DISCOLOURATION IN WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

REPORT

of the Seminar (CE4092) carried out for partial fulfilment of the award of the degree in
Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering

by

Shameem Shajahan B140174CE

1
 Department of Civil Engineering

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY CALICUT

August 2017

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this seminar entitled “Discolouration in Water Distribution System” is a bona fide
record of the work carried out by

Shameem Shajahan B140174CE

during Monsoon 2017-2018 in partial fulfillment of the credit requirements of Course Code -Seminar

Seminar i/c

Date: 11/08/2017

2
 ABSTRACT

Drinking water is usually clean in appearance but sometimes for a brief period of time, it can be
discoloured or contain particles which can be a consequence of maintenance on network of pipes that
bring water from the treatment work to homes. Discoloration is either caused by the presence of fine
particles in the water, measured as turbidity, or by true colour. Discolouration can be caused by
disturbance of harmless deposits accumulate. The deposits in water can be because of iron particles
which corrode over time (rust) which becomes loose and carried eventually lodged in areas of low flow.

Flushing of water mains is used for removing sediment that slowly build up at bottom of water mains
over time. Other methods used are air scouring, pigging and swabbing.

The seminar discuss about sources and methods of accumulation of discolouration particles. A model for
accumulation and mobilization of particles is discussed based on experiments conducted by Cook et al.,
2011.

Resuspension Potential Method is described to find the presence and mobility of particles for estimating
discolouration risk.

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my sincere thankfulness to our faculty Dr. Harikrishna M. for his invaluable support,
encouragement and guidance throughout this seminar project. His moral support and continuous
guidance enabled me to complete my work successfully.

I am also grateful to the various online journals on the prescribed topic obtained from sources like
American Society for Civil Engineers, Science Direct etc. for their valuable information regarding the
seminar project.

I am greatly indebted to all my friends and colleagues who have provided me constant cooperation and
encouragement and whose regular suggestions made my work easy and proficient.

Last but not the least, I am thankful and indebted to all those who helped me directly or indirectly in
completion of this project.

SHAMEEM SHAJAHAN

B140174CE

4
CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION
2. REQUIREMENTS OF SCC
3. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAME
3.1.MATERIALS
3.11.CEMENT
3.1.2.AGGREGATE
3.1.3NATURAL.ZEOLITE
3.1.4.WATER
3.1.5.ADMIXTURES
3.2.AGGREGATES GRADING(DENSE PACKING CONCEPT)
3.3.MIXTURE PROPORTIONS
3.4.FRESH CONCRETE TESTS
3.4.1.SLUMP FLOW TEST
3.4.2.J-RING TEST
3.4.3.GTM SCREEN STABILITY TEST
3.5.HARDENED CONCRETE TESTS
3.5.1. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST
3.5.2.RAPID CHLORIDE PENETRATION TEST
3.5.3.ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1.FRESH CONCRETE TEST RESULTS
4.1.1.SLUMP FLOW AND T50cm SPREAD TIME
4.1.2.J-RING TEST RESULT
4.1.3.SEGREGATION RESISTANCE
4.2.HARDENED CONCRETE TEST RESULTS
4.2.1.COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST
4.2.2.RAPID CHLORIDE PENETRATION TEST
4.2.3.ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY TEST
5. CONCLUSIONS
5
 LIST OF TABLES

Figures Description Pg.No.

Table 1 Flushing Results DMA A 14

Table 2 Flushing Results DMA A 15

6
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figures Description Pg.No.

Figure 1 Discoloured Water 1

Figure 2 Sponge used for Swabbing Mains 4

Figure 3 Air Scouring Method in Water Mains 5

Figure 4 Conceptual model for discoloration accumulation and 7

mobilization within water distribution systems

Figure 5 Typical RPM Curve 10

Figure 6 Average iron, manganese, and aluminium content found in all 16

discrete flushing samples at each imposed flushing step

Figure 7 Example of turbidity response observed during stepped flushing 17

for a plastic pipe

Figure 8 Comparison of peak daily conditioning shear stress and initial 18

depth of discoloration material mobilized

Figure 9 Two examples of “good” fit between amount of discoloration 21

material mobilized and duration between repeated flushing
operations

Figure 10 Conceptual relationship among discoloration potential, 22

conditioning shear stress, and time

Figure 11 Turbidity-Time Graph in 90m 3 inch CI pipe 25

Figure 12 Turbidity-Time Graph in 360m 12 inch CI pipe 23

7
1. INTRODUCTION

Fig. 1 Discoloured Water

Drinking water is clear in appearance but sometimes it may appear discoloured or contain particles. Harmless deposits accumulate over time in areas

of low flow in the local water main. Main cause

of discolouration is disturbance of harmless
deposits accumulated over time in the water
pipes. This can happen due to change in the
direction or speed of water flow in local pipes or
entrainment of air due to operation of pumps and
valves in local network. Common disturbances
that can occur are due to: • a burst on water mains•
opening or closing of valves• reinstating
mains after repairs• changing of the settings of valves to maintain supplies due to increased
consumer demand• the use of water by third parties such as firefighting and cleaning of drains•
laying of a new supply in the neighbourhood.

7 TYPES OF DISCOLORATION

2.1 Cloudy or Milky

Milky or cloudy water is often caused by air bubbles in the water system. Cloudiness and air
bubbles do not present a health risk. Air can enter the distribution system because of changes
in the water temperature or during construction/repairs. To find whether cloudiness is due to
entrapped air, fill a glass with the water from tap and keep it free from disturbance, eventually
cloudiness and air bubbles disappear. Flushing cold water tap for 5-10 minutes can clear up the
cloudy water.

2.2 Yellow to Dark Brown

Water heaters are a common source of yellow or brown discoloured water. If the discoloration is only
in the hot water, accumulated sediments in the bottom of the hot water tank maybe the source.
Flushing water heaters annually following the manufacturer’s instructions is preferred to avoid the
situation. If water is yellow or brown or rusty in colour, presence of iron or manganese sediments
that have settled in the water pipes over time can be the cause of discolouration. Iron and

8
manganese are naturally present in reservoirs. Iron pipes in our distribution system can be also be
a source of iron discoloration - over time pipes corrode giving rise to iron particles (rust) which
become loose and are carried along with the water flow until they lodge in areas of low flow in
the network. Maintenance and repair work, or nearby construction, or flushing of water pipes (by
releasing water from a hydrant or other release point) may mobilize these particles and cause
discoloration. Iron and manganese in drinking water do not cause health risks. Discoloration is
generally temporary in nature and should disappear after water is flushed from the distribution
system. Drinking discoloured tap water is not recommended. Washing clothes in discoloured
water can stain fabric. Flushing cold water tap for 5-10 minutes can clear up discoloured water.

2.3 Green/Blue

Green or greenish blue colour in water may indicate deterioration of copper plumbing. To avoid
discolouration, the source of deterioration is to be found and replaced.

2.4 Black Sediment or Particles

Black particles are often precipitated iron and manganese salts in water. Other causes of black
particles in tap water is the disintegration of rubber materials used in plumbing systems. Sources
of the rubber materials can be due to toilet flappers, rubber washers/O-rings membranes in
thermal expansion tanks on hot water heaters liners disintegrating from the inside of flexible
hoses on water heaters or underneath sinks. The use of chloramines as a disinfectant can
contribute to the disintegration of rubber materials. Replacing the deteriorating rubber (such as a
toilet flapper) with materials resistant to chloramines should be used.

2.5 White Particles

White particle build up is either calcium carbonate or from a type of brass corrosion called
dezincification. Dissolved calcium is naturally found in drinking water and can change to calcium
carbonate in hot water heaters. Over time, calcium carbonate accumulates at the bottom of the
hot water heater and get collected in faucet aerators. Periodically flushing hot water heater is
used to remove any sediment build up.

2.6 Black/Grey or Pink/Orange Slime

Bacteria, mould and fungi can grow on surfaces where water is exposed to air (like, in a toilet
bowl, around sinks or in showers). They may appear black or pink in colour. These growths are

9
produced by airborne fungal spores or bacteria and are not originated from drinking water. Periodic
scrubbing and cleaning with cleaning products containing bleach can control this problem.

3 MATERIAL ACCUMULATION - SOURCES

Material contributing to discoloration are organic and inorganic forms of iron and magnesium
which can be present in the raw water entering water treatment. The materials enter the
distribution system if these materials may not be fully removed by the water treatment process.
At the treatment works, water filtration or coagulation processes may also release material such
as powdered activated carbon particles and iron or aluminium micro flocks. Excessive amounts
of coagulant, such as iron or aluminium due to poor treatment practice, are primary cause which
can contribute to discoloration. The chronic effects of iron and other constituents released from
water treatment works over long time periods may contribute to the accumulation of
discoloration material within distribution systems.

Another major cause of discolouration is the corrosion of cast iron pipes and precipitation of
particles within distribution systems. Iron corrosion can lead to serious water quality degradation
and metal deformation and that discoloration occurs because of iron release when insoluble or
particulate form of iron is transported from corroding pipes to the bulk water. Carriere et al.
(2005) performed repeat flushing operations for networks in Canada and found that the corrosion
of unlined cast iron pipes was observed to play a major role in the formation of discoloration
material, and higher quantities of discoloration material were removed from cast iron than PVC
pipes and the accumulation rates of discoloration material were found to be linear in nature.

Studies in two Canadian water networks by Gauthier et al. (2001) indicated that under normal
conditions, organic matter represents 40–76% of the total suspended solids moving through
water distribution systems, and that because of the low density, this has the potential to be
transported far into the water distribution system, providing it is not absorbed onto the pipe walls
during transit. Van der Wende and Characklis (1990) highlighted that the major part of biomass is
attached to pipe surfaces as a biofilm, which can affect water quality. Thus various in-system
processes, including biological, can contribute material with the potential to cause discolouration
in distribution systems. In addition to the source water and treatment and in-system processes,
Slaats et al. (2002) highlighted the possibility that foreign material, such as sand and soil, can be
introduced into a system as a product of poor maintenance practices.

10
Studies on the material that causes discoloration shows that materials are particulate in nature
with a size of around 10 μm and a specific gravity of between 1 and 1.3 (Boxall et al. 2001;
Gaultier et al. 2001; Seth et al. 2003). Because of this small size, these particles are maintained
as a permanent wash load or solute at low flow rates, after they are suspended (Smith et al. 1999;
Boxall et al. 2001; Hossain et al. 2003; Ryan and Jayaratne 2003). Thus discoloration material
originates from layers bonded at the pipe walls and not from gravity driven pipe invert deposits.
Boxall et al. 2001 hypothesised that the behaviour of the discoloration material held on the pipe
wall was similar to the cohesive force properties displayed by estuarine muds and sewer
sediments. (Parchure and Mehta 1985; Mehta and Lee 1994; Skipworth et al. 1999)

Discoloration related research work has examined individual processes such as corrosion rates
(Volk et al. 2000; McNeill and Edwards 2001), metal deposition (Sly et al. 1990; Sarin et al.
2004), biofilm development with respect to disinfection rates or organic content (LeChevallier et
al. 1990; Zhang and Lu 2006) and general biofilm control strategies (van der Kooij et al. 2003).
The results of such works have developed an idealized understanding of the processes that
influence the build-up of materials. However, the studies are site/project specific or laboratory
focused where the individual processes are isolated. The isolation is for experimental control.
Because of the complexity and range of interactions within a system, laboratory results may be
limited. for the chlorine concentration required to inhibit biofilm development.

4 NEED FOR MAINTENANACE OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

The maintenance of water distribution systems is important to preserve water quality as the water
passes. Pipes can be considered as a biochemical reactor with high surface area and various
water quality reactions takes place within distribution.

76% of total suspended solids obtained from distribution systems is organic matter, including
pathogens. Thus discoloration pose a potential risk to health. Raised levels of turbidity have been
associated with gastrointestinal illness. Discoloration events are usually preceded by a hydraulic
change within the system such as a pipe burst, valve movement or large, unusual demand. This
fundamental understanding has been used to formulate suitable maintenance operations, such as
flushing, to remove potential discoloration material from distribution systems. Iron corrosion in
water distribution systems is known to cause metallic taste and rusty odor.
11
 Fig. 2 Sponge used for Swabbing
Mains

5 METHODS USED TO CLEAN WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

5.1 Unidirectional flushing:

Flushing the water mains improves water quality by removing

sediment that slowly builds up at the bottom of the water main
over time. During the UDF process water is forced through the
water mains at a high speed and discharged through hydrants.
The fast moving water scours and cleans the mains. It takes
about 30 minutes to 60 minutes to flush the water mains.
Specific hydrants will be used to discharge water. There may be
a slight drop in pressure or noticeable
discoloration of the water from the minerals and sediments that are being flushed out. Water
service should not be disrupted during the flushing process.

5.2 Water Main Swabbing

Water main swabbing is the forceful introduction of a large sponge through a pipe to remove
debris such as stones and sand before undertaking chlorine testing procedures prior to the
activation of the water main. The swabbing system is composed of a water tank, pump and swab
chamber. A riser positioned at each end of the section of water main to be swabbed is prepared.
The riser at one end is connected to the system. Water is then drawn from a hydrant or water
supply on-site and is pumped into the water main through the riser. A cylindrical sponge with a
cone nose is pushed into the swab chamber and propelled by the water pressure generated by the
pump throughout the length of the water main. The process ends when the swab – and all sand
and stone debris – vacates the water main through the other riser.
5.3 Pigging

Pigging refers to the practice of using devices known as pigs to perform various maintenance
operations. This is done without stopping the flow of water in the pipeline. These operations include
cleaning and inspecting the pipeline. This is accomplished by inserting the pig into a pig launcher (or
launching station) which is an oversized section in the pipeline, reducing to the normal diameter. The
launching station is then closed and the pressure-driven flow of water in the pipeline

12
is used to push the pig along down the pipe until it reaches the receiving trap known as the pig
catcher (or receiving station).

Figure Pigs

5.4 Air Scouring

Air Scouring is more cost-effective solution - about one third the cost of pigging or swabbing.
By isolating a section of the water main between an entry point and exit point, typically fire
hydrants, the section is purged of standing water with high-volume, high-velocity and low-
pressure air. Slugs of water are then produced when the valve upstream of the entry point is
opened slightly, allowing the passage of controlled amounts of water into the section. The
compressed air, mixing with the water slugs, creates a vortex that travels through the isolated
section removing sediment, biofilm and soft mineral scale. When water exiting the line is clear,
service is restored to the section. The primary benefit of Air Scouring is the removal of sediment,
thus improving water quality. But often, flow capacity also can be increased.

Fig. 3 Air Scouring Method in Water Mains

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6 MODELLING DISCOLOURATION

6.1 Prediction of Discoloration in Distribution Systems PODDS

This model is based on the extensive work by the University of Sheffield (Boxall et al. 2001,
2003a, b; Seth et al. 2003; Boxall and Saul2005) that has studied discoloration events and
performed extensive flushing experiments to characterize discoloration particles and
mobilization processes. This work is captured principally in the prediction of discoloration in
distribution systems (PODDS) model, as first proposed by Boxall et al. (2001). The PODDS
model simulates particle mobilization and transport within the distribution system and attempts
to predict the occurrence of discoloration events. Discoloration events are directly related to
suspended particulate. Particle settling is neglected based on the assumption that once particles
become re-suspended/mobilized in the network, they are unlikely to re-deposit back onto the
pipe surface. The model therefore incorporates the generation, development, and erosion of
cohesive layers and other material on the pipe surface and the subsequent mobilization of and
transport of these materials as permanently suspended in the bulk flow. (Boxall and Dewis 2005;
Boxall and Saul 2005).

6.2 Conditioning and Mobilization of Discoloration Material

Boxall et al. (2001) hypothesized that discoloration events occur because of the mobilization of
materials from the pipe
walls on which they exist as
cohesive layers held by
forces in addition to gravity.
This approach was
validated with flushing field
data by Boxall and Saul
(2005). The hypothesis of
forces in addition to gravity
is supported by work done
in Australia (Ryan and Fig. 4 Conceptual model for discoloration accumulation
Jayaratne 2003) on a and mobilization within water distribution systems
14
laboratory pipe loop, indicating that the velocity that particles settle from solution is very small,
−6
10 m/s. Thus, the smallest velocity of water in the network like leakage would be sufficient to
keep these particlesin suspension and suggests that sedimentation processes are not dominant
within distribution networks. The PODDS model works on the theory that material layers in pipe
walls within a distribution system are subjected to a daily conditioning shear stress as a product
of the network demand. This daily conditioning shear stress governs the strength of cohesive
layers. Shear stress in pipes is described as the force acting on an area of pipe wall perpendicular
to the direction of flow. Discoloration only occurs at times of a typical flow in which the
equilibrium between layer strength and hydraulic forces are unbalanced, and higher shear
stresses are generated, such as increased demand, rezoning, or a burst. The layers exposed to
higher shear stresses will mobilize until new equilibrium conditions are reached or until the layer
is exhausted (Boxall et al. 2001).

Shear stress at the surface of the pipe wall can be calculated based on measured flow characteristics.
Increases in shear stress (due to increases in flow) cause the release of corrosion products into the
bulk flow of the pipe. This implies that the strength of the particle layer (i.e. corrosion scale layer) is
related to the typical flow regime within the pipe. Essentially, corrosion layers are conditioned by the
typical daily flow patterns in the distribution network. When an increase in flow occurs beyond the
typical pattern, stress is applied to the corrosion layers and a release event occurs. Additionally, it is
assumed that the reservoir of particulate mass is also related to the typical flow pattern. A very weak
particulate layer (i.e. flow is typically very low) has a greater availability of particulate mass than a
strong particulate layer (i.e. high flows). With this model, turbidity serves as a surrogate for
particulate mass (the model predicts changes in turbidity). Turbidity increase are assumed to be
directly linked to corrosion scale and/or particulate release.

If the force at the pipe and bulk water interface shear stress is in excess of this conditioning
-1
value, material would be mobilized with the rate of supply R NTU ms , being proportional to
-2 -2
the difference in applied shear stress, Nm and current layer shear strength Nm .Two empirical
3 -1 -1
parameters, a coefficient P NTU m N s , and an exponential n (dimensionless) were included
in the model to relate the release of material to the excess shear stress.
= ( − ) (Equation 1)

15
6.2 Resuspension Potential Method (RPM)

The presence and mobility of loose deposits determine the discolouration risk. Resuspension
Potential Method (RPM) is based on measuring the capability of the sediment in a network to re-
suspend and create visually noticeable turbidity levels. The Resuspension Method (RPM) is
based on a continuous monitoring of turbidity during a controlled and normalised increase of the
velocity in a pipe. The hydraulic shear stress as result of the increased velocity causes sediment
to re-suspend.

Procedure of the RPM is as follows: The pipe for which the discolouration risk is assessed by
closing the valves that connect other feeding pipes to the pipe to be evaluated. Acceleration of
the flow is induced by opening a hydrant in such a way that the velocity in the pipe is increased
by an additional 0.35 m/s on top of the normal velocity and maintain the higher velocity during
fifteen minutes. The velocity 0.35 m/s is empirically determined – for a 100mm internal diameter
3
– this requires an additional volume of 2.78 l/s (10 m /h), which leads to a moderate disturbance.
The turbidity in the pipe is measured. After few minutes, velocity is reduced to normal and
turbidity is monitored until it is back at the initial level.

For measuring turbidity, several flow through turbidity meters can be used. The flow through
standpipe responsible for disturbances in pipe is monitored using flow meter or water meter.
Flows are recorded as deviation from standard disturbance will cause different shear stress on
sediment, consequently different effect on turbidity.

6.2.1 RPM Curve:

The result of RPM experiment is the turbidity pattern as observed in the pipe. For rating the
discolouration risk, four elements of RPM curve are important. The elements are:

1. Base Turbidity Level

2. Initial increase in turbidity at the start of hydraulic disturbances
3. Development of turbidity during the hydraulic disturbance
4. Resetting time and pattern to base (initial) turbidity level

16
Base turbidity level is the level preceding the
hydraulic disturbance. It can be linked to the
turbidity of source water. Initial increase in
turbidity rise immediately to a certain level
which gives the instantaneous mobility of the
sediment. Initial increase is an indication of
maximum turbidity caused by a hydraulic
incident. A high initial turbidity increases the
chance of discolouration. During hydraulic
disturbance, if turbidity develop to a stable Fig. 5 Typical RPM Curve
level and remains the same for first five
minutes, the amount of sediment is considerable and composition of sediment is homogeneous. A
quickly reached and stable level RPM curve indicates a high discolouration risk. It takes a certain
time for turbidity to resettle again to base level. If turbidity stays high during a longer period, the
risk of noticing turbidity is larger.

7 CASE STUDY I: MATERIAL ACCUMULATION

Cook et al. (2011) selected two Distribution Management Areas (DMAs), say A & B for field
trials to investigate rate of accumulation of materials, effects of network properties such as pipe
material, age, diameter, hydraulic properties, etc. on material accumulation rate and layer
strength, thickness and material composition of cohesive layers of discolouration material. The
DMAs received water from same water treatment works but has different pipe characteristics,
hydraulic characteristics and trunk main system.

DMA A was looped network consisting of 1.3 km of cement-lined cast iron pipe, diameter from
ranging from 140 to 80 mm and 1.8 km of asbestos cement pipe 97 mm in diameter. DMA B
consists of 1.39 km of cement-lined cast iron pipe, diameter ranging from 150 to 80 mm, 0.33
km of 76 mm asbestos cement pipe, and 0.61 km of plastic pipe 99–50 mm in diameter. No
unlined cast iron pipes were present in the study areas.

17
7.1 Methodology

Flushing of DMAs was done to impose consistent maximum flushing shear stress in each pipe
and the turbidity response was recorded. It was assumed that, for a long period of time network
was undisturbed so that the initial measured turbidity provided a bench mark for maximum
amounts of material that could accumulate in each part of the system. Flushing operations was
repeated at increasing time intervals between operations and allows the investigation of
accumulation rates and they might vary over time. Stepped flushing at increasing flow rates was
performed with shear stress steps consistent across the pipes. By measuring the resultant
turbidity and taking grab samples for laboratory analysis, it was possible to investigate the
characteristics of the different layer strengths of discoloration material.

The two DMAs were modelled in EPANET to calculate the daily conditioning shear stress in
each pipe; that is, the maximum shear stress generated at peak daily flow. Flushing sequences
were planned to achieve unidirectional flow. Pipes of differing diameters and materials were
flushed independently for comparison. The minimum shear stress achieved when modelling the
fully open hydrant at all planned flushing points in both the DMAs was found to determine the
maximum flushing shear stress that could be consistently achievable across both the DMAs.
2
These were selected as 0.7, 2.7, and 8 N/m on the basis of the approximate halving of the
maximum flow rate. Flushing durations were calculated for each flushing flow rate to achieve a
minimum turnover of two pipe volumes of water. Flushing was repeated in intervals of 3, 6, and
12 months were selected for accumulation rate studies.

Before flushing at each location, the hydrant bowl was cracked to generate sufficient flow to clear
material from the hydrant bow without disturbing the primary length of pipe. The flushing standpipe
was then installed and instrumented with a pressure logger, a Burket flow meter, and a CT-Cense
colour and turbidity sensor to enable the collection of required data. A gate valve assembly was also
fitted to allow fine flow adjustments in the field. Turbidity monitoring equipment was set up at the
point of entry of the clean water front into each pipe length flushed to ensure that all the turbidity
recorded at the flushing standpipe resulted from the flushing length and that any material imported
into the pipe could be accounted for. When the appropriate valves were set, the hydrant’s gate valve
was opened until the first flushing flow rate was achieved. Turbidity was then monitored in real time
with a laptop, and immediately after maximum turbidity

18
was achieved for each step of the flush and turbidity started to fall, a grab sample was taken for
laboratory analysis of iron, manganese, and aluminium composition. Spot samples were also
collected frequently during each flushing operation by using a hand-held Hach meter for the
verification of the CT-Cense turbidity data. After at least two pipe volumes had passed and the
turbidity had fallen to less than 2 NTU, the gate valve was then opened until the middle flushing
flow rate was achieved, and the procedure repeated. The procedure was then repeated again at
the maximum flow rate before moving to the next pipe length.

For each flushing step, the area under the graph gives total NTU · s for the flush step. If a
turbidity response was observed at the monitoring location at the inlet to the pipe length flushed,
then material was imported into the pipe during flushing. Thus, total area was corrected by
subtracting the area under inlet graph from the flushing graph. This area is converted to total
suspended solid (TSS) times seconds by using the conversion factor of 73.33 from Boxall et al.
(2003a). (Conversion is provided in cases where particle size distribution and other light scatter
characteristics are consistent). Boxall et al. (2003a) showed this for a significant range of data, it
is acceptable for studies from the two DMAs. The effect of the variable flushing rates is then be
allowed for by multiplying TSS by time (μg/L·s) by the flow rate (L/s) to give total solids (μg).
Assuming that the discoloration material is mostly iron oxide and has a density of 1,300 kg/m3,
TSS can be converted to volume (Boxall et al. 2003a). The effect of different internal surface
areas of each pipe length is accounted for, and the volume of discoloration material can be
converted to a thickness of material mobilized from each unit surface area of the pipe length
flushed. Accumulation rates is calculated from the different return intervals by normalizing this
thickness by the period between flushes.

7.2 Results

The analysis of 178 grab samples taken during flushing showed that the total metal content of the
samples consisted of, on average, 72% iron, 17% manganese, and 11% aluminium and values
were consistent throughout both DMAs, regardless of pipe material diameter, or time of year
flushed. This indicates a homogenous metal composition of discoloration material regardless of
layer strength characteristics and suggests consistent accumulation processes.

The turbidity profile recorded during the flushing of four plastic pipes in this study showed
different characteristics compared to the other rougher pipes. In plastic pipes, very little extra

19
material was mobilized during medium and high flushing steps. No relationships were observed
between the thickness of material eroded in the initial flush and pipe diameter or material. A
tentative relationship was observed for decreasing total thickness of discoloration material
mobilized with increasing daily conditioning shear stress, however, scatter was present,
particularly at the low shear stress values. The mean value of the accumulation rates across both
DMAs is 0:0057 mm/month.

20
7.2.1 Metals Composition

An analysis of metals samples taken during flushing showed that very little variation in the
percentages of metals was found in all the flushing samples, regardless of the flushing flow rate,
pipe properties, hydraulic conditioning, or time of year flushed. This indicates that the
composition of the discoloration material was uniform in all pipes in both DMAs and not
affected by pipe-specific conditions such as diameter, material, hydraulics, or water temperature.
It is, therefore, reasonable to infer that conditions consistent to all pipes in both DMAs, that the
bulk water quality is the dominant factor. This is supported by the reduction in the percentage of
iron recorded in flushing samples by 6–8% following the upgrade of the supplying water
treatment works, which resulted in the average iron output reduced from 80 to 20 μg/L. Since no
unlined cast iron pipes were present, the effect of pipe corrosion processes on discoloration
material composition cannot be found.

7.2.2 Layer Strength Characteristics

For each increase in imposed hydraulic force for asbestos cement and cement-lined cast iron
pipes, additional discolouration material was mobilized regardless of pipe material or diameter.
This confirms the PODDS hypothesis of variable
strength layers prevalent on all pipes
throughout distribution systems. Turbidity
profiles for smoother walled plastic pipes
2
shows that after flushing at 0.7 N/m , very
little additional discoloration material was
mobilized at the 2.3 and 8 N/m2 flushing
intervals. This further supports Husband
and Boxall (2010) where modelling of field
data suggested a threshold layer strength in
2
plastic pipes of 1.2 N/m above which little
further material was mobilized because
discoloration material is more loosely
Fig. 6 Average iron, manganese, and aluminium
attached to smoother surfaces and is content found in all discrete flushing samples at
completely mobilized by lower flushing each imposed flushing step

21
forces. When the pipe lengths were revisited, the measured turbidity response at each followed
very similar patterns. Repeated turbidity profiles showed successive mobilization of material
with each increase in imposed hydraulic force, although with differing magnitudes dependent on
the duration between visits. This shows that the process of accumulation occurs across all
strength characteristics simultaneously, rather than starting with weak layers that considering a
sedimentation-driven accumulation process where consolidation seems the natural extension of
the theory.

Fig. 7 Example of turbidity response observed during stepped flushing for a

plastic pipe

22
7.6.3 Total Thickness of Discoloration Material

No relationship was observed among the total thickness of discoloration material mobilized
during the initial flush and pipe
properties such as diameter, age,
and material. A tentative inverse
relationship was observed
between daily conditioning
shear stress and initial
discoloration material thickness.

7.6.4 Accumulation Rate

Accumulation was found to be Fig. 8 Comparison of peak daily conditioning shear stress
and initial depth of discoloration material mobilized
near linear in nature between 3, 6,
and 12 month intervals. This indicates that no seasonality exists for the accumulation rate of
discoloration material. Figs. 9 and 10 show good and bad examples of fitting a linear trend to the
discoloration material accumulation against duration between repeat visits. Tables 1 and 2
provide the complete set of accumulation rates. The overall average accumulation rate was found
to be 0:0057 mm/month. If the total volume of discoloration material accumulated at this rate
within a 140 mm pipe were mobilized into one pipe volume of water, the average turbidity would
exceed UK regulatory limits (4 NTU) after 43 days. If a hydraulic event large enough to mobilize
all accumulated material occurred six months after cleaning, the average turbidity would be
approximately 17 NTU and for 12 months would be 35 NTU. Peak turbidity would be
significantly greater.

After various regression analyses were conducted, no relationships were found among the
accumulation rate of each pipe length and pipe specific properties such as material, diameter, and
daily conditioning shear stress. As the accumulation rates in both DMAs were almost the same;
the governing factor affecting this rate had to be common to both DMAs - only such factor being
the bulk water quality because both DMAs received water from the same water treatment works.
Thus, the source water quality is the governing factor for the discoloration material accumulation
rate. As iron was the dominant metal found in flushing samples, it can be concluded that the
concentrations of iron output by the water treatment works are a primary factor influencing the

23
accumulation processes of discoloration material within these DMAs. This can be confirmed by
the reduction in the iron concentrations mobilized following the 12 month accumulation period.

The findings of this study indicate that in both DMAs studied, discoloration material
accumulated at a similar linear rate in all parts of the network, governed by the source water
quality. These findings also tentatively supports that the total thickness of discoloration material
is inversely proportional to conditioning shear stress. Thus the accumulation of discoloration
material would continue at a consistent rate in all pipes until a maximum of material thickness is
reached, governed by the peak daily shear stress experienced in each pipe. The practical
interpretation of this is that in areas for which the normal daily shear stress is high, the
accumulation of discoloration material stops earlier than in areas for which the daily
conditioning shear stress is much lower and thicker layers of material can form. The thickness of
discoloration material is the discoloration potential of the pipe; hence, the relationship among
discoloration potential, daily conditioning shear stress, and time can be conceptualized, as shown
in Fig. 12. As corrosion of unlined cast iron pipes is a source of discoloration material (Seth et al.
2003; Sarin et al. 2004a), these pipes have an increased discoloration material accumulation rate.

Fig. 9 Linear Fit for accumulation Rate

24
7.7 Discolouration Risk

The gradient of the graph in Fig. 11 is a function of water quality. Source waters containing
higher percentages of iron would have a steeper gradient than those containing less iron.
Reducing the concentrations of iron leaving the water treatment works would reduce the
accumulation rate of material and thus, increase the interval between cleaning operations. As the
ultimate thickness of discoloration material accumulation is governed by daily conditioning
shear stresses, pipes that are subjected to low daily conditioning shear stress are, over time, likely
to accumulate more discoloration material and have a higher discoloration risk. Thus, cleaning
these pipes is essential for reducing discoloration risk. However, pipes with higher daily
conditioning shear stresses will reach equilibrium between accumulating and eroding forces
much quicker (months), will, therefore, accumulate less discoloration material overall, and will
have a lower discoloration risk. Therefore, in planning cleaning operations, the conditioning
shear stress of networks should be considered through hydraulic
modelling. This will ensure that
pipes that will benefit most
from cleaning are targeted and
effort is not wasted on areas of
the network for which 100%
accumulation of discoloration
material is likely to occur very
quickly but never pose a
significant discoloration risk.
Increasing the conditioning shear
Fig. 11 Relationship among discoloration potential,
stress in pipes sufficiently could conditioning shear stress, and time
prevent discoloration material
from accumulating and generate self-cleansing networks, that is, networks that limit material
accumulation such that discoloration risk is acceptably low. This studies confirms that material
accumulation is ubiquitous throughout distributions systems but that the mechanisms controlling
accumulation can be managed to minimize risk

25
8 CASE STUDY II – UNI DIRECTIONAL FLUSHING

8.1 Methodology

In order to directly investigate the relationship between layer strength and discoloration potential
and to examine the hypothesis that hydraulic conditioning determines the layer shear strength a
series of field tests were performed. These used a unidirectional flushing approach that subjected
the pipes to stepped increases in flow with each step defining the subsequent starting layer shear
strength. A three stepped flow operation was generally used unless restricted by time or volume
discharge constraints. To facilitate comparison of model application to different pipe diameters
and material and investigate model transferability, trials were completed at ten monitored field
sites across the United Kingdom in ground and surface water supplied systems. From 31
monitored Sections 14 cast iron, two uPVC, and the rest polyethylene, four examples of cast iron
and four examples of plastic pipes covering the full range of diameters tested, are presented here.
During the trials, turbidity was monitored using formazine calibrated Censar Color and Turbidity
probes connected to appropriate hydrants, including an inlet monitor to ensure the measured
response was solely attributable to the pipe length being examined. These turbidity values were
cross correlated with the results of laboratory analysis of discrete samples for turbidity and
metals. A Hach Pocket Turbidimeter was also used to provide a third validation of the turbidity
measurements. Prior to and throughout the trials, flow rates and network pressure profiles were
measured to allow accurate evaluation of the hydraulic conditions. Control valves were used
when necessary to maintain the normal daily flow routes during flushing and to ensure that the
mobilizing water front had a single point of supply.

8.2 Turbidity Results from Cast Iron Pipes

2
Goodness of fit valuation is provided, R .This was calculated using Eq. 2 where mi and pi are
the measured and modelled values for data point i and m is the mean of the measured values.
This expression takes into account the spread of data, requiring the prediction to fit more closely
2 2
to data sets with low gradient to give a high value of R . A R value of 1 indicates a perfect fit
and a value less than zero no correlation to recorded data. However it should be noted that this
formulation is particularly sensitive to any errors in the time domain.
2

=
∑
=1
( − )

2
Eq. (2)
∑ (− )

=1

26
All CI pipes studied showed successive release of material for each stepped increase in imposed
hydraulic force, with low levels of turbidity achieved toward the end of each step. This directly
confirms the premises of the PODDS model that discoloration material is held in cohesive layers
with a defined strength/discoloration potential relationship; and that mobilization occurs as a
function of imposing hydraulic forces in excess of those previously experienced. It may be
concluded that the PODDS model therefore has the potential to provide water service providers
with a means to assess discoloration risk within a network, especially those that contain a
significant proportion of iron pipes. The flows used in the study were limited: in some cases by
local operational guidelines, but usually by network pressure/hydrant diameter. Up to these
limited flows it was always found that further increases in applied shear stress resulted in further
discoloration, i.e., it was not possible to remove all the discoloration material and hence to
determine an ultimate flushing shear stress hence flow rate or velocity at which the pipe could be
termed fully clean. This suggests that the magnitude of the flushing rate selected for cast iron
pipes cannot be defined by some global
target shear stress, velocity or
flow rate. To manage the
discoloration risk it is proposed
that the flushing rate should be
greater than the maximum flow
that is likely to occur possibly
plus a factor of safety for each
pipe in a system. For the same
asset characteristics pipe diameter, Fig. 12 Turbidity-Time Graph in a CI pipe
material, and approximate flushing
flow rate there were large differences in the measured turbidity. For example, examination of Fig. 4
shows the turbidity peaked at almost 200 NTU 90 m of 3 in. CI pipe whereas in Fig. 5 turbidity
exceeds 600 NTU 230 m of 3 in. CI pipe. This difference is not solely a result of the difference in

27
pipe lengths, it is also a
result of differences in the
applied boundary shear
stress due to the calibrated
pipe roughness and
differences in the daily
conditioning flow rates
and hence shear stress. To
model the measured flow
rates shown in Fig. 5 and

match the pressure drop Fig. 13 Turbidity-Time Graph in a plastic Pipe

observed during flushing it
was necessary to reduce the recorded pipe diameter of 72 mm3 in.by 25 mm to an effective
diameter of 47 mm and apply a roughness Darcy-Weisbach of 12.5 mm in line with
recommendations of Boxall et al. (2004). With such an extreme roughness, both head loss and
boundary shear values were correspondingly high and likewise the simulated turbidity. This
evaluation of reduced hydraulic capacity, based on pressure and flow measurements, and
supported by the turbidity modelling, suggests a highly corroded pipe interior. Hence the high
turbidity measured at this site can be associated with extremely poor internal condition. This is
likely to be due to corrosion, supported by the high concentration of iron found in the flushing
samplesFeconc20 mg/Land visually as “red water” exiting the standpipe Fig. 7. The knowledge
thus gained of the internal condition of pipes has great operational and management value,
although obtaining the detailed hydraulic and turbidity data does require suitable instrumentation
and analysis, a consideration when assessing if this is a practically feasible method to assess pipe
condition. Current alternative techniques for assessing the internal condition of pipes however
are also difficult and expensive, often requiring the installation of sophisticated equipment and
instrumentation or the obtaining of pipesamples.

28
8.3 Turbidity Results from Plastic Pipes

Most new pipes installed in the U.K. and internationally are now plastic. Figs. 8a,9a,10a, and 11a
show examples of the measured and PODDS simulated using previously derived parameters turbidity
for four plastic pipes, with diameters from 72 to 146 mm and lengths of between 170 and 447 m. In
general it can be seen that with the exception of over predicting the final flushing step in each case
the PODDS model simulations have the same pattern and trends as the measured data.
TheR2valuesshown on these figures are varied, those with low values are those where the final step
show little correlation. However if the final step is excluded a degree of fit is indicated, such as in
Fig. 8awhere theR2value increases from 0.4 to 0.96. Hence the general approach and assumptions of
the PODDS model, although requiring refinement for flushing at higher shear stress values, are
shown to be verified for plastic pipes. As with the cast iron pipes the plastic pipes show successive
release of material in response to each increase in imposed hydraulic force. However the initial
increases are not always as defined as in the cast iron pipes and the decay to low levels of turbidity
during each step is not always as clear. Hence while the premises of the PODDS approach appear
applicable to plastic pipes, the direct verification is not as good as for cast iron pipes. Over prediction
of the final step in each flushing operation may be due to, in reality, all the material layers within the
plastic pipes being mobilized and the pipe being effectively fully clean. In the PODDS model it is
possible to simulate this through layer exhaustion, achieved by setting an ultimate shear stress,
ultimate, that limits the maximum shear strength of the layers. Using an optimization procedure for
the fit to the final flushing stage it was found that applying =1.2 N/m2 led to an improvement in the
modelled simulations for almost all the plastic pipes, as can be seen in Figs. 8b, 9b, and 10b. Fig.
11bhighlights the results for the smallest diameter72 mm plastic pipe located in a complex looped
network. With a value of ultimate of 1.2 N/m2 The simulation produced an almost negligible
turbidity at the terminal flushing step and ultimate of 1.8 N/m2was required to produce agreement
between the modelled and measured data. With this ultimate boundary condition applied to the
modelling, a mean R2 of 0.6 supports the verified status of the PODDS approach to plastic pipes.
The practical implication of the ultimate requirement is that complete cleaning of plastic pipes is a
realistic aspiration and maybe achieved by specifying a global target shear stress. The application of
this ultimate value to distribution systems based on modelling interpretation may however be subject
to uncertainty. This is due to the empirically calibrated exponent term in the model being
nonunityEq.1. Due to this the models

29
current layer shear strengths, asymptotically approaches, but never attains, the defined ultimate
layer strength. In modelling terms therefore, further increases in applied shear stress beyond
ultimate would still produce minor mobilization of material. In the stepped flushing trials the
first stage, that erodes the cohesive layers with the weakest layer strengths, was well simulated
with the exception of the 106 mm diameter uPVC pipe Fig.10. From the data presented in Fig. 10
it may be hypothesized that the uPVC pipe, in comparison to the other polyethylene PE pipes,
had an increased accumulation of weakly attached material. Of these four pipes however, the
uPVC section was the only dead end and hence subject to lower and possibly more variable and
uncertain conditioning hydraulic forces. Figs. 3 and 4 for the cast iron pipes were also dead ends,
but these did not exhibit this trend of weakly attached easily mobilized material. In fact Fig.
3shows very little weakly adhered material except for a small spike associated with the
disturbance at an upstream hydrant during fitting of a pressure logger. However this pipe was
known to have a “large” daily flow and hence high conditioning hydraulic forces. This highlights
the importance of daily hydraulic conditions in controlling discoloration potential rather than
reference to network position, such as a “dead end,” as is commonly practiced. No further details
of the actual daily flows in the pipe shown in Fig.10 was available, hence it is not possible to
identify if the large amount of easily eroded material was due to unusual flow patterns or to a
difference in the accumulation processes occurring in this uPVC pipe under low flow conditions.
This amount of weakly adhered material was however an exception as generally no significant
difference was observed between type of plastic pipe and turbidity measured and all were
modelled using tabled parameters defined solely by pipe diameter.

8.4 Comparison of Cast Iron and Plastic Pipes

The parameters used in the PODDS model were found to be consistent for the cast iron and plastic
pipe groupings. The main difference between the two parameter sets was an order of magnitude
increase in the coefficient P Eq.1 used to describe the rate of release of material from plastic pipes
compared to cast iron pipes. This would lead to the expectation of greater discolouration from plastic
pipes, contrary to what is seen in the data. The difference in this parameter value is however less
significant than the change in shear stress experienced between the two pipe types. For a set flow in a
given diameter pipe, shear stress is primarily a function of pipe roughness. Hence far greater excess
shear stresses, driving the generation of discoloration, are generated in rougher cast iron pipes than in
smooth plastic pipes for a given change in flow. This highlights the importance

30
of planning flushing operations, and in particular target flow rates, by consideration of shear
stress rather than velocity criteria. Within the two types of pipe presented the parameter values
are also dependent on pipe diameter. For example to achieve the model fit to the 12-in. CI pipe
Fig. 6 the gradient term, used to describe the material layer strength properties, and release rate
coefficient are increased relative to the 3 in. or 4-in. pipes. This suggests that for a given change
in shear stress, larger diameter pipes would generate greater discolouration dominating over the
greater dilution effects of large pipe diameter. This knowledge is of significance to water service
providers as it indicates that larger diameter pipes, including trunk mains, are equally susceptible
to the formation of cohesive material layers and crucially, for a similar excess shear stress, the
rate and amount of mobilization and therefore potential discoloration risk is greater in these pipes

APPENDIX

A. 1. DEZINCIFICATION OF BRASS

Dezincification is an electrochemical process in which zinc, a component of brass, is released from

low quality brass fittings. Zinc released from brass forms zinc oxide which is visible as white or grey
sediments in a plumbing component. This sediment can slow or block the flow of water. The loss of
zinc can also weaken the brass fitting or can result in leaks. Recirculating hot water heater systems
are susceptible to brass dezincification as heat accelerates the build-up of zinc oxide (white or grey
sediment).Brass fittings in plumbing equipment are required to have a low level of zinc to limit the
potential for dezincification. Fittings made with dezincification resistant (DZR) brasses are available
in market. The direct connection of dissimilar metals (like brass and steel or brass
and copper) can accelerate dezincification. Fittings called dielectric unions are used to separate
dissimilar metals and minimize the potential for galvanic corrosion.

31
REFERENCES

1. Cook, D. M., and Boxall J. B., (2011) “Discoloration Material Accumulation in Water Distribution
Systems” Journal of Pipeline System Engineering and Practice, 2 (4), 1-10

2. Husband, S., and Boxall, J. B., (2010) “Field Studies of Discoloration in Water Distribution Systems:
Model Verification and Practical Implications” Journal of Environmental Engineering, 136 (1), 1-9

3. Ruck, J., and Kovar, J., (2014) “Prevention of discoloration events in water distribution systems” /
Procedia Engineering, 70, 1-9
4. Discoloured water, Drinking Water Inspectorate , London

(http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/consumers/advice-leaflets/discolouration.pdf Accessed on July

19, 2017.)

5. http://cwwcanada.com/service/water-main-swabbing/
Accessed on 01/08/2017

6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigging#Applications
Accessed on 05/08/2107

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