs for only for approximately two
hours per week. Students‘ low motivation and minimal English learning hours are obstacles not only
for teachers, but also for students as learners.
Third, at both school and university, the English-teaching focus is largely on reading skills
(Sawir, 2005; Setiyadi, 2001; Sugirin, 1999), with less emphasis on English grammar and
vocabulary. This teaching emphasis is based on the assumption that students will understand an
English text properly if they know the structure of English and have an adequate vocabulary. One
consequence of this is that the teaching of other skills—such as speaking, writing and listening—is
relatively ignored (Sugirin, 1999). English is a compulsory subject taught during junior and senior
secondary schools, and at tertiary levels of education in Indonesia. The teaching and learning
activities conducted in these classrooms mostly involve memorising vocabulary, studying grammar
and reading English texts. This tends to focus on learning the rules of the English language, rather
than using English for communication (Sawir, 2005).
In short, there are three factors that may influence the success of EFL teaching in Indonesia.
According to Sulistiyo (2009), these are class size, student motivation and teaching focus. These
three factors align with Bradford‘s (2007) view that less effective English learning and teaching in
Indonesia is often due to classroom size and student motivation, although Bradford also includes the
factor of teacher qualifications as contributing to the limited effectiveness of EFL teaching in
Indonesia.
Several scholars have investigated TEFL in Indonesia. For example, Yuwono (2005)
conducted research into English language teaching in Indonesia by obtaining the perspectives of
school principals and English language teachers in Salatiga municipality, Central Java. She stated
that English teaching and learning in schools in Indonesia, especially in rural areas, is not ideal. She
argued that the continually revised curriculum does not seem to seriously consider factors such as
teachers‘ qualifications, teachers‘ time availability, the number of students per class, and the
availability of resources and facilities, which all significantly affect the success of teaching and
learning English in Indonesian schools. In addition, the curriculum does not provide strategies and
alternatives to address problems related to English language teaching.
According to Kirkpatrick (2007), the teaching of English in Indonesian schools and colleges
has been less than satisfactory during the last few decades. Lie (2007) reported a sense of ‗failure‘ in
TEFL in Indonesia. She stated that, although English is taught and used as a foreign language in
Indonesia, and there have been many years of English instruction in formal schooling, the outcomes
are unsatisfactory. Previous studies have identified several factors that impede the success of
language learning and teaching in Indonesia, including large class sizes, less qualified teachers, a
lack of teaching facilities, and low salaries for teachers (Kirkpatrick, 2007; Sulistiyo, 2009).
Since English in Indonesia is taught as a foreign language and learnt mainly in classrooms,
the role of teachers is especially important because they are the main source and facilitator of
knowledge and skills of this language. An English teacher is expected to play two roles at the same
time: (i) teaching English and (ii) making the teaching–learning process as interesting as possible in
order to engage students in learning (Kassing, 2011). In an EFL context, students‘ exposure to
English is limited, and the classroom is usually the only place they have the opportunity to use
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English. Thus, teachers‘ instructions and explanations may be the only language exposure during
which students learn to use language for communication (Suryati, 2013).
Mbato (2013) observed similar reasons for the limited effectiveness of EFL learning and
teaching in Indonesia. First, EFL learning mostly occurs in the classroom context, with English
learners having limited exposure to English for communicative purposes. Second, the only source of
learning is from the teachers and learning materials provided in class. Third, students learn English
because it is a compulsory part of school curriculum, and subsequently may not be motivated to
learn.
In summary, several factors appear to impede the success of teaching and learning EFL in
Indonesia. Teacher qualifications and low English proficiency, classroom size, students‘ motivation,
classroom-oriented learning, and limited sources of learning are factors that strongly influence EFL
teaching and learning success (Bradford, 2007; Kassing, 2011; Kirkpatrick, 2007; Sulistiyo, 2009;
Yulia, 2013).
teacher recruitment, this test is unsuitable for selecting candidates as professional teachers. In order
to overcome this, Muth‘im (2014) suggested using an additional process when recruiting teacher
candidates that requires them to design lesson plans based on the curriculum, and then use those
lesson plans to perform teaching practice in a real class. Thus, the recruitment is based both on the
results of the written test and teachers‘ ability to plan lessons and perform teaching in practice.
Muth‘im added that, once teachers have been chosen, maintaining, developing and improving their
abilities should be a focus of employment. Teachers‘ professional abilities must be continuously
developed through various activities, such as attending conferences or workshops about teaching,
and attending teacher association meetings that focus on improving the quality of their practice.
The Indonesian government‘s policy on EFL teaching has received some criticism from
research conducted in the areas of teacher competence, curriculum and English language teaching.
For example, Halim (2013) claimed that the concept of professional competence proposed by the
Indonesian government is too narrow and needs to be understood in the social context of teacher
professionalism. The government‘s concept of professional competence consists of grammatical,
linguistic, discourse and sociolinguistic competence, as well as being able to use English for
communication purposes in both written and spoken forms. However, Halim argued that, to be an
EFL teacher for students with different cultural backgrounds (in Indonesia), one‘s professional
competence must encompass a broad range of capabilities. It must include mastery of the materials to
be taught, knowledge of how to teach with the materials, a sense of responsibility, and a sense of
being a part of the teaching profession. This wider conception of professional competence focuses
more strongly on mastery of the subject matter, mastery of the pedagogy and social responsibility.
In addition, some policies and practices in the EFL classroom in Indonesia lack consistency
(Lie, 2007). In response to this problem, Lie (2007) stated that there is an urgent need to better inform
and advise policymakers about design, implementation and evaluation of the EFL curriculum. The
competence-based curriculum for English instruction in junior and senior high schools, referred to
earlier, seeks to provide exposure to English texts and to develop English competence to help
students access better jobs in the future (Lie, 2007). However, even though English is officially
taught to achieve this goal in Indonesia, the English competence of high school and university
graduates in Indonesia remains low (Sawir, 2005; Sulistiyo, 2009).
Lie (2007) pointed out that there are several constraints at work between language policy and
language teaching classroom practices in Indonesia. First, students have very different motivations
and background traits, which makes it difficult to design and resource a single curriculum that suits
all (or most) students across the country. Second, inadequate funds mean low wages for teachers,
poor resourcing and the likelihood of large class sizes. Low teacher salaries cause the majority of
teachers to work in additional jobs outside of school hours, which reduces the time they can allocate
to lesson preparation, efforts to improve teaching practices and undertaking development to enhance
their professional knowledge. Third, Lie (2007) stated that the influence of policy and curriculum
politics is a constraint to language learning. The Competence-Based Curriculum was created partly in
response to the growing and urgent call for decentralisation and more regional autonomy. This has
been implemented alongside the school-level curriculum (‗Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan‘),
and prescribes teaching competencies for students to acquire. As such, it sets minimal standards for
aspects such as teaching materials, and ways to meet the necessary standards. At the same time, the
Ministry of National Education has developed guidelines for schools to manage their own needs in
accordance with the expanding policy framework.
According to Lie (2007), there is inconsistency between the focus on competence and the
policy of implementing the national examinations in secondary high school levels. For example, the
average passing grade for the school subjects of mathematics, English and Indonesian for 2006/2007
was 4.25 out of 10. Pressures associated with this affect what teachers decide to do, irrespective of
what policy may require or direct them to do. Although teachers are provided with some capacity and
encouragement to develop and implement the curriculum based on interest and local need, the
national examination policy effectively forces teachers to teach English in a manner that will best
prepare students for the national examinations in their last year in school.
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Further, teachers must undertake pedagogical tasks, such as designing and planning teaching and
learning activities using various approaches and strategies—including information and
communication technology (ICT)—to support student learning. Teachers must be able to use various
techniques and approaches to enable students to learn independently and cooperatively within the
dynamics and challenges of contemporary classrooms (Australian Institute for Teaching and School
Leadership, 2011).
According to the National Law of Teachers and Lecturers (2005), a teacher must have
personal competencies, including being a role model for their students, possessing a good
personality, and having patience and understanding. These personal competencies are considered
important for assisting students‘ development. A study of effective teachers by Liando (2010)
suggested that teachers received higher student praise for displaying certain personal attributes than
they did for making lessons more interesting. In a study by Spitzer (2009), the participants rated
personal knowledge as the most important knowledge possessed by second language teachers. The
participants in Spitzer‘s study were American volunteers teaching English in Asia, who were asked
what personal qualities they relied on the most during their ESL teaching experience.
According to Marchbanks (2000), teachers require certain personality traits—such as being
passionate, patient, cooperative, authoritative and creative—in order to teach effectively. These types
of traits are needed to meet the higher responsibilities of contemporary teacher professionals in order
to teach, educate, discipline and stimulate students in their various phases of learning and
development. Similar to Marchbanks (2000), Murphy et al. (2004) stated that the personality traits of
successful teachers include being caring, patient, not boring, polite and organised.
In seeking to define the characteristics held by successful teachers upon graduation from
teacher education, Cripps-Clark and Walsh (2004) stated that effective teachers should have both
content and pedagogical knowledge, as well as teacher personal knowledge and knowledge of
context. Across the board, this type of personal knowledge is considered helpful for teachers to
engage both in the classrooms where they teach, and in the broader context of education where they
are professionally located, among various stakeholders.
Professional competence is referred to as the knowledge of subject matter that a teacher
needs to master, as well as strategies for its delivery to students. This competence encompasses the
ability to use various teaching aids so that the objectives of teaching and learning can be optimally
achieved (National Law of Teachers and Lecturers, 2005). The professional competence required by
the Indonesian government is similar to that encompassed by PCK, mentioned by Shulman (1987)
and Day and Conclin (1992). They stated that PCK is the knowledge of how to present subject matter
in a variety of ways that enables students to understand it. These professional competencies are at the
intersection of teachers‘ subject matter knowledge and pedagogical knowledge.
This is similar to other teacher professional standards internationally. For example, returning
to the Australian case, the Australian Institute of Teaching and School Leadership (2011) stated that
the professional knowledge of teachers includes teachers knowing their students and how they learn,
as well as knowing how to teach them. Teachers must hold and exercise knowledge of the learning
theories outlined in the pedagogical models that they use in their practice. Teachers are expected to
know and exercise principles of teaching, and design models for programs of learning that will
engage students in active learning. Teachers must also understand assessment and be able to exercise
this while implementing the curriculum to support student learning. In this example from Australia,
these ideas are embodied in the registration standards for beginning teachers (Australian Institute for
Teaching and School Leadership, 2011). The standards state that teachers must know the content
they teach, which means they must have ‗knowledge and understanding of the concepts, substance,
and structure of the content and teaching strategies of the teaching area‘, ‗be able to organize content
into an effective learning and teaching sequence‘ and ‗use curriculum, assessment and reporting
knowledge to design learning sequences and lesson plans‘ (Australian Institute for Teaching and
School Leadership, 2011, p. 10).
In Indonesia‘s National Law of Teachers and Lecturers (2005), it is recognised that, in
contributing to the relationship between schools and the community, teachers require good
communication skills and the ability to engage in social life. The school is viewed as critical in
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society as an agent of change, and that, as an educational institution, it must uphold the role of
fostering change in the society‘s culture in order to alter lifestyles now and in the future.
Internationally, the need for social skills among teachers is also discussed in the Australian
literature. According to the Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (2011), teachers
must be active members of their profession. This means that they must be aware of stakeholders,
industrial structures, career opportunities and the regulatory requirements that affect their profession.
They must understand the social, political and ethical dimensions of education and, within that
framework, must be able to articulate a vision or philosophy of the role of a teacher generally, and of
their work specifically.
language competence, content knowledge about language, and teaching skills. A survey was used to
elicit what the study respondents believed high school teachers of English in Indonesia should know
and be able to do. The participants were high school teachers of English, principals, faculty members,
teacher educators, supervisors and scholars with an English language teaching (ELT) background. In
addition, a performance task was developed to assess the competence dimensions of the teachers.
A teacher‘s ability to speak English well will benefit students in an EFL teaching context in
two ways. When this occurs, English is used as the classroom medium of instruction, and students are
exposed to their teachers as English language role models. English competence must distinguish
English teachers from other teachers. It is critical that student exposure to English language role
models occurs, as a defining feature of the EFL classroom.
Soepriyatna (2012) suggested that competent teachers must have language content
knowledge. Content knowledge enables teachers to help students cope with problems encountered
while learning and understanding the topics covered in lessons. Content knowledge includes aspects
such as grammar and the other features of language mastery that are necessary for students to build
communicative competence in their use of English. Soepriyatna also stated that English teachers
require another kind of knowledge—one that enables them to transfer content knowledge to students
effectively. In teaching generally, this includes knowledge of techniques relevant to the content
involved, which is what Shulman (1986) termed PCK. The findings from Soepriyatna‘s (2012) study
support Shulman‘s (1986) statement that an effective teacher has both subject content knowledge and
the ability to transfer this knowledge to students through considered use of appropriate teaching
techniques, adjusted to the contextual aspects of their class. For EFL teaching in Indonesia, this
knowledge must be developed to align with typical Indonesian classrooms—a context where large
numbers of students are in the classroom.
Another conclusion to be drawn is that motivation is an important factor in student
engagement, and teachers must develop abilities and skills to stimulate interest in their students. For
example, during lesson preparation, teachers must foster student engagement with carefully designed
and clearly stated communicative competence intentions. One way of doing this is by outlining
standards that students must meet, and the procedures for assessing performance that will
demonstrate these standards. In addition, teachers must be able to create an atmosphere in their
classroom that is conducive to student learning. In order to achieve this, competent teachers use a
variety of techniques to accommodate and facilitate various learning styles.
To improve and maintain quality with EFL teacher competence in Indonesia, programs such
as lesson study and teacher professional development could be useful for teachers to undertake.
Lesson study is considered an effective approach for professional development and school
improvement in Indonesia (Suratno, 2012). According to Perry and Lewis (2009), lesson study is a
cycle of instructional improvement that involves teachers in active learning about the teaching
content. It is an intensive, collaborative and practice-based activity that strengthens the professional
community and improves use of teaching and learning resources. In the lesson study program,
teachers observe each other‘s classroom practices and work together to refine individual lessons in
order to build strong connections between teachers‘ learning about content and students‘ learning
outcomes (Suratno, 2012).
In relation to EFL teachers‘ professional competence, Cahyono (2014) conducted research
examining the implementation of lesson study in Indonesia. The lesson study in Cahyono‘s
investigation sought to improve EFL teachers‘ pedagogical content competencies in teaching and
learning with senior high schools in Southern East Java. It focused on how EFL teacher training and
EFL supervision programs could be implemented to improve pedagogical content competencies. In
this manner, the lesson study served as a supportive vehicle for teacher learning. The findings
showed that lesson study was useful in helping teachers develop their PCK. Moreover, the
participants of the study argued that teacher training and EFL supervision helped them better
understand how to apply PCK to design and implement instructional materials. Cahyono‘s study
suggested that language teachers should and can improve their pedagogical content competence
continuously in order to help students meet curriculum requirements. It emphasised the importance
of lesson study as a platform for sustaining teachers‘ learning in order to develop and improve
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pedagogical content competence. The implication to be drawn from the study findings is that teacher
professional development and teacher learning activities must affect teacher quality and student
learning.
Programs for teacher professional development—such as lesson study—are considered
essential to improving teachers‘ competence. According to Richards and Farrel (2005), from an
individual teacher‘s perspective, improving teaching skills to develop confidence regarding the
teaching material will lead to better results for students. They stated that areas for teacher
professional development include subject matter knowledge, pedagogical expertise, self-awareness,
understanding of learners, understanding of the curriculum and materials, and plans for career
advancement. The scope and implementation of teacher professional development in Indonesia has
been investigated by several scholars. For example, Irmawati (2014) proposed that models of EFL
teacher professional development must be linked to visions for EFL teacher professionalism in an
Indonesian context.
While ‗teacher professional development‘ is a term used to describe the continuing process
of teacher improvement, in the context of EFL teachers, the term is specifically used to refer to the
process in which teachers increase their English skills and propositional and procedural EFL
knowledge sets.. In response to the essential role of EFL teachers, models of teacher professional
development proposed by Irmawati (2014) must cover two areas:
propositional knowledge—encompassing the content subject that teachers teach,
such as the English materials they use
procedural knowledge—related to the processes, procedures and strategies that help
teachers perform teaching tasks.
One specific model of teacher professional development includes implementing a ‗critical friends
group‘, which involves teachers as researchers working with material development activities, where
experts are invited into school contexts to join these training and development programs (Irmawati,
2014). All these proposed models seek to help teachers build English competence and
English-teaching skills. They also aim to create a change in mindset in relation to strengthening
teachers‘ identity as English teachers by implementing these models of professional development.
Irmawati (2014) also stated that models that involve colleagues giving feedback and
suggestions to each other benefit teachers in many ways. First, teachers gain more objective feedback
to enable reflection on their teaching practice, and this objective feedback broadens the ways they
can think about how to teach more successfully. Second, teachers can share ideas related to
applicable techniques to use more effective and interesting materials during their teaching practice.
Having teachers conduct research—particularly action research—is useful because it enables them to
identify problems that occur in their own classroom contexts. They are able to build skills and
knowledge regarding ways to solve their students‘ problems during the learning process. Additional
benefits to those from implementing actions following reflection include improved writing skills
gained from reporting their research in written form.
6. CONCLUSION
In summary, in EFL teaching and learning contexts, teacher competence is essential to
facilitating successful English exposure and learning during classroom activities. English language
instruction is really needed by students in EFL learning context to maximize the language exposure.
So, teachers‘ proficiency in spoken language as the model for students in class has become critical
issue in language learning in Indonesia.
A number of Indonesian scholars are aware of this importance—for example, Soepriyatna
(2012) identified the domains of EFL teachers‘ competence in Indonesia. These domains can inform
teacher education programs to design the curriculum in ways that align with the needs of EFL
teachers during their classroom preparation. By doing so, teacher education programs can improve
the quality of their graduates before they enter the teaching profession at schools.
REFERENCES
(AITSL), Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership. "Australian National Professional
Standards for Teachers." (2011). 4 March, 2013 <http://www.aitsl.edu.au/>.
Andersen, R. W. "Models, Processes, Principles and Strategies: Second Language Acquisition inside
and Outside the Classroom." Second Language Acquisition-Foreign Language Learning.
Eds. Patten, V and J. F Lee. Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters Ltd, 1990. Print.
Berns, M (1990). "'Second' and 'Foreign' in Second Language Acquisition/Foreign Language
Learning: A Sociolinguistic Perspective." Second Language Acquisition-Foreign Language
Acquisition-Foreign Language Learning. Eds. Patten, V and J. F Lee. Philadelphia:
Multilingual Matters, Ltd, 1990. Print.
Bradford, A. "Motivational Orientations in under-Researched Fll Contexts: Finding from Indonesia."
RELC Journal 38.3 (2007): 302-23. Print.
Cahyono, B. Y. "Quality of Indonesian Efl Teachers: The Implementation of Lesson Study to
Improve Teacher Pedagogical Content Competence." Recent Issues in English Language
Education. Eds. Widodo, H and N Zacharias. Surakarta: UNS Press, 2014. 65-88. Print.
Cripps-Clark, J, and J Walsh. "Elements of a Model of Effective Teachers." The Australian
Association for Research in Education (2004). <March 2, 2012
http://www.aare.edu/au/02pap/wa/02220.htm>.
Cross, D. "Language Teacher Preparation in Developing Countries: Structuring Pre-Service Teacher
Training Program." English Teaching Forum 41.4 (2003): 41-43. Print.
Darling-Hammond, L. "Assessing Teacher Education: The Usefulness of Multiple Measures for
Assessing Program Outcomes." Journal of Teacher Education 57 No.2.March-April (2006):
120-38. Print.
Darling-Hammond, L, et al. "Implementing Curriculum Renewal in Teacher Education:Managing
Organizational and Policy Change." Preparing Teachers for a Changing World. Eds.
Darling-Hammond, L and A Bamford. CA: John Willey & sons Inc, 2005. Print.
Day, R, and G Conklin. "The Knowledge Base in Esl/Efl Teacher Education." 1992. Print.
Irmawati. Models of Tefl Teachers' Professional Development. TEFLIN International Conference.
2014. Print.
Kassing, R.B. "Perceptions of Motivational Teaching Strategies in an Efl Classroom: The Case of a
Class in a Private University in Indonesia." Victoria University of Wellington, 2011. Print.
Kirkpatrick, A. World Englishes: Implications for International Communication and English
Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Print.
Krashen, S. D. Principles and Practices in Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press,
1982. Print.
Krashen, S. D. Language Acquisition and Language Education. UK: Prentice Hall International Inc,
1989. Print.
Lengkenawati, N. S. "Efl Teachers' Competence in the Context of English Curriculum 2004:
Implication for Efl Teacher Education." TEFLIN Journal 16.1 (2005). Print.
Liando, N. V. F. "Students' Vs Teachers' Perspectives on Best Teacher Characteristics in Efl
Classrooms." TEFLIN Journal 21.2 (2010). Print.
Lie, A. "Education Policy and Efl Curriculum in Indonesia: Between the Commitment to
Competence and the Quest for Higher Scores." TEFLIN Journal 18.1 (2007): 1-14. Print.
Marcellino, M. "Designing a Practical Teaching Module for Indonesian Young Learners: Some
Insights." Bali, 2008. Print.
Marchbanks, P. "Personality Traits: Elementary School Teachers - Prospective Elementary School
Teachers: Are They out There?" (2000).
<http://www.unc.edu/courses/2004spring/engl/012/054/PDF%20files/Sample%20Papers/U
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Mbato, C.L. "Facilitating Efl Learners' Self Regulation in Reading: Implementing a Metacognitive
Approach in an Indonesian Higher Education Context." Southern Cross University, 2013.
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Muth‘im. Reformation in Teachers' Recruitment in the Effort of Developing Teachers'
Professionalism. TEFLIN International Conference. 2014. Print.
Oxford, R.L, and J Shearin. "Language Learning Motivation: Expanding the Theoretical
Framework." The Modern language Journal 78 (1994): 12-28. Print.
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Absract:
Directives, apart from declaratives and interrogatives, are forms of teacher – student interactions
which are important in second language learning. Forms of directives the classroom teachers apply
during the classroom interactions, especially in high schools, determine the colors of the
teaching-learning activities conducted in classroom. This study intends to figure out the nature of
directives used by novice teachers during their teaching practice teaching in high schools in Jakarta.
The types of directives the novice teachers apply will be analyzed using the grammatical
perspectives. Drawing from the theory on the types and functions of directives proposed by Holmes
(1983) and Mauri and Sauza (2012), this study will also try to find out whether certain types of
directives are more preferable than the others and how the novice teachers utilize the types in
creating the more conducive learning environment. The discussion of the types as well as the
functions of directives will hopefully give a richer insight into the possible directives the novice
teachers may apply in their classes. The proper choice of the directives used will eventually play an
important role in the success of the practicum as well as the second language teaching.
1. INTRODUCTION
Directives are forms of language which cannot be separated from language classroom
interactions. Teachers ask students to repeat words or phrases, to form groups, or to do certain
assignments using directives. Moreover, teachers also use directive to gain some information from
the students. Directives play an essential role in the realization of the teaching-learning activities and
interactions. Activities in all phases and processes in the foreign language classrooms will involve
directives. Teachers use directives to give instructions, to manage classroom behaviors and other
similar tasks (Ellis, 1992; Nikula , 2002; Kaanta, 2004; Wrench, J.S., Richmond, V.P., & Gorhan, J.
2009).). How teachers realize their functions as managers, controllers, or instructors is fascinating
but not easy to describe (Kaanta, 2004; Dalton-Puffer, 2005). The present study intends to reveal the
types of directives foreign language teachers use in their classrooms and how they apply the types in
the teaching learning interactions. This stud y is limited to the practice teaching of student-teachers
doing in various high schools in Jakarta. This study is hopefully significant for foreign language
teachers since they will more realize that there are various types of directives they can use in making
the teaching learning more successful and the environment more interesting.
2. DIRECTIVES
Directives are the whole speech acts directed by a speaker whose primary function is to get
the listener to do or perform a certain action (Ellis, 1992; Searle, 1976). In foreign language classes,
directives can be used to manage classroom situations, to start an interaction between the teacher and
the students or between the students themselves, and to instruct or inform the students to do
something.
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3. METHODOLOGY
The data were directives which were recorded during the practice teaching of ten (10)
student-teachers in teaching English as a foreign language in five (5) different high schools in
Jakarta. There were eighteen to thirty one students in each of the classes and they were between
thirteen to sixteen years old. All of the classes were equipped with LCDs and LCD screens, however,
two of the classrooms are not air conditioned. The recording took nine hundred (900) minutes and the
directives were identified and categorized using Holmes‘ (1983) Teacher Directive Table. The
frequencies of each type of the directives found were counted and functions of the directives were
also discussed.
4. FINDINGS
The following discussion will cover the types of directives and the functions of directives.
Types of directives:
This present study shows that there are 1585 cases of directives found during the 900 minute
recording of the practice teaching of the participants. Table 1 below shows the types of directives and
their frequencies.
Table 1: Types and Frequencies of Directives Used in the Classes (Holmes, 1983)
Types of directives Forms and examples Frequency
Imperatives - Base form of verbs: ‗ Speak 541
louder‘ 198
- You/Name + Verb: ‗You, do
number 10‘; ‗Sinta, stop.‘ 8
- Present participle verbs: ‗Smiling,
smiling‘ 6
- Verb ellipsis: ‗Your hands up‘ 472
- Verb + modifier: ‗Come here
please Jo‘ 153
- Let + 1 person pronoun:‘Let‘s
st
read together.‘
Interrogatives - Using modals: ‗Would you read 66
the next line?‘
- Non – modals: ‘Have you 12
finished?‘ (Implied: ‗Stop
talking!‘}
Declarative - Embedded agent: ‗I want you to 21
open page 26.‘
- Hints: ‗I am sure, Usman can give 8
another example.‘
Total 1585
Other types of directives:
Besides the types of directive mentioned above, the data show that the student-teachers also apply
different forms of directives:
- All the student-teachers often call he students‘ names to ask them to perform certain action;
T: Lilies! (The teacher asks Lilies to come up to the front of the class to write her
answer)
There are hundreds of cases of this like in the data, however, there is not any grammatical
explanation for such forms
- Two of the student-teachers use expressions: ‗Hello‘ or ‗Hello there‘ to ask the students to
stop making a lot of noise and pay attention to the following instructions.
There are twelve cases of this form found in the recording
It can be seen in the above explanation that although no verbs are used in the directives, apparently
circumstances help the students understand what the teachers mean by the utterance; therefore, they
perform actions as they are supposed to. (Coulmas, F, 2005; Wrench, J.S., Richmond, V.P., &
Gorhan, J. , 2009).
This shows that in the classroom teachers are able use various forms of directives both the
types mentioned by Holmes (1983) and the possible means of giving directive such as the single
word utterances. Beside having a complete mastery of the linguistic forms of directives, teachers
should also have to be sensitive looking at the classroom atmosphere and the students‘ conditions to
be able to pick up the most appropriate directives, so that the intended goal of giving the directives
can be achieved and the conducive classroom can be created. Teachers‘ creativity plays an important
role in making the use of directives effective.
Functions of directives
The implementation of directive utterances depends very much on the intended meanings the
teachers want to pass on the students. Looking at the intended meanings or what the teacher want the
students to do, directives may have the following functions (Coulmas, F, 2005; Wrench, J.S.,
Richmond, V.P., & Gorhan, J. 2009; and Suparno, 2013).
First, teachers give directives to the students ask the students to do something. In any
classroom situation, the position of the teachers is higher than the students‘. As the manager,
controller, or director of the class, teachers have stronger power or rights in handling the class and the
students. However, the stronger position does not always determine the essence of the directive
giving. In some cases, teachers do not impose the power on the students, instead the teachers ask
them something which makes them perform certain actions. In asking the students the directives
usually in the interrogative forms with or without question words.
Example:
T: Timothy, What about the second answer?
S: The second answer is correct.
(The teacher actually asks the students to mention which answer is correct)
Ordering: This is the strongest form of imperative because in giving this type of directive the teachers
impose their power and rights as teachers who are higher than the students‘. Imperative is the
common form of giving this kind of imperative.
Example:
T: Repeat after me: ‗lake‘
S: ‗lake‘ (The student repeat the word)
Requesting. This form of directive shows that the teacher respects the students by requesting them to
do something. Interrogative is the form the class teachers use in giving this type of directives.
Example:
T: Would you write your answers on your note book?
S: Ok, mam. (The students write the answers on their note book)
Inviting is the next function of directives. To reach its goal the teachers, to make students do
something, invite the students to perform certain actions together, and because the directives suggest
the participation of the speaker in performing the action; therefore, ‗Let + 1st person pronoun‘ is the
type of directives used by the teachers to reach the intended message.
Example:
T: Let‘s discuss the answers.
S: ….. (join the discussion of the answers)
Suggesting is a function of directives in which the teacher as the directive giver proposes something
to the students. The type of the directive usually used by the teacher in giving this kind of meaning is
interrogative using a question word: ‗What about‘; ‗How about ‗; ‗Why don‘t you‖
For example:
T: What about doing Exercise A first?
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For example:
T: You can join this group, Amelia?
S: Ok, sir. (The student moves and joins the group)
The next function of directives is offering. Here, the teacher asks the students to do something by
offering something. Declarative type of directive is commonly used to rxpress this intended message.
For example:
T: Joko, There is enough space on this board.
(Joko writes the sentence on the space the teacher showed.)
6. CONCLUSION
Directives can be given in imperative, interrogative, and declarative types. Language
teachers in class should be able to utilize the available forms and pick up the appropriate type in
conveying the message. Teachers, especially student-teachers, should have a good mastery of
English to be able to use all the type at ease. Being able to use various types of directive is a means of
measuring their professionalism.
Teachers use directive for various functions: asking, ordering, requesting, inviting,
suggesting, permitting, and offering. They have to realize both the types and functions of directives
to ensure the existence of conducive atmosphere in classrooms. Student-teachers have not got enough
teaching experience. They should learn them all in their teacher training program to ensure the best
result of their practice teaching.
Giving directives is not imposing power from the teachers to the students. Using less direct
directives (interrogative and declarative types) will bridge the gap and help teachers build better
relation with the students which finally make the teaching and learning activities more enjoyable, and
the objectives of the English language classes will be reached
Action responses are common in classes, however, in English language verbal responses
should also get the attention of the teachers as the managers and planners. It would be much more
desirable if the students can give both action and longer verbal responses to the directives given
REFERENCES
Coulmas, F. (2005). Sociolinguistics, the study of speakers‘ choices. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Dalton-Puffer, C., & Nikula, T. (2006). Pragmatics of content-based instruction: Teacher and student
directives in Finnish and Austrian classrooms. Applied Linguistics, 27(2), 241–267.
Ellis, R (1992. Learning to communicate in the classroom: A study of two learners‘s requests. Studies
in Second Language Acquisition. 14, 1-23
Holmes, J. (1983). The structure of teachers‘ directives. In Richards, J. and Scchmidts, R. (eds.)
Language and Communication. England: Longman
Suparno (2013). Teacher‘s Directives Utterances in English Classes. 4 (22), 134-140. Retrieved
March 2016 from www.iiste.org/Journal/index.php/JEP/article/download/8337/8672
Wrench, J.S., Richmond, V.P., & Gorhan, J. (2009). Communication, affect & learning in the
classroom. Acton: Tapestry Press.
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Veni Roza
IAIN Bukittinggi
veniroz_501@yahoo.com
Abstract
Grammar as a micro skill is often deemed as a difficult and boring subject in learning a language
inasmuch as it is a study of number of patterns or rules. This judgment unconsciously causes the
difficulty for learners to learn in spite of it has been learned in several levels. To cope with this
problem, Grammar Consciousness Raising Task (GCRT) strategy was used to help English
Education Department students in order to master grammar. The procedure in GCRT includes
discovery, consolidation, and use. In this research paper, the researcher explained that the GCRT
strategy was effective to be used in grammar class, seen from the students‘ test results which was
78,9% and it is categorized into effective based on the effectiveness scale.
1. INTRODUCTION
It is believed that the knowledge of grammar could significantly assist language learners in
comprehending and acquiring the target language. It could provide them with the insights of how the
linguistic elements of target language work to form meaningful and acceptable use of the language.
As proposed by Weaver (1996), grammar gives students the description of how words are combined
into meaningful syntactic structure, which enables them to understand and produce the language
described. Therefore, the study of grammar should not likely be abandoned in the process of teaching
a foreign language including English.
Despite of being long debated, Grammar is still important to be taught in EFL class. The
learnability of language is deeply rooted from the systematic rules in the language which is known as
grammar. Without explaining grammatical rules, students will likely be hard to distinguish which
utterances are acceptable and which are not. For example, students having no knowledge and
learning experience of grammar might say ―Study you night last?‖ instead of ―Did you study last
night?‖
In addition, the knowledge of grammar is main support for communicative competence, i.e
linguistic competence. Celce-Murcia et.al (1995) propose that communicative competence is
practically unusable unless it is supported by other competences such as linguistic competence,
sociolinguistic competence, strategic competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse
competence, and pragmatic competence. Among these five competences, linguistic competence
seems to be the most crucial one as it contains the knowledge of linguistic elements, grammar, and
vocabulary. Absence of this competence will make acquisition impossible since students do not
understand the input from what they read, and they hear. Moreover, lack knowledge of grammar
makes students‘ language production sound ignorant and difficult to understand.
over grammar. Teaching material is designed based on grammatical point. In the classroom, teacher
exposes students to grammar, training them with many exercises and memorizing rules, which seems
to be impractical in daily communication. Eventually, the grammar instruction given in this method
only brings students to know the rules but not to know how to use them since the concept of
communicative ability was abandoned in GTM.
The failure of GTM brought the controversy over the grammar instruction within EFL
framework. Some suggest that grammar instruction should be neglected in the language teaching;
others maintain its necessity. Those in the favor of neglecting the importance of teaching grammar
claim many FL students who have been studying grammatical rules for long period of time cannot
use them. Hence, they conclude that grammar instruction is not necessary to help students gain
mastery over the target language.
Despite these counter arguments against the grammar instruction, many still consider that
grammar is still needed to be taught to the students. White (1987) claimed that grammar instruction is
still necessary as some grammatical points cannot be acquired through exposure only. Language
consists of a large number of syntactic points some of which students cannot master just through
experiencing language, direct instruction is still needed. In addition, Larsen-Freeman (1997)
proposed that even though grammar can naturally be acquired, it does not mean teaching grammar is
insignificant. In fact, formal instruction can enhance the acquisition of grammar and speed up the
process. In other word, Larsen-Freeman attempts to compromise the proponent and opponent of
grammar instruction by suggesting that students can expose themselves to language as well as learn
grammar since these two processes can be mutually helpful.
Although the failure of grammar instruction to lead students be able to use the language is
evident in the EFL field, the blame should not be cast over the grammar itself but over how the
grammar is presented in the instructional process. It can be seen in the EFL fields that grammar is
taught from the traditional view. Newby (1998) suggested that traditional grammar sees a language
as a set of forms and structures. The sentence is main unit of analysis and emphasis is placed on the
students‘ ability to form sentence correctly. The importance of communication is negated in this kind
of instruction since the most common form of grammar exercises given is gapped sentences and
sentences formation rather than contextual use of grammar.
One of the ways proposed to deal with this problem is consciousness raising. This approach
views a language can only be acquired in which the teacher takes role as a facilitator of this process.
Hence, grammatical rules given by the teacher gives way to discovery technique and
awareness-raising task by the pupils. In other words, the students try to discover the rules on their
own.
The notion of consciousness raising or C R is also influenced from the view of language
awareness. Many teachers and researchers in the field of EFL argue that awareness, attention and
noticing are particular features of language which add to learning. Smith (1981) said, ―the teaching of
formal aspects of language need not necessarily proceed by rules and drills, but can be done by
judiciously highlighting relevant aspects of language.‖ This notion suggests that in the process of
grammar instruction the teacher sometimes need to point out certain aspect of language in order to
provide clarity.
Ellis (2002) defined CR as an attempt to equip learners with an understanding of a specific
grammatical feature to develop declarative knowledge (describing a rule of grammar and applying it
in pattern practice drills) rather than procedural one (applying a rule of grammar in communication).
Richards, Plat and Plat (1992: 78) defined CR in Widodo(2006) as an approach to the teaching of
grammar in which instruction in grammar through drills, grammar explanation, and other
form-focused activities is viewed as a way of raising learner‘s awareness of grammatical features of
the language. This is thought to indirectly facilitate second language acquisition. A CR approach is
contrasted with traditional approaches to the teaching of grammar in which the goal is to instill
correct grammatical patterns and habits directly.
2. Grammar Consciousness Raising Task (GCRT) in Teaching EFL Grammar
GCRT is a set of activities designed to bring up students‘ language awareness. This task was
firstly introduced by Sharwood (1981) and Rutherford (1988). The purpose of this task, in their view,
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is to make students aware of specific grammatical features using task without immediate demanding
to produce the target structure. The notion of GCRT to raise students‘ awareness of target language is
also proposed by Svalberg (2009) who said that the immediate objective of CR tasks is to help
students‘ notice something about the language that they are unable to notice on their own. CR tasks
can help them build their conscious knowledge and understanding of how language works.
Gerngross et.al (2006) provided three divided stages of awareness raising activities
discovery, consolidation, and use. At glance, these three divisions quite resemble traditional PPP
format: presentation, practice, and production. However, the concept underlying the terms is
different.
a. Discovery
Unlike in presentation, discovery stage will make learning much less mechanistic and much
more learner directed than the PPP model.
b. Consolidation
Activities in consolidation is not to force students to speak before they are ready as in ‗practice‘, but
the activities given focused on students understanding on the tasks without demanding them to speak.
c. Use
The final step is use in which learners are required to put the new item to work in ways that are
relevant to them.
Furthermore, Gerngross et.al proposed the following activities that can be used in CGRT:
a) Lead in activities
These activities aim to prepare students with the material by introducing the topic
discussed, reviewing vocabulary and bringing up their language awareness.
b) Presentation of model text
Mode texts used are commonly shortly written text presenting the target structure
discussed along with its meaning, form, and use. Text presentation can familiarize
student with how the target structure used and it can be done by dictation or
projector.
c) Reconstruction of model text
This step can be done both in oral and in written tasks which remind students with
text model presented before, especially the contents related to the target grammatical
feature. Through reconstructing the text, it is expected that the students are able to
understand the target structure as well as to use it accurately.
d) Text creation
This is the final step in which the students create their own text based on the model
text previously given. In this step, students likely need many vocabularies and
teachers are expected to provide them with the new words needed. Writing a text can
make students be more focus on grammatical accuracy as they have time to edit,
correct, and revise what they have written.
Willis and Willis also proposed C R activities that can be used in raising students‘ language
awareness. There are six activities they propose as follows:
a) Identify/consolidate
Students are asked to search of data to identify a particular pattern or usage and the
language forms associated with it.
b) Classify
Students are required to work with a set of data and sort it according to similarities
and differences based on formal and semantic criteria.
c) Hypothesis building/checking
Students are given a generalization about language and asked to check this against
more language data.
d) Cross language exploration
Students are encouraged to find similarities and differences between patterning in
their own language and patterning in English.
e) Reconstruction/deconstruction
4. CONCLUSION
To conclude, the use of Grammar Consciousness-Raising Task (GCRT) strategy in teaching
grammar was effective based on the results gotten from the students‘ test results which was 78,9%.
The rating scale shows that 78,9% lies on the range 72-89% and it is effective.
REFERENCES
Andrews, S. 2007. Teacher Language Awareness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Celce-Murcia, M. 1995. Communicative Competence: A Pedagogically Motivated Model with
Content Specification
Ellis, R. 1993. Second language acquistion research: how does it help teachers? An Interview with
Rod Ellis. ELT Journal Vol. 47/1. OUP
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Wahyudi
STIKes Payung Negeri Pekanbaru
wahyudi_lti@yahoo.com
Abstract
The absence of English learning materials containing nursing topics is one of the factors that cause
the students‘ low mastery of English for Nursing Purposes. Thus, the learning materials need to be
developed. The ADDIE model covering the phases of analysis, designing, developing, and
implementation, was used to produce the content-based learning materials for nursing students of
STIKes Payung Negeri Pekanbaru. Evaluation phase, however, was excluded for further research to
find out the effectiveness of the product. Those phases were to explore the students‘ needs; to design
learning materials; to develop the design and to find out its validity; and to find out the practicality of
the product. The respondents were the head of nursing program, lecturers, nursing students, and the
experts of nursing contents and material development. The instruments were a set of needs analysis
questionnaire, validation checklists, and questionnaire of product practicality. The findings
indicated the real needs of nursing students that they prefer learning English for Nursing Purposes to
General English. The nursing topics that they wanted most to learn were related to hospital, nursing
care, medical treatment, diseases, and medicines. The experts‘ validations approved that the product
was very valid and it was proved practical in implementation phase. It is suggested that the nursing
content-based learning materials can be used to improve students‘ mastery of English for Nursing
Purposes.
Keywords: material development, content-based approach, Needs Analysis (NA) and English for
Nursing Purposes (ENP)
1. INTRODUCTION
Low mastery of English for Nursing Purposes is one of the factors to cause students‘ low
mastery in comprehending the trilogy-nursing handbooks – Nursing Diagnosis: Definition and
Classification (NANDA), Nursing Interventions Classification (NIC), and Nursing Outcomes
Classification (NOC). Those books are the sources where the nursing students can absorb the basic
knowledge of nursing. Unfortunately, they found difficulty in comprehending specific nursing
subjects as they consist of nursing terminologies which are mostly written in English. It was proved
by the data taken from a test given to the third year students of STIKes Payung Negeri Pekanbaru
who would take an internship-in-hospital practice. The test was held on January 15, 2015 for three
classes that consist of 117 students. It was designed to find out the students‘ English vocabulary
mastery related to 1) hospital team – people who work around the hospital and 2) their job
description; and 3) expressions used for admitting and diagnosing patients. The test result showed
that the students‘ average score was only 57.8 which was categorized in grade D.
Like a chain of failure, the students‘ failures in mastering nursing subject as the consequence
of low mastery of ENP are likely to cause another failure to win a job market competition of working
in an international standard hospital or to work overseas. Consequently, they are potentially
unemployed. To keep away from such phenomena, the significance of improving students‘ masteries
of English for Nursing Purposes in a nursing school is a must. Lee (1987:56) emphasizes that ‗it is
important for nursing students to have access to the course of English for Nursing Purposes,
especially those who want to work in big cities‘. Therefore, every nursing school in Pekanbaru takes
English in an account of compulsory subjects. However, most of nursing schools in Pekanbaru,
especially STIKes Payung Negeri did not have a standard learning material containing nursing
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topics. Even though a team of English lecturers in that school has designed a course syllabus, it was
mostly dominated by the discussion of grammar and topics related to learning English for General
Purposes. Besides, competence standards defined in the course syllabus didn‘t seem to be in line with
the topic discussions presented in each meeting. For example, the topic discussions are related to
name of things, expressions in greeting, introduction to interview, simple tenses, passive voice,
degree of comparison, and how to get point from a song. Based on those topics, it was found in the
syllabus that the competence standards that should be achieved by the students were the ability to
perform a presentation, to speak English with correct pronunciation, to speak English in a drama
performance, to retell important ideas of scientific nursing articles, and to write a 400-word
paragraph. It is obvious that the defined competence standards are not in line with the topic
discussions. It was assumed that such condition was caused by designing course syllabus without
performing a needs analysis. Consequently, each lecturer in the team tends to pick learning materials
on the basis of his/her own preferences.
Based on the data of students‘ low mastery of English for Nursing Purposes and the
inappropriate application of competence standards and topic discussions in the course syllabus, it is
quite reasonable that the students have limited ability in using English for Nursing for academic and
working purposes.
For this reason, the writer carried out a study concerning on developing English learning
materials based on content-based approach. It can be an alternative solution at least for three reasons.
First, content-based approach is appropriate to be used in a vocational school or at a university level
school such as nursing school in which the learners are prepared to master English for academic and
job related purposes (Davies, 2003:2). According to Snow (in Villalobos, 2013:72), content is the use
of subject matters that may consist of topics or themes based interest or need in an adult EFL setting,
or it may be very specific, such as the subject that the students are currently studying. The second
reason is that the content-based syllabus can be developed in accordance with the principle of ESP
(Chen, 2015:1) in this case, English for nursing academic and working purposes. The third reason is
that content-based approach yields an increase in intrinsic motivation and empowerment seeing that
the students are focused on subject matter that is important to their lives (Brown, 2007:49).
To find out the connection between CBI and the work of developing English learning materials and
how it works theoretically to help the success of language learning for the nursing students, it is
important to explore the principles of CBI. Richards and Rodgers (2001:207) claim that there are two
central principles as ground principles in CBI. They firstly state that ‗people learn a second language
more successfully when they use the language as a means of acquiring information, rather than as an
end itself‘. Secondly, they state that CBI better reflects learners‘ needs for learning a second or a
foreign language. These two principles reveal that CBI leads to more effective language learning and
it meets the students‘ needs.
Therefore, content-based approach seemed appropriate to be used as a framework of
developing English learning materials for Nursing Purposes. It was proved by Hussin (2002:22-39)
who could outline the curriculum of learning English for nursing purposes. More specifically, the
mastery of English for the needs of academic nursing skills and clinical skills, on her study, Hussin
(in Orr, 2002:37) defines the language tasks and skills in the clinical settings to be a curriculum of
English language learning program for Nursing Purposes.
The language tasks and skills mentioned in the curriculum are the guide in identifying
nursing topics and texts used in the instruments of this study. She identified numerous language tasks
that nurses must successfully complete in the clinical settings: (1) taking a nursing history of the
patient; (2) writing nursing care plans; (3) giving and receiving change-of-shift reports or handovers;
(4) writing progress notes, discharge summaries, incident reports, and referral letters; (5) making and
receiving phone calls; (6) using language while providing nursing care; (7) teaching patients and
families about health - care topics and how to provide care after discharge; and (8) participating in
team meetings about patients.
To complete those tasks with patients and family members, Hussin (in Orr, 2002:38)
identified a variety of informational and interpersonal language skills that nurses need to use. The
informational skills nurses need are interviewing techniques, giving instructions, asking for
cooperation, checking readiness, explaining medical information in language that is easy to
understand, explaining procedures, asking for permission, giving feedback, understanding colloquial
language, and teaching techniques.
To complete those tasks with colleagues, nurses need some of the same informational skills,
but additional ones as well: giving instructions and explanations of procedures, as well as
understanding them; understanding and giving directions; asking for repetition and clarification;
asking for assistance and explanation; checking for readiness; understanding and presenting verbal
information; making and receiving telephone calls; accurately conveying telephone messages; using
appropriate medical terminology; completing, reading, and interpreting routine forms, charts, and
instructions; completing medical histories; reading and interpreting medical records and histories;
writing, reading, and interpreting notes and summaries; writing, reading and interpreting nursing care
plans; and writing, reading, and interpreting letters and reports. Because so much of nursing involves
establishing a relationship with patients, the nurses‘ interpersonal use of English is also very
important. The language tasks and skills needed for interpersonal communication in nursing include
expressing empathy; offering reassurance; interpreting nonverbal cues; using attending behaviors,
nonverbal communication, reflective listening techniques, and clarification devices; paraphrasing;
summarizing; using assertive responses; and expressing personal opinion (Hussin in Orr, 2002:39).
Based on the clinical situations, nursing contents, tasks and practices mentioned above, the
writer believes that not all of them can be applied instantly for his nursing students. Therefore, to
meet the appropriate contents, tasks and practices and ways of learning to his students‘ needs, it was
essential that the writer initiated an activity so called Needs Analysis (NA).
The theory used as the guide in performing NA is the concept defined by Dudley-Evans and St. John
(1998:125). It covers the analysis of 8 aspects related to wants, means, subjective needs analysis;
present situation analysis; target situation analysis and objectives needs; lacks analysis; learning
needs; linguistics analysis, discourse analysis, genre analysis; what is wanted from the course; and
means analysis.
In addition to the concept of NA, another important literature to be reviewed is the concepts
of syllabus design. The one that is appropriate with the application of content-based approach in this
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study is topical-or content-based syllabus. Richards (2001:157) claims that ‗with topical or
content-based syllabus, content rather than grammar, functions, or situations is the starting point in
syllabus design‘. Besides, Chen (2015:1) mentions that the concept of content-based syllabus can be
developed in accordance with the principle of ESP, in this case for nursing purposes. He states that
the crucial point in designing content-based syllabus is to let learners understand the relationship
between language and content.
In addition, Brinton, Snow, Wesche, and Mohan (in Richards, 2001:158) in detail claim that
the advantages of content-based syllabuses are:
…1) they facilitate comprehension; 2) content makes linguistic form more meaningful; 3) content serves as the
best basis for teaching the skill areas; 4) they address the learner‘s needs; 5) they motivate learners; 6) they
allow interaction of the four skills; and 7) they allow for use of authentic materials.
Based on the advantages, the writer believes that content-based syllabus will be of great
benefit to the learners as they are studying not only language structures but also specific contents in
nursing field. Besides, it enables them to master specific nursing skill as it is discussed through
contents or topics related to nursing that they mostly recognize. Then, the use of authentic materials
in nursing context will lead them to prepare skills for working purposes.
In line with the importance of content mentioned in the concept above, Nunan (1991:216)
states the urgency of selecting topic in developing materials as the application of content-based
syllabus. He provides a procedure of developing teaching materials that covers the activities of
selecting topics; collecting data; determining what learners will need to do in relation to texts;
creating pedagogical activities/procedures; analyzing texts and activities to determine the language
elements; creating activities focusing on language elements; creating activities focusing on learning
skills/strategies, and creating application tasks.
The procedure mentioned above is followed by designing and developing materials to be
printed in a handout model. It was based on the premise of that handout is one of interesting,
attractive, and easy to understand learning sources (Tomlinson, 20011:xiii; Prastowo, 2014:187;
Butcher et al, 2006:137). They claim that handout is simple and contain the key point of learning that
students can possess and take them away with. It can be in a form of paper-based or electronic
materials given to students before, during or after learning session (Butcher et al, 2006:137).
In designing handouts, it is important to consider the selection of font and the design of
layout that can have a major influence on students‘ perceptions of learning materials (Brown in
Butcher et al., 2006:140). Based on guidelines for designing handouts, Butcher et al., (2006:142)
suggest that a handouts designer should take a serious consideration about size and style of font; line
spacing and justification; use of white space; key point and emphasis; color of paper the handout is
printed on; and the need to have both text and images.
In addition, Prastowo (2014:200-206) clearly describes the importance of making creative
innovation in designing handouts. He mentions that the design and layout of handouts can be in a
single or in a combination of narration text, table, images, or diagram. More specifically, he suggests
that it is also important to include decorative symbols, shadings, borders, charts, picture of objects,
funny cartoons, photos, and cliparts, all of which can be downloaded from public domain such as
Google images. In short, handouts as the product of this research are parts of important teaching
materials which can be used as learning sources. Thus, they should be simple, attractive, and
interesting to students.
Quite a few NA-based ENP researches conducted in Asia have elicited some remarkable
implication for the development of English learning process for nursing purposes. In Japan, Miyake
and Tremako (2005) explored the needs of undergraduate, post-graduate and professional nurses
focusing on the balance uses of ‘social‘ and ‗technical‘ English in terms of syllabus design,
classroom activities, and professional requirement. Their study informed that ‗social‘ English is more
important as it enables nurses to communicate with patients and their families and enriches them as
individuals. Besides, the result also suggested that ‗technical‘ English in nursing should be
introduced incrementally and is better limited to basic technical vocabulary. In Taiwan, Lee (1987)
also conducted NA for the fact in his finding that learning is much more effective when instructional
contents match students‘ needs. It can be reached by identifying specific needs of nursing students
and by itemizing course contents toward designing a successful, customized ENP course.
In Indonesia, such studies have significant contributions as well for the local development of
ENP. Sismiati and latief (2012) conducted a research of developing instructional materials on
English oral communication for nursing schools with the characteristics of 1) the topics are based on
the activities of nurses in hospital, 2) the vocabulary exercises are based on the nurses‘ needs in
understanding the nursing context, and 3) the speaking activities are based on the needs to
communicate in nursing settings. All of which were also found in NA. More specifically, Saragih
(2014) carried out a research concerning on designing ESP materials for nursing students based on
NA. The targeted participants of this research were prospective professional nurses who are studying
at the last grade of nursing school. It is found that NA was the most important activity to conduct
before designing materials for the purpose of learning ENP.
Compared with the four researches mentioned above which purely focused their significance
to the development of nursing students for professional working purposes, the scope of this research
has apparently been narrowed down and geared toward two purposes. Firstly, it focuses on
academic-nursing setting such as helping the first year students in understanding the basic knowledge
of nursing which is found in sources written in English. Secondly, it is used as a fundamental
preparation to build students‘ understanding toward the significance of ENP for working purposes.
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important. More specifically, they agreed that it is important not only for academic but also for
professional needs. Therefore, 71.11 % of the students preferred learning English for Nursing
Purposes to General English. However, 82.22% of the students seldom make extra efforts to improve
their English. Consequently, the second aspect, lacks analysis informed that their masteries of
English proficiency and English for Nursing Purposes were mostly categorized in ‗poor‘ level. In
addition, the third aspect, language information about target situation informed that such conditions
were caused by the absence of needs analysis before class and learning materials containing nursing
topics. For that reason, they could not improve their ability in using English for both academic and
working purposes in nursing field. The fourth aspect of analysis was related to the situation where
English is mostly used in nursing practice. It was found that the highest percentage was in the
situation of patient admission 82.22%, followed by the situations of writing patient admission and
reading observation chart each of which gets a portion of 80.00%, reading patients‘ records 75.56%,
administering medication 73.33%, and giving instruction and direction 60%. The rest situations such
as educating patients, checking understanding, requesting information by e-mail, telephone call,
explaining drug interaction, and giving advise ranked the lowest that are all less than 20%. The fifth
aspect was related to language learning needs that cover the aspect of language skills and learning
activities that the students need most. It was found that 86.67% of the students need speaking skill
and followed by listening 84.44%, reading 77.78%, and writing 17.78%. Learning activities that they
wanted most to do was ‗pair work‘ 80.00%. Another aspect was an analysis related to the nursing
topics the students want most to learn. It shows that the students were interested in five topics that
were ranged from 84.44% to 71.11%. They are around hospital 84.44%, nursing care 82.22%,
medical treatment 77.78%, disease 73.33%, and medicine 71.11%. The other topics were not
considered for the reason that they were chosen by less than 10% of the students. The next aspect was
related to the analysis of learners‘ needs from course. It was found that the students need to improve
their ability in using English for nursing for both academic and working purposes 91.11%. The last
aspect was means analysis. It was informed that the students wanted to learn English using nursing
contents materials from the first year at the 2nd semester 44.44% and wanted to be taught by a team
that consists of specific nursing and English educational background lecturers.
Following the analysis phase, it was essential to outline a diagram as a guide in the designing
phase. It can be seen in the following figure.
Task Task
Lead-in
Language
Vocabulary THEMES Focus
The themes also became the starting points to decide the organization and the contents of the
developed materials. The organization consisted of four main parts. They were lead in, vocabulary,
language focus, and language skills. Then, the language skills were divided into four parts that cover
listening, speaking, writing, and reading skills.
To complete the contents and tasks of ach part, the activities of selecting appropriate
syllabus, determining learning objectives, choosing topics and sub topics, collecting and choosing
appropriate texts, deciding learning sources, and designing tasks were documented as a blueprint of
the developed materials.
The blueprint was validated by the expert of material development who recommended some
suggestions. First, it was suggested to draw a chart to outline the organization of the materials.
Second, it was suggested to include examples in nursing context in language focus section.
After designing phase, the writer developed the blueprint to be real printed materials in a
handout model. To get a better result and a valid product, it was validated by the experts of nursing
content and materials development that cover the aspects of contents, language understanding,
presentation, and writing mechanics.
Based on the experts‘ evaluation validation, the developed materials were rated in the
category of ‗very valid‘. However, they suggested revising some elements. Validator 1
recommended revising the front page of each handout. He suggested to include learning out comes in
the upper-right or left part of the handout. He also suggested revising the level of difficulty of task in
handout 1. So, the task had been revised from ‗writing a short paragraph‘ to ‗rearranging jumbled
words to be a complete sentence‘. Validator 2 advised to write numbering to the section that has more
than one task. It was to avoid students‘ misunderstanding that they don‘t know what to do first.
Validator 3 revised the materials in terms of nursing contents and their sequences. She recommended
adding one more sub topic to the theme of around hospital. She suggested including the discussion
about departments in a hospital. The sequences of the topic discussions were suggested to discuss
Signs and Symptoms first, and then followed by the discussion of Pain.
Based on the validators‘ suggestions, the researcher revised and printed the materials to be a
product that can be applied in a try-out session in implementation phase. After the try –out session,
the researcher found that the lecturers and the students agreed that the developed materials were
‗practical‘ for nursing students. However, the indicator of the compliance of time was rated the
lowest score. It was reported that both groups rated the developed material into ‗fairly practical‘. The
researcher assumed that it was caused by the length of the contents discussed in each handout. They
were so long and too much that the students found difficulties in comprehending them in a-one
meeting session. The highest score was obtained from the indicator of how benefits the materials are.
It scored 91.74 and was categorized ‗very practical‘.
4. CONCLUSION
This is a research and development study that aims to develop English learning materials
based on content-based approach for nursing students. More specifically, the primary purposes of the
study are to find out the real needs of the nursing students, to design and to develop learning
materials, and to find out the validity and practicality of the developed materials. As a result, the final
products of this study are a set of content-based syllabus and a content-based handout.
The findings in analysis phase informed that the real needs of the nursing students. They
preferred learning English for Nursing Purposes to General English. Therefore, it was found that the
nursing topics that they want most to learn were around hospital, nursing care, medical treatment,
diseases and medicine. Besides, learning activities that the students need most are pair work and
followed by group work. Based on the five main topics, some sub-topics were developed and
followed by creating tasks that mostly dominated by pair work activities.
The findings in designing and developing phases showed that the product was categorized ‗very
valid‘. And, results in implementation phase proved that the products were ‗practical‘ to be used in
nursing school.
However, the writer realizes that there must be some weaknesses found in the final product
for the limitation of the research. For example, to find out the real result of target situation analysis
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where professional information about learners can be obtained, the researcher should have
interviewed professional nurses who work in a hospital of English speaking country where
international patients are treated. It wasn‘t performed for limited access and networks. Another
limitation was found in implementation phase. The try-out has been conducted only for two classes
(1A and 1B) in one higher nursing school (STIKes Payung Negeri Pekanbaru). Ideally, it should have
been tried-out to all classes in the first semester. Moreover, it would be much better if the developed
materials would have been tried out to other nursing schools.
Through the findings of this study, some pedagogical implication can be made for syllabus
design and materials development. Besides, English lecturers are suggested to apply the developed
materials in learning process as a main reference or as supplementary materials. Moreover, English
lecturers should keep in mind that nursing students need English for specific nursing purposes better
than general English. Therefore, they are suggested to use materials developed from contents/topics
related to nursing. Since the result of this research focuses only on the validity and the practicality of
the product, it is suggested that other lecturers do an experimental research to prove the effectiveness
of the content-based learning materials for nursing students.
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Abstract
The purpose of this study was to describe reflective teaching in the English Teaching and Learning
process at SMA Negeri 5 Kendari. This study was a qualitative research with case study as the
method of the study. The data were collected through questionnaire, interview, and observation
while the data sources were taken from English teachers of SMA Negeri 5 Kendari that participate in
this study. The result of the study indicated that the teacher was applying reflective teaching by using
some strategies of reflective teaching. The teacher understood how they defined reflective teaching
and recognized the importance of being reflective teacher. The teachers practiced reflective teaching
by using some strategies of reflective teaching as suggested by Richards and Lockhart (1996). Lesson
report, video recording, observation, action research, and students‘ feedback were strategies of
reflective teaching that practiced by the teacher in this study. Moreover, based on the analysis of
questionnaire and interview, teachers stated the importance of being reflective were teacher learnt
new things while teaching; teacher learnt from his/her own experiences as a learner and teacher;
they developed their teaching skills and continuously improve their knowledge. Hence, teachers
realized learning situation in the classroom while it was boring or not. However, in doing reflective
teaching, they had some difficulties such as lack of time and heavy workloads. On the other hand, in
doing peer observation, they got difficulties in encouraging their colleagues who lacked of readiness
and focus of being reflective.
1. INTRODUCTION
Teaching is a complex and highly skill activity. Teaching is normally recognized as a
profession (Wallace, 1991; Richards and Farrel, 2005). The term ―profession‖ means that ―a kind of
occupation which can only be practiced after long and rigorous academic study (Wallace, 1991).
Teaching as profession involves a considerable amount of challenges and decision-making. As
professional, teachers are recommended to continually upgrade their understanding about their
knowledge of teaching and learning. The knowledge of teaching and learning includes the knowledge
about subject, learners, curriculum, pedagogic, teaching performance, context, and self-recognition
as a teacher (Meijer et.al, 2001).
Teachers in their education program are informed of that knowledge relate to teaching and
learning. However, after entering the real world of teaching, teachers still need to refresh and update
their knowledge and skills in teaching. It must be done because teachers sometimes work in a
complex ambiguous and dilemmatic classroom (Cimer and Palic, 2012). By updating skills, they can
explain the material in the curriculum in a variety of ways to students who have diverse learning style
(Silver, 2015). They also need superior interpersonal skills, such as patience and the ability to remind
calm in stressful situations. Collaborative learning skills enable them to work productively with their
colleagues. Creativity and presentation skills are important when planning lessons to motivate
students and hold their interest (Silver, 2015). In addition, the teachers can determine which methods
are most comfortable with and which ones are more likely to ensure students success (Silver, 2015).
However, most of the teachers lack information about what they have to do in the classroom
(Richards and Lockhart, 1996). Richards and Lockhart said that the teachers rarely examine their
own teaching practices. Many teachers did not use their time to think about their actions in the
teaching and learning process. They just wait until they were observed by the principle or supervisor
who came to the classroom. Furthermore, a language teacher faced constantly diverse classroom
situation, tires to adopt appropriate theory of learning, approach, technology, and tools and aids to
create understanding in context. In doing so, teachers were drawn upon their experience and
peer-experience to resolve the problems and issues through the process of reflection (Al-Ahdal and
Al-Awaid, 2014). In addition, Parker (in Richards and Lockhart: 1996) stated that the experience
teachers apply classroom routines and strategies almost automatically without involving a great deal
of conscious think. Dealing with this, Richard and Farrel (2005) argued that teachers‘ competences
can be developed by joining teacher workshop and training, keeping teaching journal and portfolios,
having teacher support group, peer observation, and self-monitoring. Therefore, teachers must think
and question about their goals and values in teaching and examining their teaching assumption.
The teacher development in this perception is actually base on the concept of reflective
practice in teaching. Reflective teaching itself has various definitions. The definition is given by
Bailey, et al (in Liu and Zhang, 2004). Bailey, et al (in Liu and Zhang, 2004) stated that reflective
teaching as ―the teacher‘s thinking about what happens in classroom lessons and thinking about
alternative means of achieving goals and aims‖. It means that reflective teaching is used for teachers
to think, analyze, and objectively judge their classroom action. Teachers find problems in real
practice then attempt to find strategies and solutions to solve the problems through consideration and
observation, in order to improve their teaching base on their teaching experience.
Reflective teaching was interpreted from an alternative context by analyzing teachers‘
perception of good teaching and learning (Cohn and Kottkamp, 1993 in Wu and Wu, 2014). Teachers
assumed to understand learners‘ reality, to feel what the student feels, and to act in the students‘
interest. The above definition told that reflective teaching plays significant role in foreign language
teachers‘ professional development. Furthermore, it was used by the teachers to improve their
teaching practice.
In line with the background above, this study was attempted to address the research question
namely ―How does reflective teaching in the English teaching and learning process occur at SMA
Negeri 5 Kendari?‖ with sub focuses questions of this study were:
1. How do the teachers practice on Reflective Teaching in the English teaching and learning
process?
2. What are advantages in applying Reflective Teaching?
3. What are impediments that prevent teachers‘ reflection?
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that the process of looking back and, after a scientific study and analysis of the classroom experience,
engaging in research for remedial steps to move ahead in order to give the best possible learning to
students, considering also what the students seek, reflecting on changes needed and finding suitable
alternative method or technological tools.
Reflective teaching was refer to an approach to teaching and teacher education, which is
based on the assumptions that teachers can improve their understanding of teaching and the quality of
their own teaching by reflecting critically on their own teaching experiences (Qing, 2009). Reflective
teaching was one in which teachers and students-teachers collect data about teaching, examine their
attitudes, beliefs, assumptions and teaching practices, and use the information obtained as a basis for
critical reflection about teaching (Richards, 1996 in Qing, 2009). Reflective teaching asked EFL
teachers to stop, to slow down for noticing, analyzing, and inquiring on what they are doing. It told
them to relate theory and practice, to evaluate both old and new teaching experiences, and to make
interpretations on the situations encountered.
In addition, although researchers defined the term reflective teaching differently (Bartlett,
1990; Calderhead, 1989; Jay and Johnson, 2002), these various definitions can be clarified into five
perspectives namely reflective teaching from a technical perspective, a contextual perspective, a
social perspective, an experiential or deliberative perspective, and a critical perspective (Al Kalbani,
2007). Each of these perspectives will explore in greater detail below.
1) Technical perspective; reflective teaching from technical perspective meant that teachers when
they reflect focus on strategies and methods use to predetermine goals (Bartlett, 1990). Then,
reflective teaching in this perspective defined as the teacher‘s thinking about what occurs in the
classroom lessons, and about possible means of achieving goals or aims (Cruickshank cited in
Bartlett, 1990).
2) The contextual perspective; Teachers when they reflect within a contextual perspective can
understand concepts, contexts, and theoretical bases for classroom practices and can defend
those practices and articulate their relevance to student growth (Taggart and Wilson, 2005).
Teacher‘s reflection involves clarification of and elaboration on the underlying assumptions and
predispositions of classroom practice as well as consequences of strategies used.
3) The social perspective; reflective teaching in this perspective meant that reflection should not be
viewed as a solitary process involving a teacher and his or her situation, but as a social process
taking place within a learning community. Reflective teaching enhanced through collaboration
and dialogue with colleagues (Pollard and Tann, 1993).
4) An experiential or deliberative perspective; in this view, teachers must develop a conscious
awareness of the actions and ideas that shape their strategies and come to an understanding of
their own values, beliefs and teaching experiences in making their decisions when they are
doing reflection (Osterman and Kottkamp, 1993). It meant that teacher reflects do not only rely
on what research says they must be doing, but they also consider their own practical theories,
teaching experiences, values and beliefs in making their decision.
5) The critical perspective; in this perspective, teachers in their reflections did not only reflect on
what works in the classroom, but they also examined the ethical and political consequences of
their teacing (Zeichner and Liston, 1996). It meant that teachers have to move away from ‗how
to‘ questions, to the ‗what‘ and ‗why‘ questions which view instructional and meaningful
techniques as a part of broader educational purposes rather than as end in themselves.
B. Process of Reflective Teaching
Liu and Zhang (2014) divided the process of reflective teaching into four phases:
1) Identification of problem: Teachers had to raise their awareness of finding out problems in their
practice, which was the starting point of reflective teaching. They took a questioning and
problematizing stance (Burns, 2011) towards their teaching, reviewing and questioning their
teaching routine, their assumptions about their teaching approaches, their learners, their teaching
contexts, or the philosophies or values that motivate what they do in the classroom (Burn, 2011),
in order to identify problematic situations or issues worthy of investigation.
2) Observation and analysis: Once the problem was identified, teacher came into the phase of
observation and analysis. Firstly, teachers had to collect the data, especially those concerning
their own teaching practice through consulting literature, observing class, discussing, interview,
questionnaire, video recording, and so on. Then, teachers had to reflect on themselves critically,
including their philosophy, practice, beliefs, values, attitude and affection. Finally, teachers had to
analyze the causes of the problem and learn from others experience (Liu and Zhang, 2014).
3) Re-generalization: After analyzing the causes of the problem, teachers had to review their
teaching activities, paying attention in the two aspects, namely teaching activity itself and
students. Teachers must re-examine their philosophy on which their teaching activities are based,
look for new ideas and strategies to solve the problems, on the basis of which formulate new
assumption and new plan for action, thereby improving their teaching practice, forming new
educational philosophies and solving problems (Liu and Zhang, 2014).
4) Actual verification: In this phase, teachers put the assumption and plan work out in the previous
phase into teaching practice and verify their reasonableness according to the teaching effect. In
this process, teaching practice can be improved and teachers can attain their self-development
(Liu and Zhang, 2014).
In short, based on the above explanation in the process of reflective teaching, teachers had to
construct initiatively based on their prior knowledge and teaching experience, take in new skills,
techniques and theories. Teachers gained experience from the teaching subject, teaching objectives,
and teaching aids while they were reflecting on their own teaching behavior, as well as from the
pre-teaching, while teaching, and post teaching sectors to mature themselves.
C. Strategies for Reflective Teaching
Reflective teaching strategies were suggested by Richard and Longhart (1996) namely
teaching journal, written or recorded accounts of teaching experiences; lesson report, written
accounts of lessons which describe the main features of the lesson; surveys and questionnaires,
activities such as administering a questionnaire or completing a survey, designed to collect
information on a particular aspect of teaching or learning; audio and video recordings, recordings of
a lesson, or part of a lesson; observation, tasks completely by a student teacher observing a
cooperating teacher‘s class, or peer observation (i.e., task completed by a teacher visiting a
colleague‘s class); and action research, implementation of an action plan designed to bring about
change in some aspect of the teacher‘s class with subsequent monitoring of the effects of the
innovation.
D. Advantages and Impediment of Reflective Teaching
Reflection was a significant basis for teachers‘ professional development. For foreign
language teacher, reflective teaching was not only the basis for them to make teaching plans and
decisions for action, but also beneficial for them to strengthen their exploration ability, to raise their
ability of supervising teaching, to improve their awareness of self-reflection and to construct new
teaching beliefs and concepts. Other advantages of reflective teaching stated by Liu and Zang (2014)
as follows:
1) Reflective teaching made teachers re-identify their roles. With the constant development of
society and education, teachers‘ roles were taking on a tendency of transforming from
knowledge transmitters to teachers with multi-roles.
2) Reflective teaching helped teacher achieves the transformation of teaching beliefs.
3) Reflective teaching promoted the combination of theory and practice. By reflecting on not only
their teaching belief, interest, motivation, and morale, but also their teaching methods, materials
and media, teachers either query or evaluated their teaching effect, and then corrected the
inappropriate teaching action according to the result of reflection.
4) Reflective teaching improved teaching and research skills. Teaching was complicated process,
in which teachers apprehended teaching context and reflect on their own cognitive process.
They analyzed and evaluated their teaching plans, teaching behavior and their influence on
students.
Furthermore, another advantage of reflective teaching was reflective teaching can lead to creative
and innovative approaches to classroom and school situation and problems, and this can eventuate
into improving learning opportunities for students (Calderhead, 1992 in Al-Ahdal and Al-Awaid,
2014).
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On the other hand, there were a lot of advantages that teachers and schools got by
implementing reflective teaching. Researchers in the field of reflective teaching (Day, 1993; Van
Manen, 1995, Eraut, 1995; Maughan, 1996; Cole, 1997) identified several impediments that
prevented teachers in doing reflection. Some of the factors that limited the teachers to reflect in their
practice were: lack of time, the view that reflection may sometimes disrupt and detract good
performance, unsympathetic colleagues who saw reflection as unnecessary or potentially
disestablishing, uncertainty about what will a worthwhile focus for reflection, lack of appreciation,
and limited repertoire of reflection skills.
The result of this study showed that teacher‘s participant explained reflective teaching in
their point of view. They defined reflective teaching from contextual, social, experiential or
deliberative, and technical perspective. From the questionnaire, it was found that teachers defined
reflective teaching differently among each other. However, T1 and T3 had the same opinion about
reflective teaching even though it delivered in different words. T1 stated that reflective teaching was
the reflection which did by the teacher related to teaching practice and teachers‘ belief in the
classroom. While teacher three (T3) said that reflective teaching was the teaching based on
experience, then evaluating our own teaching in order to repair teaching practice, method, technique,
and strategy to improve the result of teaching and learning process.
From the above explanations, they defined reflective teaching from the contextual
perspective. As Taggart and Wilson (2005) explained that the teachers who reflected in contextual
perspective can understand the concepts, contexts, and theoretical bases for classroom practices and
they assessed the implication of their action and belief. It meant that the teacher who did reflection in
this perspective understood with what they have to do relate to their teaching practice and realized
with their belief in teaching.
Teacher two (T2) explained that reflective teaching as one of activity to reflect our teaching
practice that can be conducted by ourselves and more important was together with our colleagues at
school or at workshop. By doing this, he said that they grow to be a better teacher by sharing their
experiences related teaching and discussed about the current issues in teaching. From his explanation
given, it can be categorized as the social perspective in viewing the essence of reflective teaching. It
was related to the Pollard and Tann (1993) that reflective teaching enhanced through collaboration
and dialogue with colleagues. Then, Zeichner and Liston (1996) also stated that the idea of reflection
as social practice and without a social forum for discussion of teacher‘s idea, their development was
inhibited. It meant that reflection also needed a social forum to discuss and share what teachers did
related their teaching and learning process to be improved as better teachers.
Teacher four (T4) defined reflective teaching as a teaching to solve the problem in the
teaching and learning process based on what he found in the previous teaching activities and
rethinking how to solve that problems for improving his quality of teaching. He explained that
reflective teaching emphasize on how teacher think back of his/her own teaching experience to make
judgment for the future teaching practice. Therefore, it referred to experiential or deliberative
perspective of reflective teaching. This perspective was according to Zeichner and Liston (1996);
teachers exercised their judgment about various teaching situations while taking advantage of
research, experience, institution, and their own values.
Teacher five (T5) on the other side said that ―we reflect what we have done after conducting
teaching and learning process to improve skills as a teacher, then find strategies and solution to solve
the problems through observation in the classroom in order that we can reach the predetermined goals
of teaching‖. By looking the way he explained the meaning of reflective teaching, it referred to
reflective from technical perspective. It was in line with what Bartlett (1990) explained about
reflective teaching from technical perspective point of view. He said that teachers who reflect within
this perspective concerned with what works in the classroom to keep the students quiet, and about
possible means for achieving goals or aims of teaching. Beside he focused on how to improve her
teaching by finding the best strategies to improve his students‘ engagement, he also developed the
teaching techniques for helping his in improving students‘ achievement.
From above explanation, it can be seen that all respondent teachers acknowledge the notion
of reflective teaching. Although they had different perspective of reflective teaching, all teachers
seemed to have good understanding about what means by reflective teaching in their teaching
practice.
Besides, based on the questionnaire and interview, it was found that the important of
reflective teaching were:
No. Initials The Importance of Reflective Teaching
1. T1 Teachers became more knowledgeable.
Teachers became more innovative.
Teachers realized learning situation in the classroom while it is
boring or not.
2. T2 Teachers realized their strength and weaknesses.
Teachers developed their teaching skills.
3. T3 Teachers became the model for their colleagues
Teachers became the agent of school change.
Teachers were wiser in seeing the problems occur.
4. T4 Teachers continuously improved their knowledge.
Teachers became a model of a successful learner.
Teachers learnt from his/her own experiences as a learner and
teacher.
5. T5 Teachers realized their attitudes in the class.
Teachers knew more about their students.
Teachers understood his/her daily practice more.
The above statements were supported by Elder and Paul (1994), explained about the
advantages of reflective teaching which considered reflective teachers tend to have willingness to
improve teacher teaching quality by trying out new strategies and ideas. Then, Calderhead (1992)
also added that reflective teaching could lead to creative and innovative approaches to classroom and
school situations. This could eventuate into improved learning opportunities for students. Markham
(1999) said that reflective teachers tend to make the use of teachers own learning and teaching
experiences to improve their teaching practice. In addition, Farrel (2001) believed that reflective
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teacher would develop teachers‘ cognition about their own teaching practice. They tend to recall,
consider, and evaluate their teaching experiences as a means of improving the future teaching quality.
In this study, the teachers were asked in the questionnaire and in the interview about their practice of
reflective teaching. Below was the table which shown the teacher‘s practice of reflectivity.
Teachin Students‘
No Initial Peer Video Workshop Action
g Feedbac
. s Observation Recording and Training Research
Journals k
1. T1 - - √ √ √ √
2. T2 - √ - √ √ √
3. T3 - √ - √ √ √
4. T4 - √ - √ - √
5. T5 - - - √ - √
However, in doing reflective teaching teachers stated in the questionnaire that they had
impediments when they practiced reflective teaching from continuously reflect-in, reflect-on, and
reflect-for their practice. The table below was shown impediments that teachers faced.
No. Initial Impediments that prevent reflective teaching
1. T1 Lack of training, lack of time
2. T2 Lack of time, lack of focus
3. T3 Lack of focus, lack of time
4. T4 Lack of readiness and open-mindedness, lack of training
5. T5 Lack of time
The above statements of three teachers about the time were in line with Loughran‘s
explanation. Loughran (1996) explained that there was difficulty associated with learning from
reflection that needed to be recognized was time of reflection. The ‗when‘ of reflection (the time of
reflection in relation to the pedagogical experience) influenced the learning that might be drawn and
after an experience. Then, Pultorak (in Ballard, 2006) stated that teacher education needed
preparation for becoming reflective practitioner. Lee (2005) believed that lack of training and
education related to reflective teaching may be an obstacle for teachers to develop themselves after
finishing their pre-service training program at the university. Furthermore, Cunningham (2001)
explained that reflective practice requires a commitment to continue self-development and the time
to achieve it. There was needed to be trained in reflective practice and time give to experiment with
and master the general process of reflective teaching. He identified that some teachers might not be
ready to confront the uncertainty about their teaching philosophies and competence that can be a part
of the process.
4. CONCLUSION
Based on the above discussion, there were three majors‘ conclusion that addressed from
research questions namely the teachers‘ practice on reflective teaching; the advantages in applying
reflective teaching; and the factors that impeded teachers‘ reflection.
First, the question about teachers practice on reflective teaching in the English teaching and
learning process. Teachers had several activities related to reflective teaching, most of them did
action research and asked students‘ feedback. Other activities that they did related to reflective
teaching were peer observation, video recording, followed workshop or training. However, there was
also teacher who read and searched knowledge and theory related to teaching to keep up date with
teaching practice. In the observation, it was found that teacher reflected individually. Sometimes they
were sharing with their colleague teacher about their teaching or something else related to teaching
process. They practice reflection-on, -in, and -for action.
Second question was about the advantages of being reflective in teaching. It can be
concluded that all teachers participant understand about the importance of being reflective in
teaching. By doing reflection, teachers were more knowledgeable, innovative, and realized learning
situation in the classroom while it was boring or not. Then, by doing reflection, teachers learned new
things while teaching; they realized what was running well and not while teaching and learning
process conducting. Furthermore, they could learn from their own experiences as a learner and
teacher.
In addition, based on the discussion, researcher concluded that the teachers shown their
understanding about reflective teaching. It was seen by teachers‘ definition about reflective teaching.
Teachers had given their perspective about reflective teaching. The perspective was from contextual
perspective, experiential or deliberative perspective, and technical perspective.
The last research question was about the impediments that prevent teachers‘ reflection.
Based on the findings and discussions, researcher concluded that there were several impediments that
faced by the participants in this study. They were lack of time, lack of training because they did not
get any knowledge from lectures related to reflective teaching and lack of readiness and open-minded
in reflective activities.
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Wisma Yunita
English Education Study Program,
University of Bengkulu, Indonesia
wismayunita@unib.ac.id
Abstract
Universities preparing future English teachers in Indonesia usually put English grammar courses in
their curricula. The courses are usually given at the first to the fourth semester and with wide
material coverage. Some made it discrete in a course. Some made it integrated with skills of English
language. Grammar as a part of language knowledge should be mastered well by students at
university especially the future English teachers. Future English teachers who have lack of English
grammar knowledge will face difficulties in performing English in spoken and written. Therefore,
they should be taught using an appropriate approach of English grammar teaching so that they will
have a thorough mastery of the grammar. In contrary, the students should also give more effort in
mastering the grammar by reading more materials related to grammar and practicing the rules in
spoken and written. Currently, there are two major approaches widely used in teaching English
grammar: deductive and inductive. The effectiveness of two approaches is still in debate until today.
Some teachers prefer to use the deductive approach, while some others prefer the inductive one.
Which approach works well to university students: deductive, inductive, or combination of both? In
this article, the writer will discuss about the two approaches, the pros and cons, and the example of
an approach which combines both deductive and inductive approaches. The approach named
story-based approach which will be more beneficial for the university students in the process of
learning English grammar.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the process of learning a new language, one cannot be away from learning the grammar.
Learning language means learning the grammar. Greenbaum and Nelson (2002) define grammar as
the set of rules that allow people to combine words in a language into larger units. In addition,
Derewianka in Emilia (2014) defines grammar as a way of describing how language works to make
meaning within a particular culture. Similarly, Feez and Joyce in Emilia (2014: 5) defined grammar
as ―the system of patterns we use to select and combine words. Grammar makes it possible for us to
write a text which expresses our experiences, ideas, thoughts, and feelings‖. Furthermore, Feez and
Joyce in Emilia (2014) said, ―if we use language, we use grammar. Grammar is the power house of a
language. When we use grammar we combine words in patterns which make particular meaning.
Meanwhile, Thornbury (2004) defines grammar as the study of what forms (or structure) are
possible in a language. It is a description of the rules that govern how a language‘s sentences are
formed. In relation to language teaching, Thornbury (2004) argues that grammar is a description of
the regularity in a language, and knowledge of these regularities provides the learner with the means
to generate a potentially enormous number of original sentences.
Based on those opinions, it can be inferred that grammar is the system of a language that
regulate the arrangement of words and phrases in a sentence. This system comprises of the system of
sounds or written symbols and the system of meaning. Knowing how words are supposed to be
arranged in a sentence of a language will give benefits to the language users or the learners.
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The English grammar learners get some benefits from learning the English grammar or the
knowledge of English grammar. Borjars and Burridge (2010) say that knowledge of English
grammatical structures is useful when someone learns the grammatical structure of another language
or whenever someone has to teach them to others. Similarly, Greenbaum and Nelson (2002) mention
several benefits of learning English grammar. First, the recognition of grammatical structures is often
essential for punctuations. Second, a study of one‘s native grammar is helpful when one studies the
grammar of a foreign language. Third, it is helpful in the interpretation of literary as well as
nonliterary texts since the interpretation of a passage sometimes depends crucially on grammatical
analysis. Fourth, it is useful in composition.
In further, Ellis in Hinkel and Fotos (2002) mentions that grammar learning and acquisition
can enhance learners‘ proficiency and accuracy and facilitate the internalization of its syntactic
system, thus supplementing the development of fluency. Other benefits of learning English grammar
were proposed by Derewianka in Emilia (2014) who mentions that learning English grammar has the
following benefits: (1) to reflect on how the English language works, (2) to have a shared language
for talking about the main features of the English language, (3) to understand how grammatical
structures creates different kinds of meaning, (4) examine pattern of language and word choices to
critically analyze texts, (5) to be able to use language effectively, appropriately and accurately. In
further, she argues that a knowledge of grammar can help learners to critically evaluate their own text
and those of others, e.g. identifying point of view; examining how language can be manipulated to
achieve certain effects and position the reader in a particular way; knowing how language can be
used to construct a particular identity or a particular way of viewing the world.
Considering the various definitions and the benefits of learning English grammar above, it is
important to know how it should be taught to university students and what the best practice in
teaching grammar to university level students in the context of English as a foreign language
especially in Indonesia is. In this paper, the discussion will be started by looking at the emphasis on
grammar in language teaching, then followed by revisiting the approaches used in teaching English
grammar and proposing best practice in teaching grammar in the current communicative language
teaching era.
2. DISCUSSION
Emphasis on Grammar in Language Teaching Approaches
In regard to the emphasis on the teaching of grammar in language learning, it will be useful to
trace back to the early period of approaches used in language teaching before today. The emphasis on
grammar among the approaches in language teaching is described in the following figures which
proposed by Thornbury (2004:21):
Zero Grammar Heavy grammar
Emphasis
The heavy emphasis on grammar in language teaching was started in the period of Grammar
Translation Method. At this period, grammar was used as the starting point for instruction and the
lesson was began with an explicit statement of the rules, followed by exercises involving translation
into and out of their mother tongue (Thornbury: 2004). In this grammar translation method time,
Larsen-Freeman (2008) mentions that grammar was learnt for the purpose of helping students to read
and appreciate foreign language literature.
After the Grammar Translation Method, then came the Direct Method. At this time,
according to Thornbury (2004), the language teaching priority was on the oral skills and the explicit
grammar teaching was rejected. The learners picked the grammar in much the same way as children
pick up the grammar of their mother tongue that is simply by being immersed in language teaching.
In further, at the Audiolingualism time, the grammar teaching was strictly rejected.
Audiolingualism considered language as simply a form of behavior, to be learned through the
formation of correct habits. The Audiolingualism syllabus consisted of a graded list of sentence
patterns, which although not necessarily labeled as such, were grammatical in origin. At this time, the
distinguish feature of Audiolingual classroom practice was pattern-practice drills. At the same time
as the Audiolingualism, came the Natural Approach which was brought by Chomsky who claimed
that language ability is not a habituated behavior but an innate human capacity, therefore, formal
instruction was not necessary (Thornburry: 2004). The Natural Approach replicated the conditions
of first language acquisition and grammar was considered not relevant.
After the period of Audiolingualism and Natural Approach, Communicative language
Teaching emerged in 1970s. Richards (2005) called this period as the Classic Communicative
Language Teaching with the emphasis on the use of language communicatively. At this time the goal
of learning a language is to have good communicative competence. Even though CLT focused on
communication, it did not reject the important of grammar. One of the components of the
communicative competence was grammatical competence. The importance of grammatical
competence is mentioned by Richards (2005:8) as follow:
―…grammatical competence was needed to produce grammatically correct sentences, and attention
shifted to knowledge and skills needed to use grammar and other aspects of language appropriately
for different communicative purposes such as making requests, giving advice, making suggestions,
describing wishes and needs and so on‖
During this classic communicative language teaching, there are two version of opinion:
shallow-end and deep-end CLT (Thornbury: 2004). The shallow-end version did not reject grammar
teaching out of hand and it was still the main component of the CLT course syllabus. Grammar rules
reappeared in coursebook, and grammar teaching re-emerged in classroom, mostly in the form of
communicative practice. Meanwhile, the deep-end CLT rejected both grammar based syllabus and
grammar instruction.
In contrary to Thornbury, Sheen in Boroujeni (2012) mentions that the role of grammar in
language instruction has gone through three main stages: absolute prominence, exclusion, and
re-introduction with caution. The three stages have been associated respectively to three different
approaches to instruction namely, focus on forms (FonFs), focus on meaning (FonM), and focus on
form (FonF). Nassaji and Fotos (2011) provide the differences of each stage in a short and clear way.
They say that in the absolute prominence stage, the teaching of grammar was focused on forms
(FonFs). It is the traditional approach which represents an analytical syllabus and based on the
assumptions that language consists of a series of grammatical forms that can be acquired sequentially
and additively.
Meanwhile in the exclusion stage, the teaching of grammar was focused on meaning (FonM).
It is synthetic and is based on the assumptions that learners are able to analyze language inductively
and arrive at its underlying grammar. It emphasizes pure meaning-based activities with no attention
to form. The last stage is the re-introduction of grammar with caution or named focus on form
(FonF). It is a kind of instruction that draws the learner‘s attention to linguistic forms in the context of
meaningful communication (Nassaji and Fotos (2011). The last stage is the description of the
condition of grammar instruction in the current practice of English language teaching which is still
under the umbrella of the communicative language teaching with the communicative competence as
the goal of language learning. The communicative competence are comprised of four competences;
grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence and strategic
competence (Peterwagner in Yunita (2015).
Approaches in Teaching Grammar
In the process of teaching grammar, there are two basic approaches that have been used for a
quite long period of time; the deductive and inductive approach. These two approaches are called
traditional approach by most practitioners in grammar teaching. However, they are still in use until
today even though many approaches come out in language teaching, which are also applicable for
teaching grammar. This is in line with Nunan (2005:15) who states that there are two basic
approaches to the teaching of grammar namely deductive and inductive approaches.
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―In a deductive approach, the teacher presents the grammar rule and then gives students exercises in
which they apply the rule. In an inductive approach, the teacher present samples of language and the
students have to come to an intuitive understanding of the rule.‖(Nunan, 2005: 15)
Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of deductive and inductive approaches to teaching grammar
(Thornbury, 2004; Nunan, 2005)
The approaches above are focused on the teaching of rules and the structure of a language.
The approach to grammar instruction that focus on teaching grammar as a set of rules and structure
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have been found inadequate in meeting the communicative need of the second language learners
(Nasaji and fotos: 2011). However, the teaching of language that focuses excessively on
communication or the meaning with no attention to grammar is also inadequate. This is stated by
Nasaji and Fotos (2011) that in recent years, language teaching professionals have become
increasingly aware that teaching approaches that put the primary focus on meaning with no attention
to grammatical forms are inadequate.
From the opinions, it can be concluded that the teaching of language may not ignore the
teaching of the linguistics form or the grammar and may not ignore the meaning which lead to
communication. The approach to teaching a language especially the grammar which has the focus on
the form and the meaning at the same time is an approach called story-based approach to teaching
grammar or known as PACE Model proposed by Adair-Hauck and Donato (2002).
In this story-based approach, the two major approaches widely used in teaching grammar,
deductive and inductive are combined. Grammar practitioners believe that there should be a
combination of the two approaches in grammar teaching to make it effective. This opinion was
supported by Haight, Heron, & Cole (2007) who mention that some agreement exists that the most
effective grammar teaching includes some deductive and inductive characteristics.
The story-based approach is a dialogic approach to the teaching of grammar using cultural
stories as the centerpiece of a lesson in standards-based foreign language instruction (Donato and
Adair-Hauck: 2016). This approach is based on the concept that as learners are guided to reflect on
meaningful language form, they develop grammatical concepts in the target language. In addition, it
includes conscious attention to the target language and the need for learners to discuss form from the
perspective of meaning and use. This approach stresses connected discourse and encourages learners
to comprehend meaningful texts from the very beginning. Donato and Adair-Hauck (2016) mention
that the approach is different from other approaches in teaching grammar in some ways as the
following:
―First, learners are neither left alone unassisted to reflect on form in the input nor are they
the passive recipients of ―ready-made‖ grammatical rules. Second, reflecting on form is
raised as a topic of conversation in its own right rather than as a mini-lesson during
communicative tasks and activities. Finally, through dialog inquiry with the teacher and
each other, learners develop grammatical concepts that uncover the relationship of forms to
meanings that have been previously established in the context of cultural stories.‖
Story-based approach has four practical steps in the implementation namely; presentation,
attention, co-construction and extension which are also known as PACE model as can be seen in the
following figure:
speech and the English tenses. In the example, the topic to be learnt is pronoun which is the second
part of the parts of speech material. Through this topic as well as the others, the teacher can promote
the use of local culture in the teaching of grammar by using a folktale from Bengkulu entitled Putri
Serindang Bulan. The incorporating of the local culture into a language classroom is supported by
Brown in Richards and Renandya (2002) who states that whenever teaching a language, the teacher
should also teach the culture, habitual actions, values, ways of thinking, feelings and the complex
culture actions of the learners.
3. CONCLUSION
English grammar is a part of the English language knowledge that has to be mastered by the
English language learners especially the students of the English Education Study Program in order to
be a competence speaker of English of good future teachers of English language. For a teacher, the
teaching of grammar is not an easy matter. It is quite complicated and has a wide coverage of
knowledge to be taught to the students. In order to make the grammar teaching to be successful, the
teacher should use an appropriate approach. There are some approaches that can be used in teaching
grammar; the traditional approaches such as deductive approach which focuses on forms (FonFs),
inductive approach which focuses on meaning (FonM) or the approach that covers both forms and
meaning (FonF). The approach that covers both the form and meaning is the one which combines the
deductive and the inductive approaches in teaching grammar. The approach is the story-based
approach or the PACE model which was proposed by Adair-Hauck and Donato (2002) for the
teaching of grammar in the context of English as a foreign language. The approach has four practical
steps namely Presentation, Attention, Co-construction and Extension. It is not only suitable for the
context of English as a foreign language such as in Indonesia but also provides a space for
incorporating the local culture into the teaching of English language. The teacher who teaches
English grammar can use the local story such as a folktale or a legend from the student‘s region or
culture into the grammar classroom at university which will enrich the process of teaching and
learning the English language.
REFERENCES
Adair-Hauck, B., & Donato, R. (2002). The PACE Model: A story-based approach to meaning and
form for standards-based language learning. The French Review, 76, 265-296.
Adair-Hauck, B., & Donato, R. (2010). Using Story-based Approach to Teach Grammar. In Judith L.
Shrum and Eileen W. Glisan (Authors), Teacher‘s Handbook: Contextualized Language
Instruction 4th ed. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
.Borjars, Kersti and Kate Burridge.(2010). Introducing English Grammar: Second Edition. London:
Hodder Education
Boroujeni, Fatemah Abbsian. (2012). Investigating Controversies in Teaching Grammar: A Case for
the Iranian High School Students. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 2, No. 8,
pp. 1570-1575
Donato, R., & Adair-Hauck, B (2016). PACE: A story-based approach for dialogic inquiry about
form and meaning. In J. Shrum & E. Glisan (Authors), Teacher‘s handbook: Contextualized
Foreign Language Instruction 5th ed. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
Emilia, Emi. Introducing Functional Grammar. (2014). Jakarta: Pustaka Jaya
Greenbaum, Sydney and Gerald Nelson. (2002). An Introduction to English Grammar: Second
Edition. London: Longman
Hinkel, Eli and Sandra Fotos. (2002). From Theory to Practice: a teacher‘s View in Hinkle and Fotos
(Eds), New Perspectives on Grammar Teaching in Second Language Classroom. New
Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers
Larsen-Freeman, Diane. (2008). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching: Second Edition.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Nassaji, Hossein and Sandra Fotos. (2011). Teaching Grammar in Second Language Classrooms:
Integrating Form-Focused Instruction in Communicative Context. New York: Routledge.
Nunan, David. (2005). The Practice of English Language Teaching: Grammar. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
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Abstract
As multilingual learners who have an array of linguistic and cognitive skills, Indonesian students
have been exposed to various learning experiences intended to improve their metalinguistic
awareness. They are expected to possess integrated competence of languages learnt. In light with
this, this paper aims at analyzing students‘ argumentative elements produced in their English
argumentative writing, evaluating how far these elements contribute to the overall quality of their
writing, and considering the influence of their status as multilingual learners. The result reveals that
the students‘ way in structuring their arguments influenced the quality of their writing. The
developed writing were mostly produced by the students who were able to provide the equal weight of
defending arguments and counter arguments which were elaborated in multiple arguments.
Furthermore, since providing proper elaboration for the counterarguments was one of major
problems in the students‘ argumentative writing, the strategies to integrate arguments with
counterarguments were also presented.
1. INTRODUCTION
For a couple of years, argumentative essay has been considered as the most complex mode
compared to other types of essays for both lecturers and students. Moreover, most students also
encountered many problems dealing with argumentative writing rather than narrative, descriptive, or
expository writing. McCann (1989) explains that this condition is triggered by the fact that most
students feel unable to learn the feature of formal argument from their daily oral interchange as they
learn to use narrative for telling story. Aside from it, he further states the condition in which students
are able to present their ideas and point of views, but they commonly unable to support their points
beyond general statement and personal opinion. Thus, argumentative writing remains difficult for
some students.
Based on the interviews conducted to both lecturers and students in order to acquire
information related to writing ability of English Department students of UNP, it was found out that
most students get dissatisfying scores in Essay Writing. Among 200 students taking Essay Writing in
2013/2014 academic year, 15 of them got A, 73 got B, 67 got C, 36 got D, and 9 of them got E. This
result indicates that the students‘ ability in composing argumentative essays is still far from
satisfactory. Regarding the students, they stated that they mostly have difficulties dealing with
writing argumentative essays. These obstacles are mainly related to their lack of ability to attain and
develop persuasive ideas, and also their inadequate comprehension with the issues discussed. In
addition, the interview result also revealed that most of the students tended to focus on the accuracy
of grammar in their writings, and they did not know the criteria of good arguments and how to make
them convincing.
This paper examines the students‘ ability in writing argumentative essays. The
argumentative elements occurred in students‘ essays were also analyzed in order to obtain a deeper
understanding on how the students developed and elaborated their arguments. In addition to
recognizing types of argumentation produced by the students and how significant their arguments
contributed to overall quality of students‘ essays, the strategies for solving the mostly appeared
problems are also presented.
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after another. These alternative defenses do not depend on each other to support the standpoint, and
they are, in principle, of equal weight. Different from multiple argumentation, the second type of
complex argument-coordinative argumentation- consists of a combination of arguments taken
together to defense a standpoint and constitute a conclusive defense. It indicates that these arguments
depend on other arguments as they will be weak if they are separated. The last type of complex
argumentation is subordinative argumentation. On this type, arguments are given layer after layer. It
means that if a certain argument is not adequate to support an initial standpoint, this argument will be
further supported by another argument. This process is done until the defense seems conclusive.
However, an argumentative essay is not all about arguments which are given to support a
standpoint. Since the main purpose of argumentative discussion is to resolve the difference of
opinion, it is expected that there will be counter arguments to rebut the standpoint. Therefore, Chase
(2011) through her research entitled ‗An Analysis of the Argumentative Writing Skills of
Academically Underprepared College Students‘ provides more elaboration of this argumentative
structure. First, she categorized standpoint into two categories: positive and negative standpoint. It is
considered positive (PS) if it expresses affirmative opinion about proposition or standpoint (Chase,
2011, p.101). On the other hand, negative opinion toward a standpoint is classified as negative
standpoint (NS). The supporting arguments for a standpoint are named as reasons (R) based on
Chase.
Arguments given layer after layer are known as subordinative arguments. Regarding
subordinative arguments, Chase (2011) differentiates these arguments into retrogressive and
progressive presentation. The former depicts that the reason that clinches the argument is given last,
with a chain of reasoning leads to this argument. It means that the reason that provides the base of
support is provided the last. Different from retrogressive, each succeeding reason can be taken as an
argument for the preceding reason in progressive form.
In the matter of arguments given to oppose a standpoint, Chase describes it in several terms.
First, alternative standpoint (AS) is a presented position that is directly opposed writers‘ stated
standpoint. This alternative standpoint can be elaborated in form of counterargument (CA) in which
it is a criticism or objection that can be used to undermine a person‘s standpoint. In order to defense a
writer‘s standpoint, he needs to provide rebuttal (RB) as a response to counterarguments. In addition,
this rebuttal not only expresses doubt about alternative standpoint but also undermines or weakens
the standpoint of counterargument. At the end of an essay, writers need to clearly restate their stand
towards an issue in concluding paragraph. It is useful to leave something to remember for readers and
to reinforce writer‘s standpoint.
In fact, not all statements given in an essay can be classified as relevant arguments to support
a standpoint. A writer sometimes gives repetition or any other information that does not appear to be
relevant to the topic. Chase (2011) defines these types of statements as nonfunctional units (NF).
3. RESEARCH METHOD
In this descriptive research, the data were collected from 20% of English students at UNP, in
2013/2014 academic year, who have completed their Writing courses and are taking TEFL class at
that time. Each student was assigned to write an argumentative essay consisting of 300-400 words
length. Then, the students‘ argumentative essays were scored and graphed in order to see the
argumentative elements used, and the quality of their essays. In order to gain reliable data, guideline
for identifying argumentative elements was provided along with the way to make the graph of
argumentative elements. The quality of the students‘ argumentative essays was analyzed by using
analytical scoring rubrics from Weigle (2002, p.118-19).
alternative standpoints. Meanwhile, for those who only remain neutral, they just have to present
arguments from both positive and negative points of view.
The finding shows that the students gave more emphasis on defending arguments to support
their standpoints rather than on counterarguments which strengthen their alternative standpoints. It
indicated that in writing argumentative essays, the students were merely able to discuss the issue
from two opposing points of view. They preferred to focus on elaborating their best-established
beliefs regarding the topic discussed. In other words, the students were difficult to position
themselves as the writers who are discussing an issue, but they tended to be the writers who are
defending their stands. This is not accordance with the basic concept of pragma-dialectical
framework in which its objective is to find the resolution of the difference of opinion, not to win the
debate.
This finding is in line with the prior research conducted by Chase (2011) in which the
students were not able to provide proper elaboration for the counterargument. Furthermore,
Nussbaum & Kardash (2005) state that students often do not realize that considering and rebutting
the opposing views often increases the persuasiveness of their own arguments. That is why they
tended to focus more on arguments defending their stand.
Regarding the quality of arguments, the students, on average, produced argumentative essays
which were partially developed. This finding is consistent with the previous research conducted on
academically underprepared college students (Chase, 2011) which showed that 69% of these students
did not develop their arguments well. The finding revealed that most of the students were only able to
elaborate either their defending arguments or counter arguments until argument level 2. It indicated
that the students had problem in elaborating their idea, and providing evidence for their arguments. It
might be caused by another essential problem faced by most of Indonesian students: lack of reading.
That is why their arguments were only about their personal experiences and subjective judgments.
In more detail, the developed essays were mainly produced by the students who presented the
equal number of defending arguments and counter arguments. Adequate support is one of the criteria
in assessing ideas and arguments based on Michigan Writing Assessment Guide as stated in Weigle
(2002). Adequate support is not about the quantity of supports given, but about the elaboration of the
supports themselves. Thus, it can be seen that the students who only provided a few number of
supports in the equal weight of defending and counter arguments were more able to elaborate their
ideas and evidence. This confirms a meta-analysis previously conducted by O‘Kefe (1999) who
conveys that texts consisted of the balance number of arguments and counterarguments were more
persuasive than those that did not.
However, in regard to the students remaining neutral, developed essays were performed by
the students presenting more support for negative standpoints. It suggests that there is a tendency
from the students to choose a certain stand, but they preferred not to state it explicitly. Moreover,
these students were learning several types of teaching method in their TEFL classes. Their
knowledge and understanding about other methods perhaps influence them to provide more supports
for negative standpoints, though they discussed it from both positive and negative standpoints. This
finding is inconsistent with the study carried out by Nussbaum and Kardash (2005) who found out
that the students with extreme attitude about the controversial issue (those who clearly state their
stand) generated fewer alternative standpoint than those with less extreme attitude (remain neutral).
Furthermore, Van Eemeren et al. (2002) convey that the defenses for the standpoint can be
presented in the form of single or complex arguments. Each type of complex argument has different
contribution to the strength of the defense. The finding of this study shows that developed arguments
were mostly presented in the form of multiple arguments. It indicated that the more evidence given to
support an argument, the better defense given for a stand. It is in line with the theory proposed by Van
Eemeren et al. (2002) which explains that the multiple arguments are the defenses which do not
depend on each other to support the standpoint. Hence, if the students give one weak chain of support
for the standpoint, it will not affect or weaken other supports since they theoretically stand alone and
do not influence each other.
In contrast, the subordinative arguments are the arguments presented layer after layer. It
means one support is the support for the initial one. In the matter of fact, the students are less able to
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give convincing evidence for the support given. Apparently, they are able to give the reason for their
claim, but they fail to prove why it is so. Thus, the arguments which were supported by subordinative
arguments only produce less qualified writing since one weak support will affect the strength of the
whole defense.
However, it does not mean that providing subordinative arguments weaken the defense, and
it must be avoided. Subordinative arguments would produce strong chain of defense if each layer can
prove or support the previous layer, and make them as a whole defense. Hence, it is better to give
multiple arguments which are then supported by strong chain of subordinative arguments.
In the other side, the student who did not discuss the issue from both perspectives
demonstrates minimally-developed discussion essays. It is possible to happen because they did not
compose them based on the concept of argumentative essays in which they have to see the issue from
two opposing points of view.
Regarding the analysis above, it can be stated that the students‘ main problem is in providing
the equal number of defending arguments and counter-arguments as a whole defense. Thus, the
following three strategies are expected to be able to help students in integrating their arguments and
counter-arguments (Nussbaum and Schraw, 2007)
b. Strategies to integrate arguments with counterarguments
In order to provide the equal weight of arguments and counter-arguments, a writer should be
able to think from two opposing points of view. It means that the writers do not only advance their
arguments in favor of their positions, but they also provide arguments discarding the other side‘s
arguments. By doing this, the writers will be able not only to give more support for their view but also
to rebut the counter-arguments. This strategy is called refutation strategy. Van Eemeren (1996) made
the distinction between strong and weak refutation. Strong refutation occurs when one attacks the
standpoint by showing that the preposition is unacceptable; meanwhile, the contradictory proposition
is acceptable. Casting doubt on the attacked standpoint without providing any defense for the
opposite standpoint is categorized as weak refutation.
The second strategy for integrating argument and counter-argument is synthesizing strategy.
Here, the writers develop an in-between position or solution that combines the merits of both sides. It
means that the writers still consider the opposing views but they try to develop a final conclusion
representing a compromise between the arguments and the counterarguments. For example, the
proposition states that children should not be allowed to watch TV because there are many violent
and negative programs broadcasted. The opposing view argues that watching TV for children
provides them with some useful knowledge. The argument as a result of synthesizing strategy is that
children should only be allowed to watch TV under parents‘ supervision so that any negative effects
can be minimized.
Weighing strategy is the third strategy to integrate arguments and counter-arguments.
Weighing the arguments means that you directly compare between them (Barghava, 2011). In the
other words, the writers try to argue that the weight of evidence of one side of the issue is stronger
than that from the other sides; therefore, the advantages of a solution outweigh the disadvantages.
5. CONCLUSION
Through this present study, it was found out that the students presented all argumentative
elements in their argumentative essays, and represented them in various structures of argument:
simple, multiple, subordinative, and coordinative argument. Furthermore, it was also found out that
the generation of counterargument can increase the persuasiveness of the students‘ arguments since it
indicated that the students defended his stand not only by concerning his supporting views but also
the opposing views which potentially able to weaken his stand. In addition, the characteristics of
multilingual learners also contribute to the argumentative elements presented.
REFERENCES
Barnet, Sylvan and Hugo Bedau. 2008. Critical Thinking, Reading, and Writing: A Brief Guide to
Argument. New York: Bedford/St.Martin‘s
Chase, B.J. 2011. An Analysis of Argumentative Writing Skills of Academically Underprepared
College Students. Unpublished Disertation. New York: Columbia University
Choi.J. 2005. A Contrastive Analysis of Argumentative Essays Written in English by Korean ESL
Students and by Native English-speaking Students. Unpublished Dissertation. Illinois:
Southern Illinois University
Derewianka, Beverly. 1991. Exploring How Texts Work. London: Heinemmann Educational Book.
Dietsch, Betty Mattix. 2003. Reasoning& Writing Well: A Rhetoric, Research Guide, Reader, and
Handbook. Ohio : McGraw-Hill
Ferretti, R. P., MacArthur, C. A,. & Dowdy, N. S. (2000). The Effects of and Elaborated Goal in the
Persuasive Writing if Students with Learning Disabilities and their normally Achieving
Peers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 694-702
Goshgarian et al. 2003. Dialogues: An argument Rhetoric and Reader. London: Longman
Groarke, L.A and Tindale.C.W. 2004. Good reasoning Matters! : A Constructive Approach to
Critical thinking. Ontario: Oxford University Press
Jago,C. 2005. Papers Papers Papers: An English Teacher‘s Survival Guide. Portsmouth: Heinemann
Knudson, R. 1992. Analysis of Argumentative Writing at Two Grade Levels . Journal of
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Mayberry, Katherine J. 2009. Everyday Arguments: A Guide to Writing and Reading Effective
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Martin, J.R.1992. Factual Writing: Exploring and Challenging Social Reality. Melbourne: Deakin
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McCann, T.M. 1989. Students Argumentative Writing Knowledge and Ability at Three Grade
Levels. Research in the Teaching of English, 23(1), pp. 62-76
Nussbaum, E, M., & Kardash, C. M. (2005). The Effects of Goal Instrumctions and Text in the
Generation of Counterarguments during Writing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97,
157-169.
Nussbaum, E, M.,n & Schraw, G. (2007). Promoting Argument counterargument integration in
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Ramage, John., et.al. 2009. Argument in Composition. Indiana: Parlor Press.
Reid,J.M. 2006. Essentials of Teaching Academic Writing: English for Academic Success. Boston:
Thomson Heinle
Saito,S. 2010. An Analysis of Argumentative Essays Of Thai Third-Year English Major Instructed
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Scanla.J.S. 2006. The Effect of Richard Paul‘s Universal Elements and Standards of Reasoning on
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Selzer, J. 2010. Rhetorical Analysis: Understanding How Texts Persuade Readers. In C.Bazerman
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Udomyamokkul,W. 2004. A genre-based approach to teaching argumentative writing: effects on
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Van Eemeren, F.H.,Grootensdorst,R.,&Henkemans,F.S. 2002. Argumentation: Analysis, Evaluation,
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Weinstock, Neuman. Y, and Tabak I. 2003. ‗Missing the Point or Missing the Norms?
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Wiwit Sariasih
Pamulang University Tangerang-Banten
sariasihwiwit@gmail.com
Abstract
Reading a literary works is the main concern for the students of literature department. Their activity
cannot be separated from reading any literary works such as drama, prose and poem. Moreover,
reading is an activity to grasp the meaning to understand the author ideas and intention hence to
appreciate what lies in it. Therefore the students should aware much with the language which is used
in poem, drama and prose. Teaching literary appreciation means using language awareness to
sharpen their sensitivity to the language use in certain context. Critical thinking on the other side can
be used to help students aware with the use of language of the literary works. Thus the teacher should
cultivate students‘ language awareness and critical thinking in teaching literary appreciation.
1. INTRODUCTION
Literature is not an easy thing to be defined especially in defining what it is talk about or the
message that lies behind the sentences, the picture, or the expression of an actor as he/she plays the
character. People may find that reading the literary works such as prose and poem is a time consuming
that may bring them into many different paths and yet still cannot understand what it is about. Even
though the language that is found in the literary works especially poem and prose is very common but
when reading it the reader need to be aware of the language itself or has a sense of language which is
known as language awareness.
The language is not only a set of words, grammar, and structure, but it also deals with the
relationship between forms and meaning, the sensitivity of the language and conscious knowledge of
the language. Therefore, reading the prose and poem is not the same like reading the newspaper,
magazine, and textbook. The reader should aware with the language of poem and prose and the culture
that lies behind them. Reading a literary is always challenging since the language is not only a
reflection of the reader‘s thought and feeling but it also brings the emotions, the experience, and the
socio-cultural background. Trying to understand any literary works means the reader is not only focus
on the words and the meaning of it but what really hides behind it is the actual massage that the writer
wants the reader to find out.
The awareness of the language of the literature can be sharpened through reading practice. The
reading practice is not only by applying all strategies in reading but the most important is by noticing
every element of prose and poem starting from the title up to last line of them. The reader critical
thinking is very useful in guiding him/her to understand the piece of literary works.
Readers‘ critical thinking can help them in searching deepest meaning of the prose or poem
moreover, it also helps them to see the other side of it or what lies behind it. The critical thinking itself
need to be practiced so the reader can use it not only to understand the prose or poem but also to
appreciate it. In literary appreciation class, the teacher is not only assigned the students to read the
prose or poem but also discuss about the relationship between form and meaning and linguistic
intuition.
This paper discuss the language awareness and the implementation of critical thinking to guide
students in reading literary works such as prose and poem in literary appreciation class. The paper is
written based on the writers‘ experienced in teaching literary appreciation class.
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2. LANGUAGE AWARENESS
Language awareness is widely concerned by the EFL teachers because they do not only teach
English but also have a pedagogical knowledge to train the students to be aware of the
language-English-that they learnt or how the language works. Since language is not a set of vocabulary
in a well formed sentence and correct grammar. The idea of language awareness was promoted in
1980‘s by Eric Hawkins who also called as ‗the father‘ of language awareness. But then what is
language awareness and why it is important in teaching English as foreign language especially literary
appreciation would be discussed first.
Language awareness is defined in many ways but the main concern is; it is talking about the
intuitive of the language or the sensitivity of a language use. Donmall (1985) as quoted by Ellis (2012)
states ‗Language awareness is a person‘s sensitivity to and conscious awareness of language and its
role in human life.‘ There are three important points that related with language awareness first;
person‘s sensitivity to the language which means people may learn, have, and use a language but it
might lose the sense if he/she has no knowledge about what the language is actually uttered by the
people. For example; when a person roared ‗Do that again, you‘re dead‘ while gripped the driver‘s
front shirt the reader might think that it is a rude and mean language that is used to threatening the
driver. But if the reader use a language awareness, he/she will examined the context of the language;
when and where it was uttered, to who, and why and what is the cultural background and the condition
that makes such word is uttered. Then, he/she will understand that it is not only talking about one
person is threatening the other but it is also about the consequences that the person‘s would face when
breaking the rules.
Second, person‘s conscious awareness of a language which means every sentence or words has
its own purposed and meaning. Thus, a language should not seen on the surface structure but also in the
deep structure. In other words, a language is not only about what message is carried but also why the
message is carried in that form of sentence and the reason and purpose of it. By continuously aware of
the language the people will have no language barrier while having a communication.
Third, person‘s sensitivity and conscious aware of the language‘s role in human‘s life, which
means the language is not only a tool for communication but it is also a reflection of the people in
communicating with others. How the language is uttered and used by the people is an identity of the
attitude, belief, and culture that he/she has. Therefore, trying to understand the language is also means
trying to understand the human itself.
As people consciously aware of the language use, then they would see the language in different
way which is not merely related with form and meaning but also how it reflects and affects them.
Another definition of language awareness is proposed by Schmidt (1995) who points out the language
awareness into four areas of consciousness; intention, attention, awareness and control. The intention
is a contrast of intentional and incidental learning, attention consists of noticing and focusing,
awareness means having knowledge of and control deals with a routine task of language use. The
language awareness then related with the constant use of a language and the cognitive aspect of the
people. Schmidt (1995) as quoted by Soons (2008) says that a low level of awareness refers to noticing
and a high level of awareness refers to understanding, which he defines as ―recognition of a general
principle, rule or pattern‖, that is to say the recognition of a deeper level of abstraction.
Association for Language Awareness (ALA) states that LA can be defined as ―explicit
knowledge about language, and conscious perception and sensitivity in language learning, language
teaching and language use‖ (ALA, 2012). Thus, it signaling that the language teacher should teach the
language awareness to their students through consciously stimulating their sensitivity to the language.
It clearly understood that the teaching of literature should continuously and consciously train the
students to be aware to the language of the literature. The teacher should train students to talk about the
language as an attitude and values as it has effective element. LA, on the other hand, involves teachers
‗talking about language‘; it has an ―affective element – it engages and helps to evolve attitudes and
values‖ … it encourages teachers to become ―autonomous and robust explorers of language‖ (Wright
and Bolitho;1993 as quoted by Ellis 2012). Thus, it is important for the teacher of literary appreciation
to teach students to use their intuition to understand what the poem or prose really talks about.
The literary works itself needs a lot of effort in gather all attention and intention in reading it.
However it becomes difficult when the students have low motivation in reading it. The writer found
that the students often complaint that the words of the poem or prose are difficult that when they try to
find the meaning in dictionary it leads to nowhere. They also complaint that reading it takes time but
then they still do not get what it talks about. The problem becomes greater when the students have low
motivation in reading and commit that they do not like reading as it is difficult to understand it. If the
teacher does not find an active and creative teaching that makes students more active in learning the
literary appreciation, the class would become passive with poor result of the learning. Therefore, to
create a positive atmosphere and increase students‘ motivation in reading a literary works the writer
stimulates students‘ critical thinking. By activating students‘ critical thinking, the teaching learning
process of literary appreciation became more active that the students were involved in discussion
3. CRITICAL THINKING
A critical thinker, is a call name for those who are able to see both side of issue proportionally,
talk openly on new evidence, take the conclusion by inferring to the evidence solve the problem etc.
Becoming a person who has a critical thinking takes a long and complicated process that he/she should
have the higher order thinking skill; analyzing the evidence and sort of information through reflective
thinking, evaluating the information, evidence, and fact before taking the conclusion or making a
decision, and the skill in making or creating a new idea or concept after analyzing and evaluating some
information and evidence. This critical thinking skill is very essential for the students in any field of
study. Teaching critical thinking skill means teaching students to be able to identifying central issue,
distinguishing fact from opinion, making judgment based on the analysis and evaluation, etc.
Before discussing further about the critical thinking, let‘s first discuss about the definition of
critical thinking. The definition of critical thinking is mainly discussed on two approaches; cognitive
and educational. In cognitive approach, there are; first Sternberg (1998) in Lai (2011) who defines
critical thinking as ―the mental processes, strategies, and representations people use to solve problems,
make decisions, and learn new concepts‖. Second, Willingham (2007) states ―critical thinking is
seeing both sides of an issue, being open to new evidence that disconfirms your ideas, reasoning
dispassionately, demanding that claims be backed by evidence, deducing and inferring conclusions
from available facts, solving problems, and so forth‖.
The cognitive psychology approach, views the critical thinking as the cognitive process that
covers the strategy to learn and to separate the information or the evidence into the fact and opinion.
The evidence then would be analyze and evaluate in order to solve certain problem or even make a
decision. The process of achieving critical thinking itself is an open argument that the people ought to
see the both side of ‗story‘ before making a judgment. This process needs the creative thinking and
patient feeling since they have to challenge the ideas with other. All of the process is called a mental
process because it requires continues practice and discomfort feeling while analyzing and challenging
the opinion or ideas with other people.
The second approach namely educational approach is promoted by Benjamin Bloom and his
associates. Their taxonomy is well-known as the higher order thinking skill that promotes the critical
thinking. The Bloom‘s taxonomy of the higher order thinking skills covers; analysis, synthesis and
evaluation. The analysis and synthesis skills require the teacher to activate students‘ critical thinking
by seeing the thing not as it is seen in barely eyes but to dig inside and find out what actually lies
behind the surface. The synthesis is a skill for the students to distinguish certain category of
information and then taking the conclusion. The last skill is evaluation that is the students evaluate the
evidence and information to get the idea of its actual message. Burden and Byrd (1994) quoted by
baker (2001) categorize critical thinking as a higher-order thinking activity that requires a set of
cognitive skills. This definition is in accordance with Bloom‘s taxonomy that categorized as promoting
critical thinking.
The two approaches that defined the critical thinking show that the critical thinking is related
with the cognitive domain which is activated as the people get knowledge at the school. The teacher in
this case has a big contribution in activating students‘ higher order thinking skill which is then requires
students to think critically. The teacher teach the students some sets of critical thinking skills such as;
making inference, distinguishing between verifiable facts and value claims, distinguishing relevant
from irrelevant information, claims, and reasons, determining factual accuracy of a statement,
determining credibility of a source, identifying ambiguous claims or arguments, identifying unstated
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assumptions, detecting bias, identifying logical fallacies, recognizing logical inconsistencies in a line
of reasoning, and determining the strength of an argument or claim. Those skills are strong needed
when the students read any kinds of material and think critically about some set of evidence or
information.
In short, critical thinking is an outcome of students‘ learning. It helps students in facing the
world and the workplace. The students need to think critically in order to grasp the real message and in
engaging in the global issues. Therefore, the teacher should have the skill of critical thinking and then
train students to activate their critical thinking.
5. DISCUSSION
Teaching literary appreciation is basically to introduce the students to English literature, read it
to grasps the meaning or message or emits the hidden message and finally the students will like it and
enjoy it. However, those purposes will flown away if the teacher blindly select one of the literary work
form famous poet and writer without considering the language and cultural barrier. The teacher will
start to complaint that the students do not read it seriously or use their ability in reading or have no
sense of arts. Meanwhile, the real problem might come from the language of the story or poem and the
differences of cultural background that they carried on. As the students have difficulties in
understanding the language and the culture of the story it will slow them down in reading and
interpreting the meaning. In this case, the teacher is a tool of teaching literary appreciation itself that
he/she should actively prepare the material by considering the language, the cultural background, teach
students to be aware with the language and figure out what the story or poem talk about by activating
their critical thinking.
The teacher is not only has a function of teaching literary appreciation but also to serve
language learning which means the language learning is the first target while literature appreciation is
the second. Then, what should the teacher do? Before teaching the subject of literary appreciation at
first the writer studies the syllabus and the students after that observed the students‘ reading ability and
interest. These are very crucial because the teacher should aware much with the topic of literary
appreciation subject and think of the material that merit with each topic discussion. While choosing the
material, the teacher prepare a set of question that leads students to carefully analyze every line and
guide them to be aware of the language and activate their sense of language. The teacher might start
with the simple poem and story but reflects the culture and the language that commonly used in real
life.
As the writer examined the students reading ability, she found that most students have low
intention and interest in reading activity. There are many reasons that had been collected. Generally,
they said that first; the vocabulary is difficult and is not familiar or commonly used in any reading
material such as text book and magazine. Second, reading a literary works is torturing them because
they have to read it several times that slowing them down and even lose their passion in reading it.
Third, reading takes time that it is hard for them to have a quality time to read because 70% of the
students are part time worker. Thus, considering these fact the writer decided to train students to be
aware with the language-in this case English- and activate their critical thinking to grasps the meaning
and message. Critical thinking in addition is also valuable in train students to be aware with the
language of the poem and the prose. Meanwhile for the poem the writer started with the simple poem
rather than the famous poem with ‗heavy‘ language.
The first poem that the writer brought to the class is ‗It is Impossible‘ written by Ross
Falconer. The poem was given with absent title and the students was directed to read it and take a quick
response about what the poem is about. Surprisingly even though the word choice is considered
common but they have difficulties in understanding it. However few of the students said that it is about
the kids and their parents, the employee and the employer, or the children selfishness. Then, the writer
guide students to get the whole meaning by giving several question to activate their critical thinking
such as; How do you know it is about children and parents? What is the clue?
IT IS IMPOSSIBLE
It is impossible
for anyone to enter
our small world.
The adults don‘t
understand us
they think
we‘re childish.
No-one can get in
our world
It has wall twenty feet high
and adults
Have only ten feet ladder
‗Ross Falconer‘
The next step is finding out how the kids describe their world or life. The writer asks the
students to drive their memory back to the time when they were a kid and ask them to figure out how
they see them self through the interaction with the people around them. They have to make a list on
their paper and then make another list about the life of the kids that the poem talks about by asking
them to search from any sources that they have-the simple way is from the movie. The students are
guided to figure out the relationship between the kids and their parents. At the end of the session they
have a clear understanding that this poem is not talking about the children who protested the parents to
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be treated like adult but to understand that just like adult their life has a meaning. Even by playing it has
a meaning and their world just like adult is often bored, flat, and exciting.
The material then can be moved to a bit difficult and in this case the writer chose ―Ballad of
Birmingham‘.
BALLAD OF BIRMINGHAM
―Mother dear, may I go downtown
Instead of out to play,
And march the streets of Birmingham
In a Freedom March today?‖
This poem has a cultural background of black people in United Stated of America and
describing about the time when USA struggle from racial issue when apartheid. To be able to
understand the poem then, the writer gives brief and short story of the condition in Birmingham ‗a city
where apartheid was very strong. Several of questions were given such as why the mother prefers their
children to church? What can the children have there? Does it save in church? In your country which
places that your parents think the safeties place. The focus attention first on the two first part or stanza
then to the last two part of the poem where the agony of a mother loosing the children is told.
The same process was done but this time the students were asked to make a question related to
those lines and then discussed the answered in a small group. After half of the semester, the writer
found that the students enjoyed reading the poem even prose. When they were ask to make a questions
based on the poem and then discussed the answer in small group they cannot wait to have another one
in the following meeting
6. CONCLUSION
Reading a literary works is not blindly using the skill and strategy in reading. But it is about
make the feeling works together with the skill and strategy. The sensitivity of language should be first
be introduced and trained. Once it works then the students will begin to realize the language awareness
is needed in reading and appreciating the literary works. Meanwhile, the critical thinking can be used
to make students more aware with what they read and what information that can be find in any material
they read.
REFERENCES
Baker, Matt. Relationships between Critical and Creative Thinking University of Florida Journal of
Southern Agricultural Education Research Volume 51, Number 1, 2001
Donmall, B.G (ed) (1985). Language Awareness. NCLE papers and reports 6London: Centre of
Information on Language Teaching Research.
Ellis, Elizabeth M.(2012) Language Awareness and It‘s Relevance to TESOL Sidney: University of
Sidney.
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Yashori Revola
State Institute of Islamic Study (IAIN) Bengkulu
revolory@yahoo.com
Abstract
There was a fact that most of the sixth semester students are still low in English speech. Therefore, the
main objective of this study was to find the factors and dominant factors that faced by the sixth
semester students in English speech. The population was the sixth semester students of English
department STAIN Bengkulu in academic year of 2011/2012 with a total number of 69 students. The
researcher took all of the students as sample. This descriptive quantitative research was used
questionnaires as the instrument to gather the data. The data obtained were analyzed by using
percentage formula. The result of the research for the overall factors analysis showed that (64,6%) the
students gave negative responses on the questionnaires give. It mean that average of English students
face the problem in English speech as mentioned on the questionnaires. The finding showed that the
factors that faced by the sixth semester students was anxiety (35,7%), self-esteem (33,5%), and
motivation (30,8%). The dominant factor that faced by the students in English speech was anxiety
(35,7%).
1. INTRODUCTION
In daily activities, language plays an important role. Language is the important instrument in
human life. By language a man can communicative, convey or obtain pieces of important to each other.
Basically, language is a tool for conveying human ideas, opinion, and feeling. In using a language, we
are demanded to understand what is meant by speaker. In addition, in global era, it‘s difficult to finding
a good job. One must prepare himself with knowledge and skills that are needed and suitable with
world of work. So, they can competence one of skill needed at the world of work is an able to
communicative in foreign language, in this case, English.
In Indonesia, English was the first foreign language that was tough to the student as one of
compulsory subject from Elementary school up to college or University. Like other subject, English
has its own curriculum which was needed for successful in learning and teaching process. A
curriculum usually includes the objective, a list of teaching point and suggestion for evaluation.
People can communicate with each other by using language. It brings idea, opinions, thoughts,
and feelings. Based on Mattews, Candace (1994: 60) stated that, communications skills consist of
building confidence, improving your delivery, including specific information, speaking from notes,
pronunciation practice and learning strategies. English is the first foreign language in Indonesia which
was important to transfer and gain knowledge, science and technology, art and culture, and establish
international relationship. It takes an important role in education as a foreign language, which is taught
from elementary, junior high school, senior high school, and university levels. It was a compulsory
subject which develops language skill and the components of language such as grammar, vocabulary,
and pronunciation. Another opinion said, ―speaking is the skill to express the mind, ideas, and felling.
Speaking in public can sometimes be a real challenge, if not a source of embarrassment not only to
formal people but even to persons of high rank such as scholars, doctors, etc. They may have
hesitations in facing an audience, often accompanied by sweaty palms, stuttering, and the tip of the
tongue phenomenon. These dilemmas often cause untold problems to the speaker especially in
selfexpression and unpleasant effects to the audience. Aristotle said ―a speaker needs three qualities,
good sense, good character, and good will toward his hearers.‖
Ayres and Milleer(1994: 4) stated that English speech or public speaking is one form
communication that can make a vast difference in your ability to influence decisions in the public and
private sectors. In public speech, you have to opportunity to deliver an uninterrupted message to a few
individuals or a few million individuals. Public speaking share much with other types of
communication. It was also different in a number of respects. People from all walks of life need to
speak in public, whether formally or otherwise.
Speaking in the public is not easy like our imagines. Based on Amy (2010:1) For many people,
standing up in public and doing a speech is one of their greatest fear. There are many people like to
speak a lots, but when they have an opportunity to speak in front of a large audience they felt anxiety or
nervous at that time. Not only that but also there are some people excellent in writing, but they are poor
when they have a chance to speak in the public. On the other hand, delivery speech is one of the most
important for the people or students to be successful in their business, carrier, academic, and their
social life that support them to easier in face this global era. Most of people, at some point in their life,
will need to stand up and speak in front of a group of people to be successfully, Amy (2010:1) . So,
public speaking is very important that should be learned by students to be successful.
Unfortunately, many students‘ were getting problems to speak in front of a large audience. It
caused by the students‘ that ever studied at Elementary school up to University in Indonesia rarely to
practice English, reluctant to do it, and they prefer speaking Indonesian languages or native language
to English.
Based on the statement above, the writer was interested in analyzing the problem of the
students‘ in English speech at sixth semester of English Department STAIN Bengkulu in Academic
Year 2011-2012.
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
1. The Concept of Speech
The value of effective communication extends into the political arena, as well as our privates
lives. The message is clear – the better communicator you were, the better your chances for a rich,
satisfying life. Speaking is so much a part of daily life that we take it for granted (Thornbury, 2003:1).
The average person produces tens of thousands of word a day, although some people – like auctioneers
or politicians – may produce even more than that. So natural and integral was speaking that we forget
how we once struggled to achieve this ability – until, that is, we have to learn how to it all over again in
a foreign language. In addition, Finochiaro in Harsiwi, (2008:6) claimed that speaking is a real
language, which mean that the capability to communicate in a language can be concluded that
speaking. It could be concluded that speaking is interaction between speaker and listener, which
involves several aspect such as ideas, message, information, and feeling. Those aspects are structurally
depending on speaker and listener on how they create the conversation. Speaking ability is very
important for human interaction. People almost speak everywhere and every day. In global era, many
people speak using English as a mean of communication. It makes people who come from different
countries to be easier in making interaction and communicate using English. According to Ur
(1991:129), speaking is how to greet, take leave, begin and end conversation, apologize, thank
and so on. Practicing English speaking was difficult for most of the students who learned English
as their foreign or a second language. They were afraid of what they say will be misunderstood by the
other people, because it was not used in their everyday lives.
Speech is essentially movement (Allen, 1960:1). Broadly speaking, a reasonably
correct speech-flow is more important for intelligibility than correct sound. It is possible
to carry on an intelligible English conversation in a series of mumbles and grunts, provided
the voice movement was correct. Speaking is one way to communicate which ideas and
though a message orall y. To enable students to communicate, we need to appl y the
language in real communication. When English was spoken, we can hear that some syllables
stand out above the others. This can be quite an objective feature of speech, since it was just as marked
when reading a list of words from a dictionary as when we were engaged in conversation.
Rebecca (2006:144) stated that speaking is the first mode in which children acquire language,
it constitutes the bulk of most people‘s daily engagement with linguistic activity, and it is the prime
motor of language change. It also provides our main data for understanding bilingualism and language
contact. Based on Ur (1996) the four skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing), speaking seems
intuitively the most important: people who know a language are referred to as speaker of that language,
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as if speaking included all other kinds of knowing and many if not most foreign language learners are
primarily interested in learning to speak. It was develop learners ability to express themselves through
speech would therefore seem an important component of a language course.
In addition, when people hear someone speak, they pay attention to what the speaker sound
like almost automatically (Louma, 2004:9-10). On the basis of what they hear, they make some
tentative and possibly subconscious judgment about the speaker‘s personality, attitude, home region
and native/non-native speaker status. As speakers, consciously or unconsciously, people use their
speech to create an image of themselves to others. By using speed and pausing and variations in pith,
volume, and intonation they also create a texture for their talk that support and enhance what they are
saying. The sound of people‘s speed was meaningful, and that is why this is important for assessing
speaking. According to Brown (2001: 267), speaking is demonstration of an ability to accomplish
pragmatic goals through interactive discourse with other speakers of the language.
2. The importance of Speech
Cronkhite (1978) stated that speech is really a speaker‘s means of broadcasting part of his or
her mental image when an audience considers that part of that image important enough to be broadcast.
For example, when they feel they may want to adopt the part of a speakers image. What you are doing
as you prepare a speech is considering how your mental image corresponds to those of your listener.
Success in English speech can open a whole world of opportunities for you. It can help you
conquer new frontiers. Based on Hamilton K.E (2003:2), there were three benefits of speech such as
personal benefits, practical benefits, and cultural benefits.
First, personal benefit is consist of Learn to be more sensitive and skilled communicator,
Public speaking encourages you to look inside yourself and explore what matter to you--> share, Learn
to consider listener-what do they want, need, like, care about, Learn the power of speech – words have
emotional content, Word can hurt, heal, create, built, transform, In the beginning there was only
speech---learner may only have speech, Learn to focus topic, how to structure, learn to listen, critically
evaluate, discriminate type of message, appeal is it valid?, Learn to be active in learning—speak up
and learn.
Second is practical benefits, it is consist of Can give or get help in class, Oral communications
always one of top skill demanded by employer – what occupation doesn‘t need it?, Learn to speak
concisely, clearly, and confidently, Will help you speak out in important situations, as parent, citizen,
customer, tax payer social benefits, Nature of human to form group, depend on communication skills,
Learn ability to persuade others---change things for better—be involved-seek civil justice, human
rights-democracy – freedom of speech
Third is cultural benefit. In here, the students or people will get the benefits that consist of
Learn to avoid ethnocentrism - one view that was right excludes many and Learn to avoid stereotype –
all not one race/culture – look at many cultures – expand point of view --- learn to know individual –
each a unique expression of many features --- what groups do you belong to?.
From the explanation of some experts above, we know that there are benefits for the students
in English speech. Some of the benefits are personal benefit, practical benefit, and cultural benefit.
Success in English speech or public speaking can open a whole world of opportunities for us. It can
help us conquer new frontiers. It also can broaden our horizons through personal development,
influence, and advances in our profession. Through speech or public speaking tools like research,
conceptualization, and organization, we will have a systematic and effective way of presenting our
ideas. In the other hand, it was make sure that English speech is very important for human life
especially for personal life and others people. So, we should learn it to take successful in our life.
3. Students Problems in Speaking or English Speech
As the others skill, such as listening, writing, and reading, in teaching and learning speaking or
speech, we will also probably find some problems. The problem could be the inappropriate that are
used by the teacher and also the problems that come from the people or student itself. The problems
that come from the students were the main aspect that usually found in teaching and learning speaking
or speech. According to Brown (2000:142), there are some problems or factors that faced by the
students in speaking English or English speech:
a. Anxiety
Speech anxiety is not new – it‘s been around for as long as people have been talking to one
another. Most speakers who have experienced speech anxiety know the importance of being calm and
confident when speaking. According to Hornby in Lestari (2010:14), anxiety is the state of feeling
nervous or worried that something bad is going to happen. Another opinion, anxiety is concern and
fear, especially about what might happen (Manser in Lestari, 2010:14).
Some feel nervous while other stays calm and relaxed when speaking. Factor in speech anxiety
differ from person to person. But general factors apply to all of us.
Knowing the cause of speech anxiety is the first step in managing it effectively. Many
anxiety-generating factors affect nearly all of us based on The Module As A Guide For
Teaching-Learning Public Speech, including:
1. Poor preparation
2. Inappropriate self-expectations
3. Fear of evaluation
4. Excessive self-focusing
5. Fear of the audience
6. Not understanding our body‘s reaction
In addition, Ayres and Miller (1994: 22) also stated that there are three aspects of a situation contribute
to the degree of speech anxiety a person feels, they are:
a. Novelty
Novelty concern doing things that are new and unfamiliar. For many people, giving a speech is
a rare event. But even experienced speakers can encounter novel circumstances. For instance, teacher
who were comfortable talking to the students encounter a novel situation when asked to address their
peers or to deliver a course to a television camera for the first time. Fear of doing new thing is probably
tied to failure in such situations in the past.
b. Conspicuousness
Conspicuousness means that you stand out from the audience. For instance, you probably feel
conspicuous when, after quietly sitting in a large audience, you stand to make a remark. You are
suddenly the center of attention. Standing apart from the audience, as is the case in delivering a speech,
provides a degree of conspicuousness that can intensify feelings of speech anxiety.
c. Audience Characteristics
Audience characteristic can greatly affect speech anxiety. These include size, status,
familiarity, and behavior. Most people feel more fear with larger audiences. We usually experience
more fear facing higher status audiences, because individuals with higher status were in position to
reward or punish us. In essence, the risk potential was higher with such an audience than with one of
lower status. Unfamiliar audiences produce higher anxiety because we are less able to predict their
response. Lastly, the audience‘s behavior can influence our influence our feelings of speech anxiety. If
the audience was visibly angry, bored or inattentive, such behavior may heighten our anxiety.
b. Self-esteem
Self-esteems are probably the most pervasive aspect of students‘ behavior. It could be easily
be claimed that no successful cognitive or affective activity can be carried out without some degree of
self-esteem, self-confidence, knowledge of students, and belief on students own capabilities for that
activity. Malinowski in Brown (2000:145) noted that all human being have a need for communication,
defining oneself and finding acceptance in expressing that self in relations valued others. Personality
development universally involves the growth of a student‘s concept of self, acceptance of self, and
reflection of self as seen in the interaction between self and others.
By self-esteem, we refer to the evaluation which students make and customarily maintain with
regard to themselves, it expresses an attitude of approval or disapproval, and indicates the extent to
which students believe them self to be capable, significant, successful, and worthy. In short,
self-esteem was students‘ judgment of worthiness that it expresses in the attitudes that students hold
toward themselves. It was a subjective experience which the student conveys to others by verbal
reports and other overt expressive behavior.
Students derive their sense of self-esteem from the accumulation of experiences with
themselves and with others and from assessment of the external world around them. Three general
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levels of self-esteem have been described in the literature to capture its multidimensionality (Brown,
2000: 145):
a. Generally, self-esteem was said to be relatively stable in a mature students, and is resistant to
change except by active and extended therapy. It was the general or prevailing assessment
ones makes one‘s own worth over time and across a number of situations. In a sense, it might
be analogized to a statistical mean or median level of overall self-appraisal.
b. Specifically, self-esteem refers to one‘s self-appraisal in particular life situations, such as
social interaction, work, education, home, or on certain relatively discretely defined traits,
such as intelligence, communicative ability, or personality traits like gregariousness, empathy,
and flexibility. The degree or specific self-esteem a student has may vary depending upon the
situation or the traits in question.
c. Motivation
According to Harmer (1998:51) Motivation is some kind of internal drive which pushes
someone to do think in order to achieve something. In addition, Brown (2000: 164), there are two types
of motivation, they were intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. In learning process, motivation was an
important an important aspect where it decides students to get success in second language learning.
The student that has low motivation will get difficult in learning English for speaking or English
speech. The low motivation in speaking or English speech appears in teaching and learning process,
like the student do not want to speak English, keeping silent when discussion take place, feeling
un-happy in learning English, especially when the students are practicing English, and without having
lecturer‘s support. Motivation was the reason want to do something, oxford (2000:279). In addition,
students‘ problem in motivation to English speech was influenced by:
1. Practicing
According to Manser, (2005:335) Practice is an action rather than ideas in doing an activity
regularly or training regularly to improve your skill. Practice, practice, and more practice will help to
overcoming your fear in English speech (Jane, 2010:2). In classroom or outside, some students are
reluctant to take their friends and people in speaking English or English speech in English. They
choose to speak using mother language or their native language than in English. This condition often
happens in the classroom and outside of classroom. They do not have motivation to speak English.
They do not realize it has big impact to their English progress especially for English speaking
competence.
the words and sentences to speak out, fearful of criticism or losing face, or simply shy of the attention
that their speech attracts.
2. Nothing to Say
Sometimes we found that the students are difficult to express and share their ideas or thought.
Even if they not inhibited, we often hear that the students complain in the classroom that they cannot
think of anything to say, they have no motive to express themselves beyond the guilty feeling that they
should be speaking. Besides that, the students also have nothing to say because they do not know the
context of what is talking about.
3. Low or Uneven Participation
Participation is taking part of or become involved in an activity, Oxford Dictionary (1995:
299). Participation is also one of aspects of successful speech or speaking. It means that in learning
speech or speaking we need active or a lot of participation from the students.
In fact, we are often found that the students have low or uneven participation in speech or speaking
activity in the classroom. This is also a significant problem that affects the process of learning speech
itself. It is often that in classroom only one participant can talk at a time if he or she is to be heard; and
in a large group this means that each one will have only very little talking time. This problem is
compounded by the tendency of some learners to dominate, while others speak very little or not at all.
4. Mother-Tongue Use
In learning English speech or speaking ability, we also found that the students sometimes
speak by the using of their mother tongue. This problem occurred because they do not know how to
arrange the words or sentences to say. Besides that, mother tongue used is also a problem in speech
activities that influences the accuracy of speech or speaking activity and it can also make others
students confuse to comprehend what is talking about by the speaker.
In collecting the data, the researcher used questionnaire. The researcher distributed the
questionnaire to the sample. Then, the result of the questionnaire will be displayed in table percentage
of the problems. After that, the percentage will be ranked by the researcher to decide the problems and
dominant problems that make the sixth semester students‘ of TBI program STAIN Bengkulu difficult
in English speech.
5. Validity and Reliability of the Test
The validity of a test was the extent to which it measures what it was supposed to measure and
nothing else (J.B Heaton: 1998). The validity and reliability were very important to determine
appropriateness and usefulness of a measurement instrument. According to Santoso (2000: 270), there
were two important of requisite in questionnaire, they were a questionnaire that have to validity and
reliable. Validity was degree to which correct inferences can be made on the basis of results obtained
from an instrument. It depends not only on the instrument itself, but also on the instrumentation and
characteristics of the group studied. In order to measure the instrument validity and reliability, in this
case, researcher uses SPSS (Statistical Product and Service Solutions) to count the data.
From 30 items which were tried out, it was found that not all the items were valid. There were
10 items that not valid. So that, the writer took 20 items which were valid as the instrument of the
study.
In finding the reliability of the instrument, the writer used Alpha Cronbach formula, where the
data will be reliable if the result of the Alpha Cronbach more than of the t-count result. The result of
Alpha Cronbach in this research was 0.900. It could be judged that the test was reliable, because the
reliability coefficient of the test obtained was more than 0.240.
6. Technique for Analyzing Data
Percentage and range score scale, will use to process the data employ. The percentage formula
was proposed by Arikunto (2006:235):
F
P x100%
N
P : Percentage of the students score
F : Frequency of students score
N : The number of students
In interpreting the score, the researcher divides the four options into two group, they
were:
a. Negative response was the combination of ―strongly agree‖ and ―agree‖
b. Positive response was the combination of ―strongly disagree‖ and ―disagree‖
Figure 4.4
Graph for the students’ problem in English speech (Anxiety factor, self-esteem factor, and
motivation factor)
Based on the figure 4 above, the highest percentage was anxiety in negative response of
strongly agree (39,8%). Whereas, the lowest percentage was motivation in negative response of
strongly agree (33,4%).
Negative Positive
No Factors Response Response Total
% % %
1 Anxiety 69,2 30,8 100
2 Self-esteem 64,8 35,2 100
3 Motivation 59,8 40,2 100
The table above shows generally about 64,6% of the English students‘ at the sixth semester of
English study program STAIN Bengkulu Academic Year 2011/2012 gave negative responses to the
questionnaire. It means that they faced some problems in English speech based on the three factors.
The table above shows that the anxiety factor (69,2%) has a great influence to the students‘ in English
speech. The second place was self-esteem (64,8%), and the lowest percentage was motivation (59,8%).
2. Discussion
Based on the result above, the researcher found that more than half of students‘ at sixth
semester of English study program STAIN Bengkulu academic year 2011/2012 faced some problems
in English speech. In this research based on the ranking, it seems the anxiety problem affect students‘
in English speech. Then, it is followed by self-esteem and motivation problem.
The result of this research shows that the most dominant problem that hinders students‘ in
English speech was Anxiety. Anxiety cannot be avoided from learning activity. In English speech
surely it was also happened, English speech was the most provoking anxiety of all. From the result of
this research, most of the student were anxious because they were afraid of making mistakes when
speech English.
Other item of the anxiety problem that has not affect the anxiety of the students‘ was afraid and
nervous when delivering a speech that make the student forget what thing that will he or she deliver.
This is supported by Ayres and Miller (1994:20) state that a great many other students report speech
anxiety to be an important problem, and almost all of our students report having experienced speech
anxiety at one time or another. One of the cause was the students are often reluctant to participate in a
public speech class or activities because most of them were self conscious and do not like to appear
stupid in front of their peers. The students were really afraid of failure, laughter, and ridicule.
The next factor was Self-esteem. Speech proficiency is supported by abilities such as
grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competence. Each competence influences
students to speech English. This research shows that the students were un-confident to speech English
because difficult to make the sentence systematically, the students un-confident to speech English
because the students cannot understand how to speech perfectly, and the students un-confident to
speech English because the students speak English too slow had the highest percentage in the
self-esteem problem.
The last problem that faced by English students‘ in English speech was motivation. The
result of this research shows that the motivation was the last problem and it waas the lowest problem
that faced by English students in English speech. So, from this problem, it can happen because we had
knowing that motivation makes students devote their effort to pursue their goals. Here, their goals are
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to be able to speech English. Students who have higher motivation will do anything. Even will make
them cooked foolish in front of others. So, since the students do not find anything that will motivate
them to speech. It is intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, it will be really hard for them to start speech
English.
From the result, it was also known that the motivation affected the students‘ reluctance to
speech English is the environment. The students said that the lecturer seldom to teach them.
REFERENCES
Arikunto, S. (2006). Prosedur Penelitian Suatu Pendekatan Praktek. Jakarta: Rieneka Cipta.
Ayres, J and Milleer, J. (1994). Effective Public Speaking (Fourth Edition). United State of America.
Amy.(2010). Public Speaking Skills. Retrieved Februari 21, 2011, from
Http://www.techingenglish.org.uk/article/public-speaking-skill?page=1).India: British Council.
Allen, W. S. (1960). Living English Speech (Stress and intonation practice for foreign students).
London: Longmans.
Brown, D. (2000). Principles of language Learning and Teaching (4th edition). New York: Logman.
Brown, G and Yule, G. (1999). Teaching the spoken Language. Cambridge University Press.
Cronkhite, G. (1978). Public Speaking and Critical Listening. California: Cummings Publishing
Company, Inc.
Gay, L.R and Airasian, P. (2000). Educational Research: Competences for Analysis and application.
USA: Prentice Hall.
Hamilton, K.E. (2003). Benefit of Public Speaking. Retrieved February 21, 2011, from
Http://webhome.indirect.com/~kekamilt/spkben.html.
Harmer, J.(1998). How to teach English: an introduction to the practice of English language teaching.
New York: Logman.
Harsiwi, D.L. (2008). Problem Faced by the Students in Speaking English. Bengkulu: Unpublished
Thesis of FKIP UMB.
Heaton, J.B. (1998). Writing English Test. London: Longman.
Hughes, R.(2006). Spoken English, TESOL and Applied Linguistic. London: Palgrape Mcmillan.
Jane .(2006). Dealing with Communication Anxiety And Public Speaking. Retrieved Februari 21, 2011,
from Http://www.roch.edu/deft/spchcom/anxiety-handout.htm.Taiwan: Soochow University.
Lestari, P. (2010). Some Factor That Make Student‘s Seldom to Speak English. Bengkulu:
Unpublished Thesis of Tarbiyah Department STAIN Bengkulu.
Louma, S. (2004). Assesing Speaking. Cambridge University Press.
Manser, M.H. (2005). Oxford Learners Pocket Dictionary. New York: Oxford University Press.
Rickheit, G and Strohner, H. (2008). Handbook of Communication Competence. Germany.
Santoso, S. (2000). BUKU LATIHAN SPSS Statistik Parametrik. Jakarta: PT Gramedia.
Sugiyono. (2007). Metode Penelitian Pendidikan. Bandung: ALFABETA
Stori, A. (2010). An Analysis of Students‘ difficulties to Master speaking English inClassroom.
Bengkulu: Unpublished Thesis of Tarbiyah Department STAIN Bengkulu.
Thornbury, S.(2003). How to Teach Speaking. United State of America.
Ur, Penny. (1996). A course in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge university press
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Yasti Januariza1)
State Institute for Islamic Studies (IAIN)Batusangkar, West Sumatra Indonesia1)
yjanuariza@gmail.com suswatiamor@gmail.com
Suswati Hendriani 2)
State Institute for Islamic Studies (IAIN) Batusangkar, West Sumatra Indonesia 2)
suswatiamor@gmail.com
Abstract
Speaking is one of the important skills that students should master. in order that they are able to
deliver their ideas. To master the skill, the students, certainly, should have much practice, should be
self-confident, not be nervous, no be anxious, must be brave, enjoy speaking. In reality, many students
are too anxious and do not enjoy learning speaking. They try to finish speaking practices as soon as
possible when they get turn to speak or be the last performer. They try to memorize all of materials
before entering speaking classes to avoid making a mistake. Unfortunately, the lecturer who teaches
Speaking subject, do not know the personality of his students very well. Thus, he forces the students
who are not ready yet to speak up. Consequently, they lose their ideas or decide not to speak even
when their lecture asks them to do it. Why are the students reluctant to speak was found through a
qualitative research. The informants of the research are the students of English Teaching Department
of State Institute for Islamic Studies (IAIN) Batusangkar. The technique of data collections are a
open-ended questionnaire and in-depth interview. The results of the research show the causes of the
students‘ anxiety are: fear of mistake, fear of being laughed at or mocked, lack of ability, lack of
preparation, lack of practice, lack of vocabulary, lack of self-confidence, lack of conviction, lack of
motivation, shyness, not liking the speaking subject, the teacher‘s teaching method, and the
teachers‘ attitude and behavior.
1. INTRODUCTION
Speaking seems to be the most important skill of all the four skills (listening, speaking, reading
and writing) because people who know a language are usually referred to as speakers of that language
(Ur, 1996). The major goal of all English language teaching should be to give learners the ability to use
English effectively, accurately in communication (Davies & Pearse, 1998). In other words, they are
expected to be able to communicate or speak English as a foreign language being learned.
Unfortunately, many foreign language students are reluctant to speak English even though the
students are expected to be able to convey meaning through producing verbal utterances systematically
(Bailey, 2008); can do the verbal use of language to communicate with others (Fulcher, 2003).
In fact when learning to speak, there are some students who often get a problem, especially,
having the feeling of anxiety. If the negative feeling is allowed to grow in the students, they will not be
able to communicate their thoughts, ideas, and feeling by using the new language they are learning.
Therefore, the causes of anxiety in the students must be found out since ―Anxiety is a complex and
multi dimensional phenomenon (Young, 1991: cited in Onwuegbuzie et al, 1999) and can be defined
as ―a subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry associated with an arousal of
the automatic nervous system‖ (Mcintyre & Gardner, 1994: cited in 1999). Additionally, American
Psychological Association (2015) defines anxiety as "an emotion characterized by feeling of tension,
worried thoughts, and physical changes. Wooten (2008) also views anxiety as "a negative mood of
apprehension accompanied with physiological characteristics."
Based on some above definitions of anxiety, a conclusion can be drawn: anxiety in learning
can hinder the students from speaking. This article, therefore, is aimed at describing the causes of
anxiety felt by the English Teaching Department students‘ of State Institute for Islamic Studies (IAIN)
Batusangkar in learning speaking.
line with what Babu says, Siegel (2004) in Aftat (2008) believes that motivation is a product of good
teaching. In his further explanation, Aftat emphasizes that to motivate students to learn well and
actively communicate in English, teachers should have passion, creativity and interest in their students.
In other words, students‘ motivation is really influenced by the teachers‘ teaching performance.
Therefore, it is important that teachers also show enthusiasm in their teaching performance.
Fear of mistake becomes one of the main factors of students‘ reluctance to speak in English in
the classroom (Tsui in Nunan,1999; Yi Htwe, 2007; Robby, 2010). In addition, this is also much
influenced by the students‘ fear of being laughed at by other students or being criticized by the
teacher.As a result, students commonly stop participating in the speaking activity (Hieu, 2011).
Therefore, it is important for teachers to convince their students that making mistakes is not a wrong or
bad thing because students can learn from their mistakes.
Students‘ fear of making mistake in speaking English has been a common issue especially in
an EFL context like in Indonesia. As argued by Middleton (2009), most EFL students are afraid of
trying and of speaking in a foreign language they learn. In this context, as he adds, students do not
want to look foolish in front of the class. In some other cases, they also worry about how they will
sound, and are scared of sounding silly and so on.
Shyness is an emotional thing that many students suffer from at some time when they are
required to speak in English class. This indicates that shyness could be a source of problem in
students‘ learning activities in the classroom especially in the class of speaking. Therefore, paying
attention on this aspect is also quite important in order to help the students do their best in their
speaking performance in the classroom (Gebhard, 2000). In line with this, Baldwin (2011) further
explains that speaking in front of people is one of the more common phobias that students encounter
and feeling of shyness makes their mind go blank or that they will forget what to say. This theory is
also supported by the result of this research in which most students fail to perform the speaking
performance at their best. As they say, their inability to show their ability in speaking is also influenced
much by their feeling of shyness. In other words, it can besaid that shyness plays an important role in
speaking performance done by the students.
Bowen (2005) and Robby (2010) argue that some shy learners are caused by their nature that
they are very quiet. In this case , the students are not very confident and tend to be shy because most of
them find it very intimidating when speaking English in front of their friends and teacher. In addition,
Saurik (2011) indentifies that most of English students feel shy when they speak the language because
they think they will make mistakes when they talk. They are also afraid of being laughed at by their
peers. This fact is also found in the data of this study that students‘ shyness is their perception on their
own ability. In this sense, they are afraid of being laughed at by their friends due to their low ability in
speaking English.
3. METHOD
a. Subject of the Research
This study was conducted at English Teaching Department of State Institute for Islamic
Studies (IAIN) Batusangkar especially to the fourth semester students. The participant of the study
was selected by applyin purposive sampling technique. There were two reasons why they were chosen
to be subject of the study. First, they have been learning Speaking for more than three semesters.
Second, many students are not interested in Speaking subjects. Third, many students are to show their
performance in front of the class. It can be seen from their reaction when they are asked to do it. They
are oftenfeel scared if they make do a mistake. Besides, when speaking in front of the class, many
students speak in a hurry because they do not enjoy speaking it. For these reasons, these paticipants
were chosen, and all the students willingly agreed to participate in the study.
b. Material and Design
To investigate the students‘ anxiety in speaking subject, the data were collected through a
mixed-questionnaire and in-depth interview. To collect the data, the students are asked to fill the
questionnaire first. To collect some more data and to ensure whether the data has trustworthiness,
in-depth interview was performed to the subjects of the research. The design of the reseach is a
qualitative one.
The questionnaire
Nama :
Kelas :
1. Bagaimanakah pendapat saudara tentang mata kuliah speaking
?.............................................................................................................
2. Apakah saudara pernah mengalami kecemasan atau kesulitan dalam
mengemukakan ide pada pembelajaran speaking ?
..............................................................................................................
3. Apakah penyebab saudara mengalami kecemasan atau kesulitan dalam
mengemukakan ide – ide pada pembelajaran speaking ?
..............................................................................................................
4. Apakah metode pembelajaran speaking yang saudara tidak sukai ?
.............................................................................................................. Kenapa
saudara tidak menyukai metode pembelajaran seperti yang disebutkan pada nomor
4?
..............................................................................................................
5. Apa yang saudara lakukan untuk mengatasi kecemasan atau kesulitan
dalam mengemukakan ide pada pembelajaran speaking ?
..............................................................................................................
motivation, (10) the students‘ shyness, (11) the students‘ not liking the speaking subject, (12) the
teacher‘s method of teaching, and (13) the attitude and the behavior of the speaking lecturer.
The findings of the research are in line with some researches previously conducted. Kurtus
(2001) and Frank Middleton (2009) report that students are afraid of making mistake because they are
worry that their friends will laugh at them and receive negative evaluations from their peers if they
make mistake in speaking English. Moreover, Liu (2007); MacIntyre & Gardner (1989) as cited in
Zhou (2004) argue that the students‘ error and afraidness of being evaluated either their peers or their
teacher are the causes of anxiety that make students very anxious in learning oral English. Regarding
this, teachers should create a supporting learning atmosphere in which students can build their
confidence and learn cooperatively each other so that teaches can minimize derision among them.
Besides, it is very necessary for the teachers to convince their students not to be worried about
expressing their ideas since the language is a foreign language and that everyone in the class is also
studying the language. Zua (2008) suggests that the students‘ mistakes in communication will become
the key to carry out a communication. Thus, she argues if the teachers correct their students‘ errors at
an unsuitable time, they will lose their confidence. Therefore, the teachers are also suggested to help
their students to develop their self confidence in order to be able to speak in English class as what the
students mentioned above.
Not knowing the meaning of words or sentences can make students feel anxious to speak.
Having limited vocabularies, students find it difficult to convey what they wanted to say. This
condition can create students‘ anxiety resulting in their reluctance to speak (Gebhard, 2000).
Brown (2001); Eli, 1986 as cited in Keramida (2009) state that students lack confidence and feel that
they cannot speak English because they think that they do not have the ability to speak English well
and their limited knowledge of the language. This kind of feeling, for sure, hinders them from trying to
speak English. The teachers, therefore, should concern with this issue, since it will influence students‘
achievement and participation as Han (2010) and Kubo (2009) note. Furthermore, Kubo(2009) adds
that to build students‘ confidence to speak English, teachers can provide regular opportunities to
practice proper pronunciation and intonation, and to converse freely, thus it will make students
experienced a greater sense of ability to speak English. Therefore, teacher should create a comfortable
atmosphere in which learners are encouraged to talk in English and are praised for talking. In other
words, the students need to know that teacher does not expect them to speak English perfectly.
Besides, the English teacher should realize that it takes time and effort for the students to learn to
converse in English
Moreover Gardner in Nunan (1999) and Babu (2010) stress that motivation is a product of good
teaching, not its prerequisite, students are unmotivated and unwilling to speak English in the classroom
among others are because uninspiring teaching and lack of appropriate feedback. Therefore, teacher
should concern about this issue since motivation is a key consideration in determining the
preparedness of learners to communicate (Nunan, 1999).
Lack of motivation has also been reported to happen among students. Regarding this, several
solutions to overcome students‘ lack of motivation. In order to help their students to overcome their
lack of motivation, Dornyei (2001) in Pinter (2006) suggests four stages that can encourage students‘
motivation, as follows: The first stage is to create motivating condition for learning. This means that
the English teachers should create a pleasant and supportive environment in the classroom. The
second stage is to introduce initial motivating techniques by creating materials that are relevant for the
students. The next stage is to take care to maintain and to protect students‘ motivation by offering
stimulating activities and fostering self-esteem, self confidence, and co-operation among students. The
last stage is to turn evaluation and feedback into positive experiences.
Shyness is another source of the students‘ anxiety. Related to this, one way to overcome
students‘ shyness is to give students to take opportunity to practice a lot. It will improve their skills of
speaking. This condition for sure will make them get used to try to speak (Yeon Lim, 2003).
Providing the students with positive reinforcement, give them motivation and create an ease
environment in class are important to be noticed since it can lower students‘ anxiety, increase their
confidence, and encourage their willingness to communicate (Noon-ura, 2008; Kitano, 2001 cited in
Keramida, 2009).
5.CONCLUSION
Based on the findings of the research, it can be concluded that the students‘ anxiety is caused
by the students‘ themselves and the lecturer who teaches the the Speaking subjects. The causes that
derive from themselves namely: the students‘ fear of mistake, their fear of being laughed at or
mocked by other students, the students‘ lack of ability, the students‘ lack preparation, students‘ lack
of practice, the students‘ lack of vocabulary, the students‘ lack of self-confidence, the students‘ lack
of conviction, the students‘ lack of motivation, the students‘ shyness, and the students‘ not liking the
speaking subject. The causes that derive from the outside namely: the teacher‘s method of teaching,
and the attitude and the behavior of the speaking lecturer. Based on the condition, it is suggested that
the students manage their own feelings, thoughts, and perception if they want to be free of the feeling
of anxious in learning speaking.
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Abstract
This study is proposed to find out lecturers‘ discourse event in communicating learning tasks. There
are two research questions formulated in this research. They are types of events of the discourse and
the power relation of each event. The method of the research is content analysis. The research
participants were chosen purposively, based on consideration of the subjects they taught; Research in
Language Teaching, Classroom Management, Speech, Translation, and Paper/r Thesis Writing. The
other participants were the students who studied with the lecturers. Data were gathered by recording
the process of learning. They were analyzed by using textual analysis. Findings of the research show
that the lecturers‘ classroom discourse has 9 types of events, namely 1) preparing before discussion, 2)
confirming, 3) giving comment on the students‘ work and respond to the student‘s question, 4)
commanding, 5) directing, 6) encouraging, 7) giving information about tasks, 8) rereading materials
and commanding, and 9) discussing. Meanwhile, the power relation is categorized into two forms,
namely lecturer‘s domination and equal function between the lecturer and the students. The lecturer
and the students have equal power in encouraging and discussing events, but they do not have it in the
other events. Based on the findings, lecturers are recommended to use the discourse in which the
lecturer and the students have equal power in producing the discourse.
1. INTRODUCTION
Task is the central activity the students should do in learning a subject. It can be done inside or
outside the class. The form can be oral or written which is done by the students individually or in
group. Eventhough the lecturer has communicated the learning tasks since the first meeting of a
semester, she must communicate the task every meeting before and during the process of the task is
going on. The communication is proposed to remind the students of the task they have done as well as
the guidance for them to do a current task. Therefore, the process should meet the requirements for
gaining the purpose.
In the process of delivering the task, the discourse used by the lecturer is a determinant aspect
in making the students ignited to do the task. If it is interesting and clear, the students will enjoy the
task and can do it as expected. In other words, the more influential the discourse the lecturer can use,
the more motivated they will do the task.
In the writer‘s observation to some situations of learning process at STKIP PGRI Sumatera
Barat, she found that most students were not interested in doing the task. In addition, they could not do
the task maximally since they did not understand the task. As the effect, doing the task was not useful
to make them acquire the subject.
Due to the fact that the students could not do the task, the writer was encouraged to do a
research about the discourse in social interaction, especially in classroom interaction. Since the task is
communicated by the lecturer in classroom social interaction, to make the students understand the
discourse, the lecturer needs to study some topics which are relevant to the discourse. Barton and
Hamilton state that the concept of the literacy event provides a starting-point for analyzing interaction.
Meanwhile, the concept of literacy practice provides a way of relating these to broader cultural and
structural formations (xxvii). This paper was focused only on literacy events used by lecturers in
communicating learning tasks.
In addition, she also studied domination of power in the discourse which might influence
their enchantment in doing the task. The power relation carried out through the discourse is believed
very urgent to the students‘ self actualization in doing the task. According to self-actualization
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proposed by Rogers, human beings have tendency to meet their needs. The complexity of their lives
provides them with additional actualization tendency to improve and make them better. In addition, he
reveals that humans have tendency to have positive self-regard, as self-esteem, approval, and
acceptance (Krapp 384-5).
Based on Rogers‘ theory, it can be argued that the students may have positive regard on
themselves if they have sufficient opportunities to work. On the other hand, if they have limited
opportunities, they may become less confident to do learning task. Moreover, they may be dependent
on the lecturer; they did not think they could learn something if the learning activities were not
dominated by the lecturer.
information, politicians to govern the citizens, the police to protect people, and the doctor to cure the
patients. Therefore, power is useful for positive ends of the activities mentioned above (17).
Since this study is done in the field of education, the power in this study is viewed from the
power relation between the lecturer and the students in their effort to make the students interested and
understand learning tasks. Therefore, power is useful to achieve the purpose of education. In
communicating learning task, the power is proposed to achieve the purpose of communicating the task.
In understanding the term power in this research, the researcher uses the term of hegemony. It
is leadership as much as domination across economic, political, cultural, and ideological domains of a
society. It is about constructing alliances and integrating, rather than simply dominating subordinate
classes, through concession or through ideological means to win their consent (Fairclough 92).
Power relation in a discourse can be seen by analyzing who dominates the discourse. In one
discourse, the lecturer may be dominant, but in some others, their domination can be equal. The more
equal their power is, the better the communication becomes. The students can feel that they have right
in determining what they want to do. Therefore, they cannot be forced, but engaged in deciding the
tasks that they should do.
Moreover, the students‘ engagement showing their power in deciding classroom activity is
important to be embedded in the discourse used by the lecturer. Jacobs proposes the concept of success
and failure. It is tied up in the construction of participation within learning environment integrated with
how power circulates among the students and between the students and teacher (17). Some students
experience success by completing a project or passing the course and others do not. Based on this
concept, it can be argued that the students‘ participation in producing and responding to a discourse
used when communicating learning task can describe how the power circulates during the activities.
Moreover, the power circulation can contribute to the success and the failure of the students in
accomplishing the task.
3. METHODOLOGY
The method of the research is qualitative content analysis. Six lecturers of English lecturers
who taught different subjects at STKIP PGRI Sumatera Barat were chosen purposively as the
participants of this research. The subjects included Classroom Management, Language Assessment,
Research in Language Teaching, Speech, Translation, and Paper and Thesis Writing. Data were taken
from utterances used by the participants during the research by using camera and field note to record
the data. They were categorized by following the techniques of data analyses, namely summarizing
and inductive category analyses (Mayring 65-66).
1. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
As cited before that event of a discourse is determined by analyzing what the lecturer is doing
and accomplishing in his or her discourse. Therefore, the analysis of the data is done by analyzing
utterance to utterance to find out what the lecturer is doing and accomplishing in the discourse. The
data are presented as they are and translated into English in the analysis.
1. Preparing before Discussion
Try to explain the movement from KTSP 2006 to curriculum 2013… kurikulum berkarakter.
Nah dimana letak karakternya itu? …nanti dipaparkan oleh presenter dan tentu saja saya akan
paparkan juga alasan kenapa kurikulum itu ada perubahan? … Kita analisa alasan-alasan itu.
…, you must add your opinion, misalnya saya setuju lo Mis. Bagus. Kenapa Bagus kurikulum
2013? Apa bedanya dengan KTSP? Are you ready, presenter? (the discourse was continued by
the students‘ activity to present the topic).
The discourse above was used after the students who were responsible for presenting the topic
took their seats in front of the class. While they prepared for the class, the lecturer produced the
discourse. The lecturer stood in front of them facing other students and directed what she said to the
other students. None of the students who had sat in front of the class, made notes when the lecturer
detailed what they should do in the discussion. There are some points the lecturer explained in the
discourse as listed below.
a. Commanding: try to explain….
b. Asking : Nah, di mana letak…?
c. Announcing : Kita analisa…..
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In the above discourse, the lecturer asked one student to mention a topic and she wrote the
topic on board. After writing the topic, she asked the students to tell the background of the problem.
Since the student did not know what she meant, she mentioned the same utterance repeatedly and
completed with brief description ―It starts from your problem.‖ At the end of the talk, she told the
student that the background was too general, meaning that the student did not do the homework as
required.
It is clear that the lecturer did two activities in the discourse, namely asking question and
giving comment on the students‘ work. Initially the question was directed to all students in the class.
But, when one of them answered, the question and answer occurred between the lecturer and one
student, while the others just listened or did other activities. Moreover, the question and the comment
were accomplished to show the student‘s misinterpretation and guiding him/her and other students to
work correctly. This event is called a confirmation by which the lecturer confirmed what the students
had done with the task so that she could give the feedback to the students.
Since the discourse involved a lecturer and one student, power relation happened between the
teacher and the student and it was equal, by which the lecturer asked a question and the student
answered it. However, the equal power was applied restrictedly, namely between the lecturer and one
student. Other students were not included in producing the discourse. Thus, power relation was not
distributed among the students in the class, meaning the discourse was dominated by the lecturer and
one student.
3. Giving comment on the students’ work and Response to a student’s question
My evaluation about this paper, first you did a great job. You made the paper as I
instructed. OK, because last week, I instructed you to put the signature and then to write
the name, write the member, and you differentiate the phone. Now, let’s see the content.
You have a question about? That’s my question Ita (not the real name). Now, if we
did not study the level like this, Can we move to the next level? Well, the answer,
logically, you cannot. You have to comprehend and understand each level. It‘s like
stepping on stairs. You cannot fly, right?
It can be seen that there were two important activities the lecturer accomplished in the
discourse, namely commenting the students‘ task and replying the student‘s previous question. Firstly,
he commented on the students‘ task and secondly, he answered one student‘ question. The comment
began from ―My evaluation‖ and ended with ―Let‘s see the content.‖ After talking that he wanted to see
the content, he did not do it. He talked about another topic, ―You have a question about…‖ so that the
discourse event changed into replying the student‘s question.
The discourse shows that the lecturer used two events simultaneously which caused the first
formation broken. After saying, ―Let‘s see the content,‖ he changed the event by repeating the
student‘s previous question and responded it. As the effect, the information about the content is
separated by the teacher‘s response. Thus, there were two events in this discourse, as comment on the
students‘ work along with the response to a student‘s question.
Both the events in the discourse are analyzed to find out power relation. In the first event
(giving comment on the students‘ work), the information was delivered by the lecturer. He gave
comment on the students‘ task, while the students just listened. Thus, the discourse was dominated by
the lecturer. On the other hand, in the second event (response to a student‘s question), though it was
initiated by the student‘s previous question, the discourse was still dominated by the lecturer. He
answered the question directly and did not share the question to be answered by other students.
Therefore, it can be argued that inequity of power occurred in both events of the discourse.
1. Commanding
Write research topic based on your own interest, ketertarikan anda dari yang saya berikan
tadi, can be from the method, from the text, dan saya harap bervariasi. Ya, jadi anda pilih 2
topik. Topic itu dua ya, salah satunya boleh skill, satunya lagi competence, silakan, tidak
masalah. Kemudian tentukan research problem pada topic itu. Make it narrow. Tentukan
research problemnya. Setelah itu lakukan atau identify the purpose of the research based
on the solution...
There are six commands given by the lecturer in the discourse. The commands start from
―write‖, ―pilih‖, ―tentukan‖, ―make‖, ―tentukan‖, ―and ―identify.‖ The lecturer dictated the tasks and
gave the students a few minutes to write them on their books. There were five tasks and each task
consisted of two tasks, related to English skills and teachers‘ competence. The tasks included writing
research topics about one of English skills and identifying teachers‘ competence. The next task was to
decide some research problems of each topic which was still large. From the research problems
identified, the students were asked to narrow the problems, limit the research problem, and finally
identify the research purposes.
Task in research class is very complicated for most students since they should write
scientifically. Providing students with several tasks can make them frustrated which can be reflected
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through their learning behaviour. For example, they cheat their friends‘ work or are not aware of the
task quality. As the effect, such kind of task will not be effective and useful to develop the students‘
skill. Otherwise, the purpose of doing learning task is to make students more competent.
All language actions were commanding the students to do the several tasks which were
dictated by the lecturer. The commands were to make the students act as required, so the lecturer
mentioned them one by one. Furthermore, through the discourse function and the purpose, the
researcher could decide the event of this discourse as a command.
Regarding to the power relation, the researcher found that the discourse was dominated more
by the lecturer. The lecturer was very dominant in talking and the students just followed what was
instructed. Since the lecturer dominated the discourse, it can be argued that equity of power was not
found in the discourse.
2. Directing
Sekarang anda pikirkan tentang topic anda. Sudah, kepikiran tentang topic? Sudah kepiran?
Topic. Coba kita acak secara acak dari skill. Coba anda ambil satu skill saja sebagai topic,
speaking, writing, ya what ever do you want, you write down. Coba tuliskan topic anda apa?
Nah anda maunya apa, mau speaking, mau apa, mau apa ? terserah. Kita akan bicara
tentang topic sekarang, larger, yang lebih luas. Jadi tak hanya speaking, apa saja ya
Misalnya anda mau melihat kompetensi guru juga boleh atau media, sekarang topic saya
adalah media mengajar listening. Itu media itu, media, sudah kepikiran? Sekarang bikin
topic itu narrow. Think about narrowing the topic. Topic itu anda persempit menjadi satu
komponen saja, satu bagian saja dalam topic tadi.…
The discourse was used after the lecturer explained the topic related to the task given. She gave
exercises to her students in writing an introduction of a research. She led the students to produce what
she mentioned and stopped after mentioning one task, ―Sekarang anda pikirkan tentang topic anda.
Sudah, kepikiran tentang topic…‖ The utterance ―Sudah kepikiran…‖ is related to the first, so between
the first and the second utterance, it must be a gap used to let the students think about the previous task
mentioned. She went on the next task after becoming sure that the students had finished the previous
one. In addition, to help the students, she gave a clue, ―coba ambil satu skill saja sebagai topic,
speaking…‖ Therefore, that she did ―leading‖ can be determined. The lecturer‘ activity to lead the
students certainly had the purpose to train them so that they could write an introduction of the research
correctly. Finally, having known the function and the purpose of the discourse, the researcher could
find out the event of the discourse called directing.
Doing such exercises in limited time is also difficult for most students in middle level
competence. They generally need time to do the task and find difficulty in producing the task in a short
time. They may write something because they are afraid of the lecturer if they do nothing. But, what
they write may not relate to the lecturer‘s direction. Moreover, if the lecturer does not check their work
one by one, such exercises just waste the time, since only a few students will do it.
Similar with the data presented before, this discourse was also dominated by the lecturer. The
lecturer was very active in dictating the students‘ task one by one. The students just followed the
students‘ instruction. None of the students asked the lecturer about the task. As the effect, power
relation was not balanced. The lecturer asked the students to do some tasks, while the lecturer did not
get any questions relevant to the task from the students. Moreover, she did not check the students‘
comprehension about the command given to them.
3. Encouraging
We are talking about classroom management strategies, How to differentiate between
teaching strategies and management strategies, classroom management strategies? Silakan
utarakan saja dulu apa yang kamu temukan. Sampaikan saja dulu. Samapun tidak masalah…
(students talked)
As stated before, the lecturer‘s discourse happened after one group‘s presentation. When the
lecturer reminded the assigned group with a clue before they expressed their idea, she implied that the
former group did not answer the question yet so that she reproduced the question. Reproducing ―We
are talking about classroom management strategies, ya, classroom management strategies‖ followed
by the above question was to direct the students‘ thought to what was expected in the discussion. The
students who did not focus on what the lecturer said was drawn to the words when the lecturer repeated
them. In addition, the lecturer mentioned the words more slowly and more expressively so that the
students could find the idea. As the effect, they might be confident to express their idea that they
considered incorrect.
Furthermore, the lecturer added her utterance with ―Silakan. Utarakan saja dulu apa yang
kamu temukan. Sampaikan saja dulu. Samapun tidak masalah,” meaning that she wanted another
group to tell different information from that was informed by the earlier group. But if they could not,
she could accept the same idea. The utterances expressed that the lecturer tolerated the students‘
mistake in comprehending material, but she wanted them to engage in discussion. Furthermore, she
implied that the students‘ answer was not the final answer since she would correct it at the end,
―Utarakan saja dulu‖, meaning later she would explain it.
The above way to lead students to engage in discussion is a kind of encouragement.
Inconfident students may become confident if they are encouraged to do thing that they think they
cannot. Telling an uncertain idea is firstly hard to do. But, if they find they are appreciated though the
idea is incorrect, they gradually can become confident. Thus, It is very important to do to make
students work.
It can be also found from the discourse that the power relation is equal. After producing the
above discourse, one of the students in a group delivered their idea about the topic followed by another
one. The time spent by the lecturer and the students to talk was balanced. What she did was directing
the students‘ thought. By directing the students‘ thought to the topic, she has accomplished one task to
correct the students‘ interpretation. Therefore, the event of the discourse the lecturer used is
encouraging.
The lecturer told the students some information they should do in relation with the task outside
the classroom, ―You should…. .‖In addition, he impressed that the task was easy for the students, by
saying ―only and cuma―. He also told the students that he wanted to know whether the students could
differentiate between research paper titles and thesis titles.
It can be seen that the discourse basically contains some commands. Generally a command
begins from a verb. However, most commands in this discourse begin from the subject (second
person). For example, what you…., You only…, You Cuma…, You read… The utterance is in
statement form, not in imperative form.
Viewed from the culture of Minangkabau, using statement in asking someone to do something
is more polite than using direct command. The power of the lecturer in the discourse sounds not too
dominant eventhough the lecturer talked much. It is because the command is produced indirectly.
So, what the lecturer did in the discourse was announcing the task to the students as
homework. In addition, she informed it by telling the detail activities to the students to make him sure
whether the students understand what they should do. Thus, the event of the discourse was detail
information about task.
Explaining a detailed task to students can help them understand the task. A difficult task can
become easier if the information about task is clear. For example, the information is completed with
the way to do it as mentioned above, ―misalnya research paper, number, title, student or writer, satu
halaman aja, number, title, student.‖ In addition, the information can be delivered through definition
as, “You know oret-oret? Sketsa, bukan gambar, but you write down.”
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The above discourse was used in replying a student‘s question. Previously the lecturer had
written some notes on board. She answered the student‘ question by showing the points she wrote on
board so that she just read it. The answer ended with her command since the students had no more
question. At the end of this interaction, she asked the students to perform a free speech one by one.
From the discourse it can be seen that the answer was not useful to make the students
understand the topic. It is impossible for the students not to be able to read the notes written on board.
But they wanted the lecturer to explain and illustrate her explanation by using example or the model so
that the information became concrete. Different from what was expected, the lecturer was replying the
students‘ question by pointing at the statements she had written on board and reading them, then soon
commanding them to perform a speech. Thus, the event of the discourse was rereading material along
with commanding.
The lecturer‘s function in the discourse is very dominant. She answered the student‘s question
directly before distributing it to the other students. In other words, she did not let the students think
about the answer. Having answered the question by reading the notes written on board, she gave the
occasion to other students. But soon when no one asked, she changed the activity soon. She asked the
students to practice delivering a speech. Thus, the power relation in the discourse was dominated by
the lecturer and the students‘ right in the discourse was influenced by the teacher‘s discourse. They
should follow what the lecturer asked.
6. Discussing
L: Management strategies…classroom management
strategies, kalau misalnya tadi Cahyani keluar aja , dia masuk lagi apa yang akan saya
lakukan?
S: Marah
L: Marah? Apakah ya? Kalau misalnya kejadian seperti itu, ya main keluar aja itu anak.
Masuk dia lagi. what will you do?
S: Ditegur aja
L: Ditegur aja, yakin, a… Biasanya kan ada tu rol panjang di depan kelas. Awas masuak
bekoh, cubolah yo! OK apakah itu bagian dari management strategies? Anak
keluar-tindakan kita…?
S: Ya
The discourse begins from the topic. ―classroom management strategies.‖ It can be seen that
the lecturer tried to bring the students to the concept by giving illustration which was related to the real
life. All students can be involved spontaneously since the questions were organized gradually from the
easiest to the more complicated one. In addition, the question was directly answered so that another
question followed the preceded question. As the effect, the students did not feel under pressure which
encouraged them to answer the questions and to be involved in the discussion. Furthermore, the
students were more concentrated in doing the task.
Some techniques were used in the discussion. A direct question was answered directly. When
the students‘ answer was not appropriate, the lecturer guided them with the example taken from the
real situation. The way to find the example is a kind of contextual learning ―Management
strategies…classroom management strategies, kalau misalnya tadi Cahyani keluar aja, dia masuk
lagi apa yang akan saya lakukan.” Thus, the students could see how to manage the classroom though
the definition was not given. The way can make the students understand easily compared with the way
when they should read and memorize a definition.
The illustration was to make the students think about the concept and the purpose of classroom
management. The lecturer did not explain the material to the students, but she discussed it with the
students by asking their opinion. In other words, asking the students opinion was proposed to find out
the concept and the purpose of the topic discussed. Thus, the event of the discourse was discussion.
The form of discussion is questioning and answering. After listening to a question, one or more
students answered. Then, the answer was offered to the other students in the class. Therefore, the
answer of a question can be answered by one or two students differently or similarly. Another
uniqueness of this discussion was that it was directly guided by the lecturer. So, if the answer was still
wrong, the lecturer led them to the right answer. In other words, the students were not stayed confused
after the learning process ended.
The way of communication caused the lecturer and the students‘ power relation to become
equal. The discourse was not only dominated by the lecturer, but also by the students. Many students
got involved in producing the discourse after the lecturer produced an utterance.
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1. INTRODUCTION
Language use, in classroom, has been defined as a specific communication in delivering
information (messages and ideas) from one or more person to other with different functions. In general,
communication functions both lecturers and students in classroom have transactional and interactional
functions. Students in the transactional function have both academic needs (ability to make good
grades) and interactional function (feel affirmed as a person). Virginia, Jason and Joan (2009:8) say
that communication which is always used to interact with others, especially in learning and teaching
has two functions. The first function is the transactional function that focuses on the content of
language used. In other words, refer to communication as means of delivering message to influence or
achieve the goal. Through this function the students deliver the message on their presentation to the
students about material. The second function is to express social relations and personal attitude which is
called interactional function. Those functions will help the students easy in receiving the message by
knowing the contexts. In other words, the message that will be given by the lecturers by implementing
classroom presentation to the students can be accepted without misunderstanding. All explanations
above cannot be separated from the study of language use.
Language use in classroom is the part of applied linguistics and pragmatics which talk about
process of communication and meaning based on context. At this point, language used by the students
who present the material focus to the slides on their powerpoint. They do not use their own language
according to the context, classroom presentation, to elucidate the material to their friends.
Consequently, students tend to ignore their presentation because all their explanation can be read by
themselves. The group presentation tends to read their slides and books. When the lecturer asks them to
explain it, they cannot do it. Language used by the students mostly from the book so that lead the
students, audiences, to ask them to explain it again and respond it with disconfirmation respond. The
students are strongly recommended to give their respond during the teaching and learning process. In
addition, their argument that they convey in responding the material must support the teaching and
learning process. It obviously shows that students respond in classroom presentation will also describe
how far the students success in teaching and learning process. They are not only suggested to know the
material but it is hoped they can understand, apply, analyze, evaluate and create.
The participants are the students who enroll in CCU class which done presentation frequently.
A number of classes are 3 classes. In presentation, it can be seen types of students respond in the class.
If the students can respond and give argument rightly to the questions or materials that have been
presented by the group, it means they are good in understanding the material. Contrary, if they cannot
respond as expected, it means there are some problem have occurred, such as they do not understand
about the material or they misunderstanding about the explanation and instruction which are delivered
by their language used.
Based on the writer observation at CCU class of English Department in STKIP PGRI West
Sumatera, that is found some students did not respond as expected, for instant, students only asked for
re-explanation and unfamiliar words or phrases. All phenomena and problems have occurred because
of the problems in language use. There are some students communicate the material clearly by reading
the slides and most of them communicate ambiguous which eventually resulted in the students‘
respond.
Language use above happened because students have some responses that are not appropriate. In this
context, Tubbs and Moss in Jalaluddin (2009; 127) divide the response into two groups, namely
confirmation and disconfirmation. Confirmation is the responses that can make the interpersonal
relationships strengthen. But when responses occur in communication create the negative side in
relationship between the speaker and the listener is called as disconfirmation. Confirmation responses
involve direct acknowledgement, positive feeling, clarifying response, agreeing response and
supportive response. In addition, disconfirmation responses encompass tangential response,
impersonal response, and impervious response, irrelevant response, interrupting response, incoherent
response and incongruous response.
Similarly, Robert (2013:8) divides the way how people do confirmation respond and
disconfirmation respond in some parts. They are direct acknowledgement, positive feeling, clarifying
response, agreeing response and supportive response for responding the speaker communication in
confirmation. Besides, they are tangential response, impersonal response, impervious response,
irrelevant response, interrupting response, incoherent response and incongruous response for
disconfirmation respond.
Furthermore, based on Simmon (2011:4) confirmation is any behavior that causes another
person to value himself more. When a person does communication with others, he or she will always
need that receiver always gives a positive respond by showing interesting expression or relevant
respond. Meanwhile, disconfirmation is any behavior that causes another person to value himself less.
Disconfirmation respond indicates the message and respond are different with the speaker expected.
3. RESEARCH METHOD
A. Research Design
This research is a qualitative research. The qualitative research is completely used to answer
question about facts or describe about the students‘ language use and response in classroom
presentation. It is supported by Chris, Lucy and Donald (2009:58) say qualitative research investigates
the quality of relationships, activities, situations, and materials.T his design to describe and interpret
about phenomena based on the fact in the field and to seek participants‘ point of view.
The researcher used qualitative design because the researcher wanted to describe the students‘
language use and response in classroom presentation at English Department in STKIP PGRI SUMBAR
particularly in CCU classes.
B. Subject of the Research
Subject of the research is group or individual that will be used in the research. In qualitative
research, the term that used in subject of the research is participants. Referring to Baker and Ellece
(2011;87), participants are people who take part in social activity. The participants of this research were
English Department students at Cross Culture Understanding (CCU) classes. A number of CCU
Classes were four classes.
C. Instrumentation
Based on Gay and Airasian (2000:145), define that instrumentation as a tool or something that
used to collect the data. It means the researcher needs the instrumentation as facilitated to collect the
data. In this research, the researcher used video, field note. This instrumentation explained as below:
1. Camera
According to Chris, Lucy and Donald (2009:431), observation is a basic method or technique
for obtaining the data in descriptive research. In doing observation, the researcher used observation
tools that can help the researcher to collect the data. There were same tools that can be used in
observation such as camera, field note, checklist and others. In this research, the researcher used the
camera to record the activities in class during the learning process.
2. Field Note
Chris, Lucy and Donald (2009:435), say that field notes contain what the researcher has seen
and heard. They have two components: (1) the descriptive part, which includes a complete description
of the setting, the people and their reactions and interpersonal relationships, and accounts of events
(who, when, and what was done); and (2) the reflective part, which includes the observer‘s personal
feelings or impressions about the events, comments on the research method, decisions and problems,
records of ethical issues, and speculations about data analysis.
D. Technique of Data Collection
First, in obtaining the data in the field, the researcher did observation with recording the
activities in classroom presentation. From that video record, it can be seen about the students‘ language
use and response in classroom presentation. Second, to collect the data, the researcher used the field
note. From the field note the researcher can be seen about the students‘ respond in classroom
presentation.
5. CONCLUSION
Most of the students tend to use language stated on their powerpoint and also on the book. They
cannot explain the topic based on their own language. Furthermore, there are confirmation and
disconfirmation response in presentation class. In addition, the students‘ confirmation and
disconfirmation have different ways in giving respond. They are direct acknowledgement, positive
feeling, clarifying and agreeing response for confirmation and impervious, irrelevant, interrupting,
incoherent, and incongruous response for disconfirmation. Each of categories has their reason why they
did it. In short, they give limited argument; they did by asking re-explanation. It happened because they
did not understand about their friends‘ presentation. They only read their slides and then delivering
quickly.
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REFERENCES
Behrens. J Susan (2014).Understanding Language Use in the Classroom. England: British Library
Cataloguing in Publication.
Govier, Trudy. 2012. A Practical Study of Argument. ed. New York: Course Mate.
Hougaard and Todd. Mental Spaces in Discourse and Interactioen. Amsterdam: John Benjamin.
Kolby, Jeff and Scott Thornburg. 2010. Graduate Record Examination (GRE): Prep Course. Los
Angeles: Nova Press.
Mayberry, Katherine. 2009. Everyday Argument: A Guide to Writing and Reading Effectice
Argument. ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Nunan, David. 2003. Practical English Language Teaching. New York: The McGraw.
Rakhmat, Jalaluddin. 2009. Psikologi Komunikasi : Edisi Revisi. Bandung: Remaja Rosdakarya.
Richards, Jack C. 2001. Approach and Methods in Language Teaching. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Simmon. 2011. Confirmation and Disconfirmation in Communication. Gonzaga:Longman
Tubbs Stewart L and Sylvia Moss. 2008. Human Communication. Bandung: Remaja Rosdakarya .
Woods, John, Andrew Irvine and Douglas Walton. 2004. Argument: Critical Thinking, Logic and the
Fallacies. Canada: Pearson and Prentice Hall.
Yenni Rozimela
Abstract
This article proposes strategies to handle classroom management problems commonly faced by
English student-teachers. These propositions are inspired by a partial result of an action research
involving 12 student-teachers undertaking a teaching practicum subject at five junior high schools in a
municipally of West Sumatera, Indonesia. Based on the results of observations and interviews it was
found that classroom management problems brought about several constraints for the
student-teachers in reaching their teaching objectives. They frequently stopped their activities for a
while for the disturbances made by the students and thus they often could not realize their plans well.
Sometimes they were not able to organize the students and their activities which in turn caused
problems. Thus, it can be concluded that problems are most likely due to the students‘ low motivation
and very limited English ability and the student-teachers‘ lack of classroom management skills. The
problems decreased after applying some strategies which were derived from discussions with the
supervisors (i.e. the researchers). In fact, the student-teachers were able to focus more on what and
how to teach rather than how to handle their students‘ behavior problems. In effect, they could teach
effectively. The strategies are setting classroom-agreed rules, personal approaches, and application of
variety of techniques. Before explaining these strategies, an account of the student-teachers‘
classroom management problems and how they handled them will be given briefly.
1. INTRODUCTION
The complexity of teaching English as a foreign language at high schools in Indonesia is
brought about by several intertwined factors which include those dealing with individual students‘
personal problems and teachers and system. To mention a few, students‘ low motivation, teachers‘
skills and view about learning English, limited exposure to English use, time allocation, and national
examination become the constraints to reach the goals stated in the curriculum. For these reasons,
universities producing teachers and government do their best to facilitate teachers and prospective
teachers with English knowledge and skills and skills how to teach, so that they become professional
teachers.
However, it is recognized that the result of English learning at high schools is often considered
unsatisfactory. Many graduates of high schools who are supposed to be able to use simple English fail
to do so. This is also confirmed by the low English achievement reflected in the students‘ National
Examination average scores and the students‘ entry English level when they enter universities.
It is believed that to improve this condition, prospective teachers and teachers knowledge and
skills about ‗what‘ to teach and ‗how‘ to teach are to be improved and strengthened through pre-service
and in-service trainings. For the latter, as mentioned above, prospective teachers are provided with
knowledge and skills through subjects such as TEFL or Methods of Teaching, or Teaching Strategies.
In in-service trainings, teachers‘ knowledge and skills are refreshed through topics revolving around
strategies or tips how to teach. In spite of the efforts, problems about English teaching and learning
persist. Complaints about the outcomes are not only expressed by government and society or parents,
but also by teachers themselves.
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Unfortunately, researches to unveil the causes of the problems faced by teachers and
prospective teachers are limited. The current study whose partial result presented here was actually not
aimed at investigating the problems or the cause of the problems, but to see the effect of reflective
teaching on student-teachers‘ teaching skill. Providentially, the study also disclosed an interesting
finding- a big problem that all student-teachers experienced (i.e. classroom management problems). A
good value of reflective teaching is that the student-teachers put some thought to find out the causes of
the classroom management problems and strategies to overcome them. Here, both the problems and the
strategies will be explained.
the room has to be arranged in a way that teachers can monitor all groups. Richards (2001) states that
an effective teacher understands the fact that different kinds of grouping can hamper or promote
learning.
To handle the students who have problem behaviours, Emmer and Everston (2009) suggest
tips in accordance with different level or intensity of problems that they classify into minor problem,
major problem, and escalating or spreading problem. To address these problems, teachers need to
judge the effects of the strategy chosen. For minor interventions, they suggest, among others, using
non-verbal cues, redirecting behavior, and issuing a brief desist. For moderate interventions,
withholding privilege, isolating students, using penalty, assigning detention, and referral to the school
office are commonly applied strategies. Regarding more extensive interventions, teachers can design
an individual contract with students, hold a conference with a parent, or use a check or a demerit
system. Emmer and Everston emphasize that ―a general principle that is helpful is in selecting strategy
is to use an approach that will be effective in stopping the inappropriate behavior promptly and that has
the least negative impact (p. 174).
Using various techniques to cater for learner differences in personality and preferences may
also reduce students‘ behavior problems. Rationally, when students are taught in a way that suits their
personality or preference, they will be interested in following the lesson. In turn, they will stop doing
annoying things such disturbing friends or making noise. In relation to this, Lighbown and Spada
(2001) note that a sensitive teacher takes learners‘ individual personalities and learning styles into
account to create good learning environment to help learners to be successful. Johnson (2008) also
indicates the importance of varying teaching techniques for learner differences. She says that ―there are
no ‗best‘ ways of doing things‖ (p.212). She emphasizes that ―if a method is to succeed, it has to be
regarded as ‗convincing‘, ‗powerful‘, and ‗plausible‘. How objective ‗good‘ we may feel a method is,
it will not succeed if the learners are not convinced by it‖ (p.211). As learners have individual
differences in many aspects, this implies that teaching techniques should vary to suit them. When
suitable techniques are used, learners will follow the lesson, which then lessen unfavorable
environment.
To conclude, for challenges faced by teachers and prospective teachers in teaching English as a
foreign language in Indonesia, they should be able to find and use strategies to realize their teaching
objectives. One of the challenges they most likely have is managing their classes. To successfully
manage students with individual differences, strategies proposed by some authors above may be
applied.
3. METHODS
This is a descriptive research. For the purpose and the nature of the study, action research was
adopted. The participants were twelve student-teachers undertaking Teaching Practicum subject and
eleven cooperating teachers of five junior schools of Padang, Indonesia. The student-teachers
implemented regular reflective practice to improve their teaching skill.
Improvement the participants made was measured through three teaching performances over
three teaching cycles as reflected in their teaching scores, results of observations, and journals.
Interviews with the student-teachers and cooperating teachers were also conducted to find out their
perception on reflective practice implemented in the study. As stated previously, this article is
concerned only the problems faced by the student-teachers in managing their classes and the way they
solved their problems through reflective practice.
The data for the topic of concern of this article were those collected through observations,
journal, and interviews. They were analyzed qualitatively and will be presented descriptively. Three
successful strategies used by the students were drawn from the results of the data analysis.
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4. FINDINGS
The result of data analysis obtained through the three instruments mentioned above shows that
all student-teachers experience classroom management problems of varying forms and degrees. The
most serious one was students‘ behavior problems. The problems decreased in the second and the third
cycles eventually. The main problems are listed in the table below.
No Category Examples
1 students‘ misbehavior - Difficulties to handle behaviours:
talking with friends while the teacher
was talking or their friend was
presenting
making noise
doing other things such as drawing
things
disturbing others
saying impolite words
- disciplining students
- instructing students
- going out from the class
2 Giving turn - clever students were given more opportunity
- giving excessive turns or questions
3 Wait time - change the student to answer quickly
- answer the questions by herself
4 Grouping work management - grouping students
- work instruction
- monitoring group work
The problems depicted in the table above are ordered based on their intensity. The biggest
classroom management problem deals with handling students who have behavior problems. Based on
the observations, it was found that all student-teachers faced this problem. Many students often did or
said things that constrained the process of teaching and learning. This made it difficult for the
student-teachers to realize their teaching plans. For example, when a student-teacher was giving
explanation, some students did not pay attention. They even made noise and disturbed their friends.
She had to stop their students from making noise and repeated her explanation. Consequently, she had
to skip certain activities or rush for the time available was limited. Furthermore, such situation
influenced that student-teacher psychologically. In their journals, in fact, students‘ misbehavior was
the most frequently noted by the student-teachers as the factor that caused difficulties in teaching and
made them feel disappointed, fed-up, or even discouraged. In the first interview, the student-teachers
admitted that it was difficult for them to manage the class, especially their students‘ negative attitudes
and behaviors . By doing regular reflection the student-teachers‘ problems reduced as they became
more capable of using appropriate strategies to tackle the students who have behavior problems. In the
interview at the end of the project, the student-teachers said that they felt that they could handle their
students more easily, and thus felt satisfied.
The next problem was giving turns in answering questions and did a task. Based on the
observations, most of the student-teachers tended to give the turn to clever students who usually raised
their hands or to those who seemed to give their attention to them when they were explaining
something. There were some consequences of this practice. Firstly, the other students did not pay
attention; they might think that the teacher would not ask them. They did other things and talked each
other. Secondly, they felt neglected, the feeling which could cause others problems such as being
discouraged and being demotivated. Thirdly, when an appointed student could answer a question
correctly, the student-teachers tended to go on to the next question without checking the other students‘
understanding. In effect, the objectives of the lesson were not reached. In the first few weeks, before
the first interview, no one was aware of this problem and its consequences. In fact, they did not write
anything about this in their journals. They just realized it when the researcher raised the problem in the
first interview. In the second and the third teaching cycles the student-teachers improved their skill in
giving turn.
Another problem related to giving turn was giving inadequate time for the students to answer
oral questions. There was a tendency for the student-teachers to change the student to answer a
question they posed to another student or to give their own answer. There were two apparent
consequences seen in the observations. The students who were appointed to answer the questions
seemed to be disappointed because when s/he was trying to think and give her/his answer, the teacher
had moved to another student. Next, most of the students did not try to think about the answer it
because they seemed to understand that the teacher would finally answer the question by herself if they
did not. This means that the teacher‘s objective to ask the question (whether to activate the students‘
background knowledge or to check their understanding) was not reached. All of the student-teachers,
however, were not aware of this problem. In the first interview, the researcher mentioned their
problems dealing with ‗wait time‘. They admitted their weaknesses and promised to improve them in
the future.
Grouping students also happened to be difficult for most of the student-teachers. Apparently,
they did not plan how to group their students. The students were grouped just by their seats. There were
problems of this way of grouping. For the limited space of each classroom, the students could not work
in group comfortably. Because of that, those who were not motivated tended not to participate in the
discussion, and even made noise or disturbed those who were working on the task. Furthermore, for
grouping on the basis of seats, sometimes the students of a certain group had similar characteristics or
abilities. This often caused difficulties in managing the students, which then affected the attainment of
the teaching objectives. In their journals, no student-teacher did reflection on group work or problems
of grouping students. In the interview, the student-teachers argued that they had difficulty in managing
group because the space was limited, so that they could not form the groups effectively. Besides that,
some student-teachers said that the time to form groups and changed the seats was very short. Yet, they
did not realize that problem of forming groups and grouping students led to other classroom
management problems such as difficulty in controlling noise. In the second and in the third cycles,
though not significant, the problems reduced
In summary, all participants of this study experienced difficulties in managing their classes.
The problems as mentioned above affected their teaching and hampered the ease of the teaching and
learning activities they had planned beforehand. Through regular reflection and guidance from the
supervisors and the cooperating teachers the student-teachers were able to find strategies to overcome
the problems. Improvement was evident after the second and the third cycles. Among the strategies,
three of them were apparently effective for handling classroom management problems, especially
students‘ misbehaviours.
Classroom-Agreed Rules
Schools have regulation that their students have to obey. Some general rules usually deal with
punctuality, uniform, attendance, etc. According to Emmer and Evertson (2009), in addition to general
rules, many teachers have rules to govern a specific behavior or to anticipate what they do not want to
happen. A system of rules that is carefully planned makes it easier for a teacher to communicate what
s/he expects to the students.
One student-teacher of this study had many students with serious behavior problems in her
class. This school was known for its naughty students with very low motivation and low ability. This
student-teacher stated that in the first few weeks of her teaching practicum she had mix-feelings-
disappointed, fed-up, angry, but challenged. So, she decided to ask the students about how they wanted
to study English. She said that she emphasized the importance of studying English in the English class.
She said to the students ―as far as you follow the lesson and do the activities I ask, I agree to negotiate
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how you like the class to be conducted and arranged‖. To her surprise, some students only wanted one
change- their seats. They wanted to choose where and next to whom they sat. This may sound very
simple to most of us. It, however, proved to bring a big impact. In fact, based on the observations in the
second and in the third cycles and the students obeyed the teacher and annoying behaviours such as
disturbing friends and making noise decreased. The other student-teachers who had similar problem
were encouraged to do the same thing, setting agreed-classroom rules.
In the second cycle, another student-teacher set a classroom rule dealing with asking
permission to go the toilet. She found some students‘ habit in this case was quite annoying and affected
the process of teaching and learning. To illustrate, when a student had not come back to the classroom,
another student asked for permission for the same reason. Sometimes, there could be four or five
students were outside the classroom. They would come back to the classroom after quite long time. She
found out that these students played out side; they found a place where people (i.e. teachers) could not
see easily. She discussed with the students the rule. The students agreed that when a student was still
outside, another student could not ask for permission. This rule worked well.
The successful of the two student-teachers indicate that setting rules together with the students
is one of the ways to have effective classroom management, which automatically enables teachers do
their teaching plans well. Thus, the students‘ involvement in setting a rule makes them responsible to
obey it and may make them feel that the rule is theirs.
Use of Variety of Techniques
The results of observations and interview show that another source of classroom problems
were due to limited variety of activities designed by the student-teachers. Many students seemed to be
bored, especially when the teachers did an activity in a quite long duration of time. Here is a summary
of teaching and learning activities conducted by a student-teacher:
Asking some questions to activate students‘ background knowledge
Explaining telling the definition, the generic structure, and the language features of the
text in focus
Asking the students to read a text
Asking the students to answer the questions given about the text (the answers were
checked together orally)
Giving another text and asking the students to do the exercise about the text in written
form.
Collecting the students‘ work
From the example, it can be seen that the activities mainly require the students to read and to answer the
questions. The students sat, read, and answered the questions. For the first text, most f the students
focused, but for the second one many students were apparently bored and some did other things and
disturbed their peers. At this stage, that student-teacher faced difficulties in managing the class. Thus, it
was gathered that the monotonous activities seemed to be a cause of the classroom management
problem.
In the second and the third cycles the student-teachers were asked to vary their teaching
techniques and to ensure that the activities cater for students with different learning styles (audio,
visual, kinesthetic). They were also suggested to try to insert a fun activity in every lesson. In addition,
they were asked to predict the length of time for activity. It was said that an activity should not exceed
15 minutes.
In the second cycle all student-teachers did vary their teaching techniques. Based on the
observations, it was found that many students focused their attention to the lessons better, were
engaged in the activities, and seemed to feel happy. Here is an example of main activities by a
student-teacher:
Introducing the topic and asking some questions to activate the students‘ background
knowledge
Showing 5 pictures (materials for making orange juice) and asking the students one
question about each picture.
The activities above are obviously varied. The students used different senses. In fact, there was
a quite balanced between mental and physical activities. It can be seen that students‘ different learning
styles were taken into account. It could be concluded that varying teaching techniques could help
teachers reduced classroom management problems.
Personal Approaches
Some student-teachers had a few very naughty students who usually became instigators in
their classes. In their journals those student-teachers sometimes wrote that they were disappointed
because they could not handle some naughty students. In an observation, the researcher found out that
a student-teacher had a ‗chaos‘ class in which some students did not pay attention; they just wandered
around the class, making noise and disturbing friends. Apparently there was a troublemaker that
influenced some other students. In the interview the student-teacher said that not only her, the
cooperating teacher also found it difficult to handle that particular student.
Tsui (1996) emphasizes the importance of establishing good relationship with students in
creating a conducive atmosphere. Some teachers as mentioned by Tsui have employed this strategy and
have found it effective. A teacher talked to individual students at recess and lunch time. Following this
suggestion, the researcher advised the student-teacher mentioned above to talk to the student
individually outside the class, trying to find out the causes of the problem and giving him attention such
as giving a responsibility to do something.
Then, that student-teacher tried the suggested strategy. She said that she approached the
student and asked he often made troubles. After some chats outside the class at recess time, she found
out that the student had family problem and was often scolded by his parents. She gave him some
advice. She also gave the student responsibilities such as taking the students‘ exercise books to the
office and distributing materials in the class. Since then, that student had better attitude.
When visiting the other student-teachers, the researcher shared the successful story mentioned
above. They were suggested to use the same strategies to handle their students who became the
troublemakers in their classes. By the end of the study, in the second interview, three student-teachers
reported that the strategies also worked for them. This means that giving individual attention to
students is useful.
5. CONCLUSION
Classroom management problems faced by prospective teachers of this current study had
negative influence on the attainment of their teaching objectives. Regardless their good teaching plans,
the students‘ misbehaviours had made it difficult for the prospective teachers to run the pre-planned
classroom activities. The study revealed that the prospective teachers had limited skills how to manage
a class. Through regular reflective teaching implemented in the study, the problems decreased
eventually. Three major strategies applied to improve the condition are setting classroom rules together
with the students, improved group management, and varying teaching techniques. The result of the
implementation of the strategies indicates improvement in the process and the outcomes. Thus,
teachers and prospective teachers are suggested to apply the strategies in managing their classes. As
this study was conducted in a small scope and was not intentionally looked at classroom management
issues, further research is needed.
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REFERENCES
Emmer, E.T. and C.M., Evertson. (2009). Classroom management for middle and high school teachers
(8th ed). New Jersey: Pearson.
Jacobs, G.M. (2006). Issues in implementing cooperative learning. In McCafferty S.G, J.C. Richard,
and A.C. DaSilva Iddings. (Eds.), Cooperative learning and second language teaching, pp.
30-46. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lightbown, P.M. and N. Spada. (2001). Factors affecting second language learners. In In Candlin, C. N
and N. Mercer (Eds), English language teaching in its social context, pp. 28- 43. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Richards, J.C. (2001). Beyond Methods. In Candlin, C. N and N. Mercer (Eds), English language
teaching in its social context, pp. 167-179. London: Routledge.
Savignon, S. (2001). Communicative language teaching for the twenty-first century. In Celce-Murcia,
A. (Ed.), Teaching English as a foreign or second language (3rd ed.), pp. 13-28. Boston: Heinle
& Heinle.
Tsui, A.B.M. (1996). Reticence and anxiety in second language learning. In Bailey, K.M. and D.
Nunan (Eds.), Voices from the language classroom, pp. 145-167. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Johnson, K.(2008). An introduction to foreign language learning and teaching (2nd ed.). Harlow:
Pearson Education Limited.
Yulmiati, M.Pd
Sekolah Tinggi Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan (STKIP)
PGRI Sumatera Barat
yulmiati66@yahoo.com
Abstract
Based on curriculum 2013 demand, assessment in teaching and learning process emphasizes
cognitive, affective and psychomotor domain. Cognitive domain is focus on assessing student
knowledge. While affective assessment relates to information about students‘ behaviour toward the
lesson. Then, in psychomotor domain, teacher concerns to assess students‘ skill. In other words, smart,
good attitude and good skill are important to be acquired by the students. Unfortunately, most of
Senior High School teachers in Padang are still confused to implement affective assessment. In fact,
assessing affective domain is essential in order to build students‘ soft skills. While soft skill will
determine students‘ success in their future life whether in their job or in their society. However, some
schools in the Indonesia, especially in Padang, are not ready to implement curriculum 2013 and they
decide to implement curriculum 2006. Thus, this paper explaines theoretically about the concept of
affective assessment in teaching learning process. It involves the concept of the level of affective
domain, techniques and instruments that can be used on affective assessment. It is hoped that this
paper will be considered by English teachers in Indonesia to implement affective assessment because
this assessment is ideal in order to know students‘ attitudes through the English as Foreign Language.
1. INTRODUCTION
English teaching influences the students to master English. Through good English teaching,
the students will be easier to comprehend the lesson and also easier to apply it. Thus, the government
takes a part to enhance English teaching quality. Thereby, English teaching is expected to be better and
can help the students in mastering English.
English teaching in Indonesia is based on curriculum that is set by ministry of education. The
Ministry of education always tries to make education better in all subjects included English. In addition
based on Indonesian constitution on education No 20 in year 2003:
―pendidikan nasional berfungsi mengembangkan kemampuan dan
membentuk watak serta peradaban bangsa yang bermartabat dalam
rangka mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa, bertujuan untuk
berkembangnya potensi peserta didik agar menjadi manusia yang
beriman dan bertakwa kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa, berakhlak
mulia, sehat, berilmu, cakap, kreatif, mandiri, dan menjadi warga
negara yang demokratis serta bertanggung jawab‖. (Kunandar 34)
Based on constitution above, the ministry of education plans to make the students be smart,
have good attitude and have good skill. This system should be implemented in Indonesian schools
whether in Elementery School, Junior High Scools, Senior High School or University. To achieve the
constitution requirement, curriculum change is possible in education. It should be evaluated time to
time to make our education better. In previous curriculum, assessment in teaching tends to see
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cognitive achievement. New curriculum that has to be applied in Indonesia is called curriculum 2013.
Based on curriculum demand, assessment in teaching and learning process emphasizes cognitive,
affective and psychomotor.
Refers to Bloom‘s theory, the teacher has to assess cognitive, affective, and psychomotor of
the students proportionately. Our education cosiders this theory by conducting PERMENDIKBUD No
66 in year 2013: ―Penilaian hasil belajar peserta didik mencakup kompetensi sikap, pengetahuan, dan
keterampilan yang dilakukan secara berimbang sehingga dapat digunakan untuk menentukan posisi
relatif setiap peserta didik terhadap standar yang telah ditetapkan.‖ Based on the statement, these
three domains (affective, cognitive, and psychomotor) is the standard of educational assessment in
Indonesia (Panduan Penilaian untuk Sekolah Menengah Atas 4).
First is affective. Affective is related to students‘ behavior. Learning intents in the affective
domain that is organized according to the degree to which an attitude, feeling, value, or emotion has
become part of the individual (Kunandar 100). In this case, the teacher can assess students‘ affective
from their behavior, their interest on studying, their appreciation to the teacher, and their relation to
their friends. Through assessing all aspects in affective, the students are expected to have good
behavior. Teachers can assess students‘ affective in discussion. During the discussion, the teacher
observes students behavior such as responsibility, receiving, responding or giving opinion. Besides, the
teacher can assess students‘ affective when the students do group work or individual activity.
Second is cognitive. Cognitive is related to students‘ knowledge. Kunandar has discussed
(159) that objective in the cognitive domain are concerned with imparting knowledge and thinking
skill. The teacher has to assess the students‘ cognitive to find out the students‘ progress. It has to be
done in order to know how far the students understand about knowledge related to the material that has
given by the teacher. The teacher assesses students‘ cognitive with some ways. In the field, the
researcher find that the teacher assess students‘ cognitive through giving test. For instance, the teacher
instructs students to answer some questions by using instrument fill in the blank. Beside, the teacher
also gives task or homework to the students after teaching and learning process.
Third is psychomotor. Psychomotor is a domain that ranges from acquiring the basic rudiments
of a motor skill to the perfection of a complex skill. It means that psychomotor domain is a domain
related to physical skills from basic of motor skill till complex skill that acquired after teaching and
learning process (Kunandar 249). It can be said that psychomotor domain is related to the students‘
actions and the students‘ skill. In the field, the researcher finds that the teacher often assesses students‘
psychomotor in practicing the material in front of the class. For instance, the teacher assesses the
students in delivering their discussion. The teacher also assesses students psychomotor to do short
conversation in group.
However, orientation or socialization about assessment in curriculum 2013 is still not optimal
yet. Only some teachers get orientation or socialization about the assessment in curriculum 2013. So,
other teachers have to learn about how to assess the students with the teachers who get the orientation
of curriculum 2013. But, the teachers are still difficult to balance assessment in cognitive, affective and
psychomotor of the students.
However, teachers‘ understanding about affective assessment in English teaching learning
process is still in question. So, it becomes become phenomenoun in education because affective aspect
is not applied as assessment in previous curriculum. In other word, it can become barrier in reaching
the curriculum demand because there is no reference from the previous curriculum yet. Thus, it will be
very interesting to be discussed by hoping to give a good effect toward our scools today.
2. DISCUSSION
Assessment is essential in teaching and learning process. It can give contribution to the
teachers and the students. For the teacher, assessment can be a reference to next material. For instance,
if many students do not understand about a material, the teachers should change their way in teaching
and reexplain the material. For the students, the result of it can make the students realize about their
competences and weaknesses.
Assessment is a process of gathering information to make decision about the students‘ progress
in teaching and learning process related to the material given. Through assessment, the teacher can
find out what the students know and what the students can do after learning. Moreover, assessment is as
the process of finding out who the students are, what their abilities are, what they need to know, and
how they perceive the learning will affect them (Sommer in Richards and Renandya 346). It points that
assessment is an aspect that need to be done by the teachers. Sommer emphesizes many aspects that
should be concidered in assessment. It is not only about what the students‘ know, but also to find who
the students are and what the students can do. It shows that the teacher should consider about
students‘s attitude, knowledge and skill. In order to see studetns‘ attitude, the teacher can assess
students‘ affective domain.
Affective is a domain related to students‘ behavior. Students‘ behavior can be seen from
students‘ attention in learning, discipline, motivation in learning, respect to the teacher and their friend,
students‘ habit, and students‘ social relation with others. The affective domain is organized according
to the degree to which an attitude, feeling, value, or emotion has become part of the individual (Moor
54). In this case, teacher will know about these information from student‘s attention to the lesson. The
students‘ conserns to the topic of the lesson that can be seen from her/his spirit in following learning
activities. Their discipline to the lesson also becomes the standard in assessing affective domain. It can
be seen from students‘effort in attending classroom and submit the project in the appropriate time.
Students‘ motivation to the lesson, their appreciation to the teacher, and their adaptation with social
environment show students‘ affective domain. If the teacher does not assess the students‘ affective, the
students will do not care about their behavior and they will do not know how is the teachers‘
assessment toward their attitude.
In addition, Popham has stated (233) that affective variables such as students‘ attitudes,
interest and values are important because they typically influence to students‘future behavior. So, it is
necessary to promote positive attitudes towards learning because students who have positive attitudes
towards learning today will be influenced to their success in the future. Positive attitude will be
characterized in their life. They will be accepted by their environtment, whether in work or in social
life.
Meanwhile, in Indonesia context, character education becomes the hottest issues in the current
curriculum. The learners should be aware of the good values, such as responsibility, honesty, dicipline,
caring of others, polite, etc. Although these attitudes are not taught directly, but they must be
impelemented in students‘ real life. The teacher have to know in what level of students attitude are. It is
hoped that the students have characterization of good attitudes. Because it shows the consistence as
their lifestyle.
Furthermore, behaviorism becomes Minangkabau culture. In Minang culture long ago, all the
things have manner and rules in order to show a good behavior and politeness. There are three cultural
posts to guide the youth in Minang. They are home, mosque, and school. These posts have important
role in conducting good generation (Naim 16). The role of school emphasizes that teacers should be
concerned to students behaviour. The teachers are not only teach their students but also eduacate them
about good values. Related to the role of scool to build good character, education put affective domain
in curriculum 2013.
In curriculum 2013, affective domain should be assessed by the teacher. By this assessment,
the teacher knows about students‘ attitudes in learning process. The teacher can detect the bad and
good students, besides knowing of students‘ feeling toward the lesson. Affecticve domain is mentioned
in core competence number 1 and 2. Core competence number 1 consists of spritual comtetence. It is
related to students relationship with their God. Students have to accept and implement their religion
doctrine. While core competence number 2 is about social competence, relationship among human. In
social competence, students have to be honest, dicipline, responsible, care, polite, curious, confident,
tolerant, having instrinsic motivation, and concern with the environment. Through assessing all
aspects in affective, the students are expected to have good behavior (Kunandar 102).
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The core competence above should be assessed by teachers by using some teachniques such as
observation, journal, self assessment, peer assessment, and interview.
1. Observation
Observation is a technique that is used by the teacher to know about the students‘ behavior.
Observation is an activity to get students‘ information related to their attitude that is done by the
teacher. It is done by the teacher to get information about the students‘ behavior and the students‘
competence (Kunandar 117). Observation can be done to assess students‘ behavior in teaching and
learning process. In this case, the teacher observes about the students‘ attention and their interaction
during class running, their responds to teaching material, and their work with other students. It is done
to make the teacher know about the students‘ behavior.
Teachers can use observation sheet as the instrument in observing students‘ behavior.
Tabel 1: Observation Sheet
Activity : Discussion
Grade : VII
No Name Behavior (Score 1 – 5) Total Sc
Team Participation Attention Communication ore
work
1 Adi 4 5 4 4 17 85
2 Tono 4 4 3 3 14 70
3 Budi 3 5 4 4 16 80
4 Iwan 5 4 3 5 17 85
5 Etc
(Adapted from Kunandar 129)
2. Self Assessment
Self assessment is an assessment technique where the teacher instructs the students to express
their excess and their weakness about their behavior. Self-assessment promotes direct involvement in
learning and the integration of cognitive ability with motivation and attitude toward learning
(O‘Malley and Pierce 5). It means that, beside of self assessment can be used by the teachers to know
about students‘ behavior, the teacher also can know about students‘ knowledge. Through self
assessment, the students can realize their competence and their weakness. So, they will be confidence
and try to make their competence better.
3. Peer Assessment
Peer assessment is a technique to know the students competence by asking the other student.
Peer assessment is used for pair or team activities, Students can be asked to rate each other as well as
their functioning as a group (O‘Malley and Pierce, 69). In this case, the teacher instructs the students to
assess their friend.
Tabel 3: Peer Assessment Instrument
Topik/Subtopik :
Tanggal Penilaian :
Nama teman yang dinilai :
Nama Penilai :
No Perilaku Dilakukan
Ya Tidak
1 Mau menerima pendapat teman
2 Memaksa teman untuk menerima
pendapat
3 Memberi solusi terhadap pendapat yang
bertentangan
4 Menggunakan kata-kata yang baik
ketika meminta pendapat
(Adapted from Kunandar 146)
4. Journal
Journal is teacher‘s record about students‘ behavior. It involves the information acquired
during observation that consists of positive and negative values of the students (Kunandar 147). In this
case, the teacher should have particular notes about students outside and inside class related to
students‘ behavior.
In addition, Richards and Renandya have discussed (349) that journal entries may be used as an
informal means of assessment by the teacher because they are personal and intimate. In this case, the
teacher records the students‘ attitudes in responding teaching material.
Tabel 4: Journal
Name of Student :
Date :
No Question Respone
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comparing, relating, and synthesizing values. Learning outcomes may be concerned with the
conceptualization of a value (recognizes the responsibility of each individual for improving
human relations) or with the organization of a value system (develops a vocational plan that
satisfies his or her need for both economic security and social service). Instructional objectives
relating to the development of a philosophy of life would fall into this category. For example;
Recognizing own abilities, limitations, and values and developing realistic aspirations and
accepting responsibility for one‘s behavior. At this level, the learner organizes a set of values into
a value system that are used to respond to diverse situations.
e. Characterization
The individual has a value system that has controlled his or her behavior for a sufficiently long
time for him or her to develop a characteristic ―life-style.‖ Thus the behavior is pervasive,
consistent, and predictable. Learning outcomes at this level cover a broad range of activities, but
the major emphasis is on the fact that the behavior is typical or characteristic of the student.
Instructional objectives that are concerned with the student's general patterns of adjustment
(personal, social, emotional) would be appropriate here. For examples; showing self-reliance
when working independently, using an objective approach in problem solving, and displaying a
professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis.
In assessing students attitudes in reading, the students can assess their selves by using the
instrument of self assessment as seen in table 2 above as the example. This instrument is developed by
considering level of affective. Point 1 relates to level ―receiving‖ . It shows the learner is aware of the
topic and ready to learn. Students have a good feeling to read the topic. Point number 2 shows level
―responding‖. In order to know a sense of satisfaction in doing what is required, it can be seen whether
students pay attention or not. At point 3, level of ―Valuing‖ can be seen that students are consistent
with certain beliefs. Students do not only read about the lesson during class time but also during free
time. Point number 4, the students try to responds diverse situation by organizing set of values. This
behavior involves in ―Organization‖ level. In this situation the student can tell to friends aboaut what
he/she read. This value shows student‘s high motivation about the topic in reading. The highest level
can be seen in point number 5. Reading narrative text has been characterized in students‘ life style. It
can be seen from students habbit in writing it without teacher‘s command.
Self assessment above is not only show feeling, but also shows the action. The affective side of
learning is key importance in the interplay of our feelings, actions, and thoughts (Gazibara 76). It
means that it is a learning related to feeling, behavior and thinking. It is concerned soft skill of the
students. Soft skill is needed to be assessed because it can give influences to students‘ learning.
It was proved by several researchs, one of them is the research that has been conducted by
Givens. She found that students‘ affective characteristics leads to more targeted instruction and
successful learning experiences for students. Because students are able to focus on affective
development in concert with cognitive development, they are more likely to be successful. This
research shows that affective domain help students to be success in cognitive achievment. Hence, she
suggests to assess the affective domain periodically during instructionin order to monitor changes in
the students and retool the lesson plan.
3. CONCLUSION
Students behavior is responsibility of all educators. This is not only for religion and civics
teachers, but for all teachers. Undoubtedly, affective domain influences to students‘ achievement.
Beside that, affective assessment is used to teaching learning needs for improving the effectiveness of
college and students‘ success. There is no reason for teachers anymore to delay the implementation of
curriculum 2013 that involves the authentic assessment that consists of assessing affective, cognitive,
and psychomotor equally. If the teachers have difficulties in assessing affective, it will be better to do it
by trial and error rather than to ignore it.
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