Airport Engineering Repaired 2

Syllabus
Module-III
Airport site selection, Air craft characteristics, various surface of an
airport, Wind rose diagram, Geometric elements of run way and
taxiway , holding apron, parking configuration , terminal building ,
visual aids, air traffic control, airport marking and lighting.
AIRPORT ENGINEERING
Airport Terminology
Aerodrome: Any defined area on land or water intended to be used
for arrival or departure of an aircraft is called aerodrome.
Aeroplane: It is a power driven flying machine heavier than air with
fixed wings.
Aircraft: Any machine used for navigating air with or without power-
driven is known as aircraft. It may be lighter or heavier than air.
Examples- glider, aeroplane.helicopter, rocket.
Mach No- It is a dimensionless no determines relative speed of
aircraft with speed of sound.
𝑉
Mach No = 𝑀 =√
𝐶
𝑉
If 𝑀 > 1, => √ > 1, 𝑉 > 𝐶
𝐶
Prepared by R.R.Sahoo, Assistant Professor/civil Page 1

Where v is the speed of aircraft and C is the speed of sound, i.e
aircraft moves with a speed greater than speed of sound is known as
supersonic aircraft. Similarly if 𝑀 < 1, => √𝑉𝐶 < 1, 𝑉 < 𝐶
i.e. Aircraft moves with a speed less than speed of sound is known as
subsonic aircraft.
Airfield: It is an area which is used for landing and take-off an
aircraft
Airport: It is an aerodrome which is principally intended for use of
Commercial services.
Airport capacity: The no of aircraft movements which an airport can
process or handle within a specified period of time usually an hour is
known as airport capacity.
Airship: A power-driven aircraft which is lighter than aircraft is
known as airship.
Apron: A defined area of the airport to accommodate aircrafts for
loading and unloading of cargo and passangers, parking, refuelling,
etc, .It is usually paved.
Hangar: The large shed erected at the airport for the purpose of
housing, servicing and repairing of aircrafts is known as hangar.
Holding Apron: It is the designated portion placed adjacent to the
ends of runway for allowing to check aircraft instruments and engine
operations prior to take off and also to wait till clearance for takeoff is
given.
STOL: Short Take off and Landing.
AAI: Airport Authority of India
ICAO: International Civil Aviation Organization

Runway: It is defined as long and comparatively narrow strip of
rectangular land which is selected or prepared for landing and takeoff
aircraft along its length. It is usually paved except small aerodromes.
Taxiway: A defined path on the airfield surface for taxing of aircrafts
and are intended to provide linkage between one part of airfield to
another.
Wind rose: It is a graphical representation of showing direction,
duration and intensity of wind over a certain period in a specified
region is known as wind rose. Its shape resembles a rose.
Calm Period: This is the period for which the wind intensity remains
below 6 km/hr.
Calm period = 100 – Total wind coverage

= 100 - ∑ percentage of time wind is blowing in any
direction.
Cross wind: Transverse component of wind at 900 with the direction

of air craft movement is known as cross wind.
V cosƟ
Ɵ
V sinƟ V = wind speed
Cross wind = v sinƟ
Terminal area: The portion of airport other than the landing area is
known as terminal area. It includes terminal building, apron, hangars,
automobile parking area, etc.
Terminal Building: The building or buildings which are meant for
providing facilities to all passengers for serving as office for airport
management and for carrying out other non-aeronautical functions is
known as terminal building.
Questions
Differentiate between
 Airfield and Airport

 Aeroplane and airship
 Taxiway and Runway
 Taxiway and terminal area
 Subsonic aircraft and supersonic aircraft.
Solution: All are explained in airport terminology.
Q: Define following terms:
Aerodrome, Airport capacity, Apron, Hanger, Mach number, calm
period, wind rose , crosswind, ICAO, STOL,CTOL, Holding apron
Ans: All are discussed in airport terminology section.
Q: Enumerate various factors which you would keep in view while
selecting a suitable site for an airport. ( BPUT -2013)
Ans:
Airport Site Selection:
The selection of site for new airport has to be based on certain criteria
which will serve as guide for determination of proper location and
size.
Following are the factors which influence the location or site selection
of an airport.
 Atmospheric and metrological conditions
 Site should not be selected where less wind, high smoke,
fog, haze are present particularly in large industrial area
bcoz the presence of fog, haze and smoke reduces the
visibility and poor visibility lowers the traffic capacity of
an aircraft.
 The wind data should also be studied and to have
minimum blowing of smoke from the city where site
should be chosen on the windward direction.
 Availability of land for expansion
 The field of aviation is expanding day by day. It is
therefore necessary to acquire sufficient real estate in
future for expanding the airport.
 As volume of traffic increases, it will be necessary to
lengthen the runways ,to provide additional support
facilities and to expand terminal building.
 Availabilities of utilities:
An airport especially for larger one has to be provided the
utilities like water, electric power, telephone, sewer, etc. So such
things should be consider for easy availabity for site selection.
 Development of surrounding area:
 The study of type of development of surrounding area is
very important bcoz the airport activities are often quite
objectionable to the neighbours of airport.
 Residential areas, schools and hospitals should be avoided
whenever possible to the proximity of airport.
 Economy of construction:
 If alternative sites are available and equally well suited,
the site which is more economical to construct, should be
given preference.
 The sites having waterlogged areas or reclaimed lands are
very costly to develop than those of natural ground.
 The uneven terrain require more grading than flat or even
terrain.
 The availability of local construction materials may also
have significant impact on cost of the project.
 Ground accessibility
 The location of airport should be such that it results in the
shortest ground access time.
 The location of airport at a considerable distance from the
centre of population may cause great inconvenience to the
users.
 Soil characteristics:
 The airport site with the favourable soil characteristics is
desirable bcoz it reduces the cost of grading and drainage
to a considerable extent.
 The soil containing a reasonable amount of pervious
material like gravel or sand with a suitable binder is
desirable for airport site.
 The most undesirable type of soil is one having the
property of becoming plastic when wet.
 Topography
 The topographical features like ground contours, trees,
streams.etc should be studied while selecting the site for
an airport.
 A raised ground like a hill top is usually considered to be
an ideal site for an airport bcoz of the following facts:
 It grants better visibility due to less fog.
 It permits easy natural drainage
 The approach and turning zones are less obstructed.
Questions
What are the factors which influences the locations or site
selections of an airport?
OR
Write short notes on
 Development of surrounding area
 Ground accessibility
 Topography
 Soil characteristics of airport site
Answer: Look the discussion of airport site selection

Q: Enumerate Aeroplane component parts (BPUT)
Ans:
Aeroplane component parts:
 Engine
 Piston engine: is driven by propeller. It is suitable to
operate at low altitudes and moderate speeds
 Turbojet: Efficiency is higher at high altitudes owing to
the drop in the atmospheric density and greater
temperature difference through the turbine.
 Turbo prop: Performs well at low altitude as well as high
altitude.
 Ram jet: no moving parts must be operated at high speed.
 Rocket engine: no limit on altitude since oxygen in
atmosphere is not relied upon for combustion. Engine
carries its own supply of oxygen.
 Fuselage :( BPUT Question)
 Main body of the aircraft
 Provides for power plant, fuel, cockpit, passengers, cargo
etc.
 Wings: The purpose of an aircraft wing is to support the
machine in the air when the engine has given it the necessary
forward speed.
 Three control:
 The movement of aircraft about the X axis is called rolling
movement.
 The movement about Y and Z axes are called pitching and
yawing movements respectively.
 Elevator: controls the pitching or up and down
movements of the aircraft.

 Rudder: It is used for turning or yawing movement of the
aircraft
 Aileron: It is used to control of rolling movement about
longitudinal axis.
Q: Explain Airport planning (BPUT)
Ans:
Airport planning:
 The regional plan usually provides the following information:

 Approximate location of airports in national map.
 Classification of airports
 Location of air strips
 Routes of air travel
 Following data are collected for regional planning:
 Population
 Topographical and geographical features
 Existing airports in the vicinity
 Air traffic characteristics
 Minimum spacing from existing airports.
 For airport serving small general aviation aircrafts under VFR
conditions = 3.2 km
 For airports serving bigger aircrafts under VFR conditions = 6.4
km
 For airports operating piston engine aircrafts under IFR
conditions = 25.6 km
 For jet aircrafts under IFR conditions = 160 km
The best location is a site adjacent to main highway.

Aircraft Characteristics
Following are the characteristics of a conventional type aircraft.
 Aircraft capacity
The capacity of aircraft will determine the no of passengers,
baggage, cargo and fuel that can be accommodated in the
aircraft.
 Aircraft speed
Aircraft speed can be expressed in two terms
 Air speed
 Ground speed
The term air speed means the speed of the aircraft relative to the
medium in which it is travelling.
The ground speed sometimes referred as crusing speed is the speed of
the aircraft relative to the ground.
 Aircraft weight and wheel arrangement:

It is necessary to understand the components of aircraft which make
up its weight during take off and landing because weight is one of the
major factors which will govern the length and thickness of runway.
Following terms are used for different weights in the airline operatios.
 Maximum gross take off weight: It is the maximum load
which the aircraft is certified to carry during take off.
 Maximum structural landing weight: It is the difference
between gross take off weight and the weight of fuel consumed
during the trip. The main gear supports maximum structural
weight.
 Operating empty weight: The weight of an aircraft including
crew and all the necessary gear required for flight is known as
operating empty weight and does not include pay load and fuel.

 Pay load: It is used to mean the total revenue-producing load
and includes the weights of passengers and their baggage, mail
and cargo.
 Zero fuel weight: It is the weight above which all additional
weight must be fuel so that when the aircraft is in flight, the
bending moment at the junction of the wing and fuselage do not
become excessive.
 Fuel spilling: The spilling of fuel and lubricants is usually
found in the loading aprons and hangars. It is difficult to avoid
spilling completely but efforts are made to bring it within
minimum limit.
 Jet blast: The turbo jet and turbo prop aircrafts eject hot exhaust
gases at relatively high velocities and it may even cause
inconvenience to the passengers boarding the aircraft. It is
desirable to provide cement concrete pavement to resist the
effect of jet blast in preference to bituminous pavement.
 Minimum circling radius: A certain minimum radius in space
is required for the aircraft to take smooth turn. It is known as
minimum circling radius and it depends upon the type of
aircraft, air traffic volume and weather conditions.
 Minimum turning radius: It is necessary to know the
minimum turning radius of an aircraft to decide the radius of
taxiways and to ascertain its position in landing aprons and
hangars.
The line joining the centre of rotation with the tip of farther
wing of the aircraft is known as minimum turning radius.
 Noise: The most serious problem facing aviation is the noise and
efforts are made to bring it to minimum possible level.
 The major source of noise is the machinery noise during
landing and the primary jet during takeoff.
 The reduction in field length is found to be most effective
ways of minimising aircraft noise.

 Range: The distance that an aircraft can fly without refuelling is
known as range. Pay load is an important factor that influences
the range of an aircraft. As pay load is increased ,range is
decreased and vice versa.
 Size of aircraft
 Take off and landing distance : It depends on
 Altitude of airport
 Gradient of runway
 Intensity and direction of wind
 Manner of landing and take off
 Temperature
 Weight of aircraft at the time of landing and take off.
 Tyre pressure and contact area: The tyre pressure and wheel
load will give an indication of the width, type, and strength of
pavement required for different types of aircraft.
Wind Rose
The wind data, ie., direction, duration and intensity are graphically
represented by a diagram called wind rose.
 The wind data should usually bi collected for a period of at least

5 years and preferably to 10 years, so as to obtain in average
data with sufficient accuracy.
 As far as possible, these observations should be taken at or near

‘site selected, since the wind conditions may vary considerably
with location particularly in hilly regions.

Wind rose diagrams can be plotted in two types as follows:
Type I : Showing direction and duration of wind
Type 11: Showing direction, duration and intensity of wind
Type I Wind Rose
 This type of wind rose is illustrated in Figure

 The radial lines indicate the wind direction and each circle
represents the duration of wind.
Refer class note for data , i was given.
 From the Table, it is observed that the total percentage of time
in a year during which the wind blows from north direction is --
---percent. ‘Ibis value is plotted along the north direction in
 Similarly other values are also plotted along the respective
directions,
 All plotted points are then jointed by straight lines as shown in
Figure
 The best direction of runway is usually along the direction of the
longest line on wind rose diagram.
.

Type II Wind Rose
 This type wind data is used for of wind rose is illustrated in

Figure
 The wind data as in the previous type. is used for this case.
 Each circle represents the wind intensity to some scale.
 The values entered in each segment represent the percentage of
time in a year during which the wind, having particular
intensity, blows from the respective direction.
 The procedure for determining the orientation of runway is
described below
 Draw three equi-spaced parallel lines on a transparent paper
strip in such a way that the distance between the two near by
parallel lines is equal to the permissible cross wind component.
 This distance is measured with the same scale with which the
wind rose diagram is drawn.
 In Figure, the permissible cross wind component is 25 kmph.
 Place the transparent paper strip over the wind rose diagram in
such a way that the central line passes through the centre of the
diagram.
 With the centre of wind rose, rotate the tracing paper and place
it in such a position that the sum of all the values indicating the
duration of wind, within the two outer parallel lines, is the
maximum.
 The runway should be thus oriented along the direction
indicated by the central line.
 The wind coverage can be calculated by summing up all the
percentages shown in segment
 The percentage value is assumed to be equally distributed over
the entire area of the segment.
 In Figure the best orientation of runway is along the direction
whose whole circle bearing is zero degree i.e. along NS
direction.
 If the coverage provided by a single runway is not sufficient,
two or more number of runways are planned in such a manner
that the total coverage provided by them is as required.

Q: Explain airport capacity ( Bput)
Airport capacity:
 The number of aircraft movements which an airport can process
within a specified period of time with an average delay to the
departing aircraft within the acceptable time limit is defined as
airport capacity.
 The following factors affect the airport operating capacity.
Runway configurations and the connected taxiways.
 Single runway: is usually adopted when the wind blows in one
direction for most of the time in a year and air traffic
requirement does not exceed the capacity of such pattern.
 Parallel runway: The capacity of this pattern depends upon the
lateral spacing between the two runways, the weather conditions
and the navigational aids available at the airport.
 Intersecting runway: is usually adopted when wind in a
particular direction does not provide the required coverage.
When both the runways can be used for simultaneous landing
and take off, depends on the cross wind components on each
runway.
 Non intersecting runway: Capacity depends upon the wind
conditions and visibility.
Runway capacity:
 It is defined as the ability of runway system to accommodate

aircraft landings and take offs.
 Expressed as operations/hour or operations/year

Saturation capacity: The ultimate or saturation capacity of runway
is the maximum number of aircraft that can be handled during a given
period under conditions of continuous demand.
Factors affecting runway capacity:
 Air traffic control

 Characterization of demand
 Environmental factors
 Layout and design of the run way system.
Runway
Runway numbering : The end of each runway is marked with a

number which indicates magnetic azimuth ( the angle measured in
clockwise direction from north).

Example:
West –east runway marked with 27 at west end= 27×10=2700
East end marked with 9 = 9×10= 900
N (00)
W(2700) E(900 )
S(1800)
Rule: If one end marked with X, then other end = X ± 18

(+) sign is used when travelled from W to E, S to N, NW to SE
Minus (-) Sign used in opposite direction.
18 L ------------------------------------------------------------------36R
Q: Find missing no. ANS; 13+18= 31, 22-18 =4

13 22
18 36

Q: What are the assumed conditions for basic runway length? (BPUT)
Ans:
Basic Runway length:
The length of Runway based on the following assumed conditions is known as
basic runway length.
 No wind is blowing on the runway.

 The aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity.
 The airport is situated at sea level.
 There is no wind blowing on the way to the destination
 The runway is levelled in the longitudinal direction
 The standard temperature is maintained along the way
 The standard temperature 150C is maintained at the airport.
Factors affecting basic runway length:
 Aircraft characteristics
 Safety Requirements
 Airport Environment
Safety Requirements: The manner in which an aircraft actually performs the

landing and takeoff will decide to a large extent the length of runway.
Following three cases are considered.
 Normal Landing: The aircraft should come to stop within 60% of

landing distance assuming that the pilot makes an approach at the proper
speed and crosses the threshold of runway at height of 15 m.
The beginning of the runway portion to be used as landing is known as
threshold.
Runway stop 15m
60% of landing distance

 Normal take off: The take off distance( TOD) must be for a specific wt
of aircraft, 115% of actual distance the aircraft uses to reach a height of
10.5 m.
The distance to reach a height of 10.5 m should be equal to 115%of the
lift off distance (LOD)
Runway 10.5m
LOD
115% LOD clear way should not be more than
TOD half this distance
Distance to reach a height of 10.5 m
 Stopping in Emergency:
For the engine failure case the take off distance is the actual distance
required to reach a height of 10;5 m with no percentage applied.
In case an engine failure, sufficient distance should available to stop the
aeroplane rather than continue the takeoff .the distance is known as
accelerate stop distance.
Airport Environment: It comprises
 Atmosphere:
 Temperature
 Surface wind
 Location and condition of runway:
 Altitude
 Runway Gradient
Atmosphere:
 Standard Atmosphere:

 Temperature at mean sea level is 150C.
 Pressure at MSL is 760 mm of Hg.
 Air density is 1,225 Kg/m3
 Temperature at MSL
 Airport Reference Temperature (ART) ( need to be
calculated)
 Standard Temperature at an elevation.
 Monthly mean of average daily temperature for the hottest
month of a year. (T1)
 Monthly mean of maximum daily temperature of same
month. (T2)
𝑇2 −𝑇1
Airport Reference Temperature ART= 𝑇1 + ( )
3
Standard Temperature at an Elevation STE
STE = Temperature at mean sea level – rate of change

temperature × Elevation
𝑆𝑇𝐸 = 15 − ℎ × 𝑟
6.5
= 15 − ×ℎ
1000
Where h is the elevation/ height above sea level in meter.
Correction to Basic Runway Length:

To get actual length of runway following three corrections are to be
applied.

Correction for elevation: The correction is required because
 As elevation increases, air density reduces , which in turn
reduces the lift on wings of aircraft, Thus aircraft will require
more ground speed to rise and for achieving more speed, longer
length of runway will be required.
 As per ICAO, the basic runway length should be increased at the
rate of @ 7% per 300 m rise in elevation above MSL.
Correction for temperature: The correction is required because
 As airport reference temperature increases, it reduces air
density, thus reduces drag on aircraft while landing and it
requires longer distance for producing necessary lift for aircraft
to fly.
 After basic length is corrected for the elevation of airport, it is
further increased @ 1% for every 10 rise in ART above standard
atmospheric temperature at that elevation.
Correction for Gradient: This is due to
 As the gradient becomes steep, more consumption of energy
takes place and longer length of runway will be required to
attain desired ground speed.
 Effective gradient =
𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑦−𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑦
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑦
 Runway length after being corrected for elevation and
temperature should further increased @ 20% for every 1% of
the effective gradient.
Note: According to ICAO, total correction for elevation plus

temperature ≤ 35%.

Procedure for calculating corrected length of runway:
 First you should calculate correction of elevation, followed by
temperature then gradient. If your sequence of calculation
violated, then your answer will landing wrong result.
 The sequence is Elevation correction » Temperature
correction » Gradient Correction
 Find the required basic runway length (LB) (always given) .
Calculate elevation correction rate.(Ie). Add this value to LB to
get LE.(Corrected length due to elevation)
 Elevation correction rate Ie = 7% per 300m rise above MSL
7×𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛×𝐿𝐵
 LE = LB + Ie 𝐼𝑒 =
100×300
 Next calculate temperature correction. Calculate airport
reference temperature.
𝑇2 −𝑇1
 𝐴𝑅𝑇 = 𝑇1 + ( )
3
 Calculate standard temperature (ST) at given elevation.
6.5
 𝑆𝑇 = 15 − × ℎ ,where his the elevation
1000
 Calculate difference between ART and ST. T = ART-ST
 Calculate Temperature Correction Rare It and apply it to LE
 Temperature correction rate It =1% for every 10 rise in ART
1×𝑇×𝐿𝐸
above ST 𝐼𝑡 =
100
 Corrected length due to temperature LT = LE + It
 Check on combined correction for elevation and temperature.
Calculate percentage increase length after two correction which
𝐼𝑒 +𝐼𝑡
is given by % 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 = × 100
𝐿𝐵
 It is OK if it is ≤ 35% , otherwise model testing should be
carried out.

 Finally calculate Gradient correction. Calculate Effective
gradient if not given using, Effective gradient =
 Calculate gradient correction rate Ig and apply it to LT.Add this
value to LT. This is the final corrected length of Runway.
 Ig = 20% for every 1% effective gradient
20×𝐿𝑇×𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
 𝐼𝑔 =
100
 Final corrected Length of Runway = LT + Ig
Example-1:
________________________________________________________
The length of runway under standard condition is 1600m.The airport
site is at elevation 275m.The reference temperature is 32.40 C, If the
runway is constructed with an effective gradient of 0.20%. calculate
corrected length of runway.
Solution:
Correction for Elevation:
Basic runway length LB = 1600 m
Correction for elevation, 𝐼𝑒 =
100×300
7×275×1600
= = 102.67~ 103 𝑚
100×300
Corrected length for elevation = LE = LB + Ie = 1600 + 103 =1703m

Correction for Temperature:
Airport reference temperature , ART = 32.40C

6.5×𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Standard temperature at given elevation,𝑆𝑇 = 15 −
1000
6.5×275
= 15- = 13.21
1000
Rise in temperature T = ART –ST = 32.4- 13.21 = 19.190C

1×𝑇×𝐿𝐸 1×19.19×1703
Temperature correction rate 𝐼𝑡 = = =
100 100
326.81~327𝑚
Corrected length due to temperature = LT = LE + It =
1703+327=2030m
Check:
𝐼𝑒 +𝐼𝑡 103+327
Percentage increase = × 100 = × 100 = 26.88%
𝐿𝐵 1600
As per ICAO, this is less than 35%, hence O.K

Correction for Gradient:
Effective gradient = 0.20%
Gradient Correction rate, 𝐼𝑔 = =
100
20×2030×0.20
= 81.20~82 𝑚
100
Actual runway length = LT + Ig = 2030+ 82 = 2112m ---------Ans.

N.B- You should refer your class note for better clarity of the subject.
Example-2:
The length of runway at MSL under standard condition at zero
gradient is 1500m. The airport site is an elevation of 900m.The
reference temperature is 200C. The proposed runway permits
ascending gradient of 0.5%. Design the longitudinal profile of
runway.

Solution:
100×300
7×900×1500
= = 315 𝑚
100×300
Corrected length for elevation = LE = LB + Ie = 1500 +315 =1815m

Airport reference temperature , ART = 200C
1000
6.5×900
= 15- = 9.15
1000
Rise in temperature T = ART –ST = 20- 9.15 = 10.850C

1×𝑇×𝐿𝐸 1×10.85×1815
100 100
196.93~197𝑚
1815+197=2012m
Check:
𝐼𝑒 +𝐼𝑡 315+197
𝐿𝐵 1500

Effective gradient = 0.5%

100
20×2012×0.5
= 201.20~202 𝑚
100
Actual runway length = LT + Ig = 2012+ 202 = 2214m ---------Ans.

Example:3
An airport is proposed at an elevation 400m above MSL where mean
maximum and mean of average daily temperature of hottest month are
44.80C and 26.20C respectively. The maximum elevation difference
along the proposed profile of runway is 6.3 m.If the basic runway
length is 1260 m, determine actual length of runway provided.
Solution:
100×300
7×400×1260
= = 118 𝑚
100×300

𝑇2 −𝑇1
Airport reference temperature , 𝐴𝑅𝑇 = 𝑇1 + ( )
3
44.8−26.2
Where T1 =26.2, T2 =44.8 , ART = 26.2 + = 32.4
3
1000

6.5×400
= 15- = 12.4
1000
Rise in temperature T = ART –ST = 32.4- 12.4 = 200C

1×𝑇×𝐿𝐸 1×20×1378
100 100
275.60~276𝑚
1378+276=1654m
Check:
𝐼𝑒 +𝐼𝑡 118+276
𝐿𝐵 1260

Effective gradient = ×
100
6.3
= × 100 = 0.5%
1260
100
20×1654×0.5
= 165.4~166 𝑚
100
Actual runway length = LT + Ig = 1654+ 166= 1820m ---------Ans.


Example:4
At an airport site at sea-level with standard atmospheric conditions,
the runway lengths required for takeoff and landing are 2000m and
2400m respectively. The proposed airport is situated at an altitude of
150m.If the airport reference temperature is 250C and the effective
runway gradient is 0.35%.calculate the length of runway to be
provided.
Solution:
Correction for Elevation: for takeoff
100×300
7×150×2000
= = 70 𝑚
100×300

Airport reference temperature , 𝐴𝑅𝑇 = 25
1000
6.5×150
= 15- = 14.03
1000
Rise in temperature T = ART –ST = 25-14.03 = 10.970C

1×𝑇×𝐿𝐸 1×10.97×2070
100 100
227.08~227𝑚
2070+227=2297m
Check:
𝐼𝑒 +𝐼𝑡 70+227
𝐿𝐵 2000

100 = 0.35%
100
20×2297×0.35
= 160.79~161 𝑚
100
Correction for Elevation: for landing

100×300
7×150×2400
= = 84 𝑚
100×300

As no corrections are required to landing length for temperature and
gradient, the corrected length for landing is 2484m.
Adopting higher of two values, the actual runway length to be
provided will be 2484 m ---------------------------------Ans.

Example:5
Calculate actual length of runway if R.L of airport 100m.Basic
runway length 600m, R.L of highest point along the length is 98.2 m
and lowest point along the length is 95.2m. The mean average daily
temperature is 380C and mean of the maximum daily temperature is
470C.
Solution:

100×300
7×100×600
= = 14 𝑚
100×300

𝑇2 −𝑇1
Airport reference temperature , 𝐴𝑅𝑇 = 𝑇1 + ( )
3
47−38
Where T1 =38, T2 =47 , ART = 38 + = 41
3
1000
6.5×100
= 15- = 14.35
1000

1×𝑇×𝐿𝐸 1×26.65×614
100 100
163.63~164𝑚

Corrected length due to temperature = LT = LE + It = 614+164=778m
Check:
𝐼𝑒 +𝐼𝑡 14+164
𝐿𝐵 600

98.2−95.2
100 = × 100 = 0.5%
600
100
20×778×0.5
= 77.8~78 𝑚
100

Exapmle-6:
The length of runway under standard conditions is 2100 m .The
airport is to be provided at an elevation of 410 m above MSL.The
airport reference temperature is 320C.The construction plan provide
the following data.
End to end of runway Grade (%)
in (m)
0 to 300 +1.00
300 to 900 -0.50
900 to 1500 +0.50
1500 to 1800 +1.00
1800 to 2100 -0.50
2100 to 2700 -0.40

2700 to 3000 -0.10
Solution:
100×300
7×410×2100
= = 201 𝑚
100×300

Airport reference temperature , 𝐴𝑅𝑇 = 32
1000
6.5×410
= 15- = 12.34
1000

1×𝑇×𝐿𝐸 1×19.66×2301
Temperature correction rate 𝐼𝑡 = = = 454𝑚
100 100

2301+454=2755m
Check:
𝐼𝑒 +𝐼𝑡 201+454
𝐿𝐵 2100

For calculation of effective gradient, look out carefully

𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = tan 𝜃 = =
𝑥 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Elevation = length × gradient

For chainage 0, elevation = 100 m
For 0 to 300 m, grade = + 1%, elevation = 300×(1/100) =3
Total = 100+ 3 = 103 m
For 300 to 900 m , grade = - 0.50%, elevation = (900-300)
×(0.50/100) = 3
Total = 103 – 3 =100m
For 900 to 1500 m, grade = + 0;50%, elevation = (1500-
900)×(0.50/100) = 3
Total = 100+ 3 = 103 m
For 1500 to 1800m , grade = + 1% , elevation = (1800-
1500)×(1/100)=3
Total = 103+3 = 106 m
For 1800 m to 2100m ,grade = - 0.50%, elevation = (2100-
1800)×(0.50/100) = 1.5
Total = 106 -1.5 = 104.5 m
For 2100 to 2700m, gradient = - 0.40 m, elevation = (2700-2100)
×(0.40/100) = 2.4
Total = 104.5 – 2.4 =102.1 m
For 2700 to 3000m , gradient =-0.10%, elevation = (3000-
2700)×(0.10/100) = 0.30
Total = 102.1 -0.30 =101.80 m

Chainage 0 3 9 15 18 21 27 30
(100) m
Elevation 100 103 100 103 106 104.5 102.1 101.8

106−100
100 = × 100 = 0.218%
2755
100
20×2755×0.218
= 120.5~121 𝑚
100

N.B- You should refer your class note for better clarity of the subject
Q: What is meant by basic runway length? Discuss three cases to be

considered.
Ans: Refer the section discussed about basic runway length. And
three cases like elevation, temperature and gradient.
Q: Describe the corrections to be applied to basic runway length to
get its actual length.
Ans: Refer the section of corrections and procedure for getting actual
length of runway.
Q: Summarize briefly the various runway geometric as recommended

by ICAO. (BPUT)
Ans:

Geometric Design of Runway :
The following points to be considered for geometric design of runway
 Length
 Longitudinal & effective gradient
 Safety area
 Sight distance
 Transverse Gradient
 Width
Length: Basic runway length depends on category in which airport
falls like A, B, C, D & E type. The actual length is obtained by
making corrections for elevation, temperature and gradient to basic
runway length.
Longitudinal & Effective Gradient: The longitudinal gradient of
runway increases the required runway length and affects the aircraft
performance. As per ICAO, maximum longitudinal and effective
gradient shown below.
Type of airport Maximum Maximum effective

longitudinal gradient gradient
A, B & C 1.50 1.00
D &E 2.00 2.00
Rate of change of longitudinal gradient:

 The sudden and abrupt change of longitudinal gradient may
cause premature lift-off the aircraft during the takeoff operations
which affect the performance of aircraft and also develop
structural defects in the aircraft.
 The change in gradient should be made smooth by providing
vertical curves of 30m length.

Type of airport Maximum rate of change
A,B 0.10%
C 0.20%
D,E 0.40
Longitudinal Grade Change

No Item Small airport Large airport
1 Maximum 2% 1.5%
grade change
such as a or b
2 Length of 90 m 300 m
vertical curves
L1 or L2for
each 1% grade
change
3 Distance 75 (a+b) 300 (a+b)
(D)between
two successive
points of grade
intersection
N.B- For figures and other details refer your class note.
Safety area:
 The runway safety area is an area which is cleared, drained
and graded.
 It includes structural pavement, shoulder on either side of
runway and the additional width. The shoulders are
generally unpaved are to be used only in case of
emergency.

 As per ICAO, minimum width of safety area
Airport type Minimum width of safety
area
A,B,C 150m
D,E 78m
Shoulder 60 m
Extend- safety
Structural pavement Area
Safety shoulder
Sight distance:
There are chances of collision of aircraft at points where two runways
or a runway and taxiway intersect each other.
Y
Where Y is the distance above the surface of runway and

X is distance on runway of any two points is visible at distance Y
from surface of runway.
Type of airport Y X
A,B,C 3m Half of runway length
D,E 2m At least one half the
runway length

Transverse Gradient:
It is provided for quick disposal of surface water. The accommodation
of water on the runway may produce hazardous situation for the
aircrafts using runways.
As per ICAO, maximum limit of transverse gradient is given below.
Type of airport Maximum Transverse
gradient
A, B & C 1.50
D &E 2.00
N.B- The transverse gradient should not be less than 0.5% for
satisfactory drainage.
Width:
The width of runway varies from 18 m to 45 m depending upon the
type of aircraft. The midway of runway is governed by two main
considerations as
 Air-traffic
 Outermost edge of traffic
Example:1
The runway for handling a jet aircraft is proposed to have a rising
gradient of 0.5% meeting a falling gradient of 0.6%.There is again a
rising gradient of 0.4%. Calculate the lengths of vertical curves and
distance between the grade changes of the runway.
Solution:
Grade x a Grade y Grade z
For accurate figure and symbols refer class note.

+𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
Sign convention: {
−𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
a = x –y, where x is rising gradient, y is falling gradient, z is rising
gradient
b=y–z
a = 0.5 – (-0.6) = 1.1%
b = - 0.6 – 0.4 = 1.0% ( take magnitude)
L1 = 300 m @ 1% grade change, for 1.1% gradient change
= 300×1.1 =330 m
L2 = 300 m @ 1% grade change
= 300m
D = Distance between two successive points of grade intersection
= 300 (a +b)
= 300 (1.1+1.0)
= 630 m ......................................................................Ans

Example -2:
The longitudinal profile of runway is comprised of a rising gradient
of 1.4% followed by a falling gradient of 0.5% which is followed by a
rising gradient of 0.5%. Determine the lengths of vertical curves and
distance between them.
Solution:
For figure and symbols refer previous problem
+𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
Sign convention: {
−𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
a = x –y, where x is rising gradient, y is falling gradient, z is rising
gradient
b=y–z
a = 1.4 – (-0.5) = 1.9%
b = - 0.5 – 0.5 = 1.0% (take magnitude)
Since a is greater than 1.5%, the design is to be carried out for the
small airport.
= 90×1.9 =171 m
L2 = 90 ×1.0 = 90 m
D = Distance between two successive points of grade intersection

=75 (a +b)
= 75 (1.9+1.0) = 217.50 m .................................................Ans

Q: Explain briefly the various factors which affect the layout of
taxiway and enumerate its geometric design standards. (BPUT)
OR
Draw a neat cross-section of main taxiway and show various
geometric.
Ans: For diagram refer class note or any standard text book.
Taxiway:
Geometrical standard For Taxiway:
Following are the design standards of Taxiway.
1. Length of taxiway
2. Longitudinal Gradient
3. Rate of change of longitudinal gradient
4. Sight distance
5. Transverse gradient
6. Turning Radius
7. Width of safety area
8. Width of taxiway
Length of Taxiway:
 The length of taxiway depends upon the distance between the
apron and entry end or exit end of the runway.
 It should be as short as practicable to save fuel consumption.
 No specification is recommended by any organization
Longitudinal gradient:
If longitudinal gradient is steep, there will be more fuel consumption.

The maximum longitudinal gradients recommended by ICAO is as
follows:
Types of airport Maximum longitudinal gradient
A,B 1.5%
C,D,&E 3%
Rate of change of longitudinal gradient:

The available sight distance on the pavement is affected by rate of
change of longitudinal gradient.
The maximum rate of change of slope for 30 m length of vertical
curve is recommended by ICAO as follows
Types of airport Maximum rate of change of slope
A,B &C 1%
D,&E 1.2%
Sight distance:
The speed of aircraft on taxiway is lower than its speed on runway,
hence smaller values of sight distance will be sufficient on taxiway.
AS per ICAO
 For A&B type airports, the surface of taxiway should be seen

for a distance of 195 m from a point 2.10 m above taxiway.
 For C,D &E type airport, the surface of taxiway should be seen
for a distance of 300 m from a point 3 m above taxiway
N.B- Refer your class note for better understanding with figure.

Transverse gradient:
For quick disposal of surface water, it is necessary to provide the
transverse gradient for the taxiway.
As per ICAO maximum transverse gradient is as follows

Types of airport Maximum transverse gradient
A,B &C 1.5%
D,&E 2%
Q: What is minimum turning radius and its objective? Describe with

the help of neat sketch, how to determine the minimum turning
radius( BPUT).
Ans: For diagram, refer class note and others are described below.
Turning Radius:
For safe and smooth negotiation of aircraft without significant
reduction of speed, horizontal circular curve of large radius is
provided and its radius is obtained by following formula
𝑉2
𝑅=
125𝑓
Where R is radius of curve in m.
V = speed of aircraft in Km/hr
F = coefficient of friction between tyre and pavement surface=
0.13
For diagram refer class note.

Horonjeff Equation:
According to Horonjeff, the radius of curve should be such that
a minimum distance of 6 m is maintained between the nearby
main gear and the edge of pavement . The equation is given by
0.388𝑊 2
𝑅 =
0.5𝑇 − 𝑆
Where R is Centre-line of taxiway in m
W is wheel base of aircraft in m
T is width of taxiway pavement
S is the distance between point midway of the main gears and the
edge of taxiway pavement in m.
Absolute minimum Radius:
 For super sonic jet, the minimum radius is 180 m
 For subsonic jet ,the minimum radius is 120 m
𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑤𝑎𝑦

𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
= 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 { 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐/𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑗𝑒𝑡
Width of safety area:

The safety area of taxiway is made up partially paved shoulders on
either side plus the area which is graded and drained.
With the arrival of jet aircrafts, it became necessary to protect the
shoulders from soil erosion due to high speed of jet exhaust.
 The shoulders must be thick enough to support the airport patrol
vehicles and sweeping equipments
 The shoulders should normally treated with bitumen.
 The surface should made of such materials that disintegration
due to hot blast of jet engine does not occur.
 The surface should be smooth and impervious.
Width of taxiway:
The width of taxiway is much less than runway due to following
factors:
 The aircraft are not air-borne of the taxiway that means no

association of air movement take place on taxiway
 The speed of aircraft on taxiway is far less as compared on
runway hence ,it is possible for the pilot to manoeuvre easily
on the small width of taxiway than runway.
ICAO recommendation: 22.5m is width of taxiway for A,B
types,15.0 m for C type, 9.9 m for D and 7.5 m for E type airport.
Example:1
Determine turning radius of taxiway for a supersonic transport aircraft
with a wheel base of 30 m and wheel tread of main loading gear as 6
m for a design of turning speed of 50 km/hr. Width of taxiway
pavement as 22.5 m.
Solution:
Calculation of turning radius:

𝑉2 502
𝑅= = = 153.85 𝑚
125𝑓 125×0.13
Horonjeff equation:
0.388𝑊 2
𝑅=
0.5𝑇−𝑆
Where W = wheel base of aircraft = 30 m

T = width of taxiway pavement = 22.5 m
S = 6 + 6/2 = 9 m
Substituting , R = 155.2 m
Absolute minimum radius:
For supersonic aircrafts, the absolute turning minimum radius = 180
m
Turning radius of taxiway to be actually provided will be highest
value among three = 180 m.
Example: 2
Determine the radius of taxiway for a supersonic aircraft to negotiate
the curve at a turning speed of 60 km/hr. The wheel base is 30 m and
the wheel tread is 7.2 m.
Solution:

𝑉2 602
𝑅= = = 221.54 𝑚
125𝑓 125×0.13
Horonjeff equation:
0.388𝑊 2
𝑅=
0.5𝑇−𝑆
Where W = wheel base of aircraft = 30 m

S = 6 + 7.2/2 = 9.6 m
Substituting , R = 211.64 m
For supersonic aircrafts, the absolute turning minimum radius = 180
m
value among three = 221.64 m.
Q: why exit taxiways are provided in the airport?

Ans: Exit taxiway is provided to minimize the runway occupancy by
the landing aircraft.

Q: Explain various factors which affect the location of exit taxiway.
What do you understand by optimum location of exit taxiway
( BPUT).
Ans:
Exit Taxiway:
The function of exit taxiway is to minimize the runway occupancy by
the landing aircraft.
Location of exit taxiway:
The location of exit taxiway depends on the following factors.
 Air traffic control

 Exit speed
 Location of runway
 Number of exits
 Pilot variability
 Topographical features
 Types of aircraft
 Weather conditions
Optimum location of exit taxiway:
The landing process of an aircraft can be described as follows:
 The aircraft crosses the runway threshold and decelerate in air

until the main landing gear touches the surface of pavement.
 The nose gear has not made contact with runway at this point. It
may require about 3 seconds or so to do the contact.
 No form of braking can be applied until the nose gear has made
contact with the pavement.
 As soon as the contact with the pavement is made ,the reverse
thrust or wheel brakes are used to reduce the forward speed of
aircraft to the exit velocity.
Design of exit taxiway:
Following are the principles governing the design of the exit taxiway
connecting runway and parallel taxiway.
Angle of turn:
 Total angle of turn of 30 to 45 degree can be negotiated in a
satisfactory manner.
 The smaller angles are preferable because the length of the
curved path is reduced, sight distance is improved.
Compound curve:
 It is necessary to provide a compound curve for high turnoff
speed 65 to 95 km/hr.
 It minimizes tyre wear on nose gear and is relatively easier to
establish it in the field.
 Its shape is spiral consisting of entrance curve and central
curve.
N.B- For figure and other explanation, refer class note.
Exit speed:
The most significant factor affecting turning radius is the exit speed of
the aircraft.
Lengths:
The value of the lengths of entrance and central curves is given by the
following formulae.
𝑉3
𝐿1 =
45.5𝐶𝑅2

πR 2 D2
L2 =
180
The value of constant C is 0.39 and D2 is the deflection angle of

central curve.
Occupancy time:
The occupancy time of an aircraft before entering the taxiway from
the runway is composed of the following components.
 Time required for the flight from the threshold to the touchdown
the main gear
 Time required for the nose gear to make contact with the
pavement after the main gear has made contact. It is about 3 s.
 Time required to reach exit velocity from the time the nose gear
has made contact with the pavement and the brakes have been
applied.
 Time required for the aircraft to turn off to the taxiway and clear
the runway. It is about 10 s.
Stopping distance:
The distance measured from the edge of runway pavement along the
exit taxiway and is known as stopping distance which is given by
𝑉2
𝑆. 𝐷 =
25.50𝑑
Where d is the rate of deceleration = 1 m./s2

Turning radius:
Turning radius for smooth and comfortable turn is given by
𝑉2
𝑅=
125𝑓

Example: 3
A taxiway is to be designed for operating Boeing 707-320 which has
the following characteristics. Determine the turning radius of taxiway.
Wheel base 17.70 m, tread of main loading gear 6.62m, turning speed
40 km/hr
Solution:
𝑉2 402
𝑅= = = 98.5 𝑚
125𝑓 125×0.13
Horonjeff equation:
0.388𝑊 2
𝑅=
0.5𝑇−𝑆
Where W = wheel base of aircraft = 17.70 m

S = 6 + 6.62/2 = 9.31 m
Substituting, R = 62.9 m
For subsonic aircrafts, the absolute turning minimum radius = 120 m
value among three = 120 m.

Example:4
Design an exit runway joining a runway and parallel main taxiway.
The total angle of turn is 350 and the maximum turn –off speed is 80
km/hr.radius of entrance curve =731 m, runway width = 45m, taxiway
width = 22.5 m. Suggest the maximum separation clearance and draw
a neat sketch showing all design elements.
Solution: Refer your class note copy along with this answer
Radius of central curve:
𝑉2 802
𝑅2 = = = 394𝑚
125𝑓 125×0.13
Length of entrance curve:

𝑉3 803
𝐿1 = = = 73.23 𝑚
45.5 𝐶𝑅2 45.5 × 0.39 × 394
Deflection angle of entrance curve
180 × 𝐿1 180 × 73.23
𝐷1 = = = 5.75°
𝜋𝑅1 𝜋 × 731
Deflection angle of central curve:
𝐷2 = 35° − 5.75° = 29.25°
Length of central curve:
𝜋𝑅2 𝐷2 𝜋 × 394 × 29.25
𝐿2 = = = 201.14 𝑚
180 180
Stopping Distance:
𝑉2 802
𝑆. 𝐷 = = = 251 𝑚
25.50𝑑 25.50 × 1

As per ICAO Separation clearance = 184 + 22.50 +11.25 = 217.75 m
45 22.50
217.75 (2 + 2 )
Available length of taxiway = − = 379.63 −
sin 35° sin 35°
58.84 = 320.79 𝑚
N.B: Refer you class note for sketch and other details.
Loading aprons:
 The paved area adjacent and in front of terminal building is

known as apron.
 It is used for loading and unloading of aeroplanes as well as
fuelling, minor servicing and check up of the aeroplanes.
 The aeroplanes are berthed on the aprons is known as parking
aprons.
 It is desirable to provide cement concrete pavement for the
aprons to resist the effect of jet blast and fuel spillage.
 The dimensions of loading aprons depend upon the no of gate
positions, size of aircraft and parking systems.
Holding aprons:
 The portion of the paved area which is provided near the runway
ends is known as holding aprons.
 It is also known as run up or warm –up pads.
 These places are located where the aircrafts wait for their turn to
take-off and where they are finally checked prior to take off.
 It is made sufficiently large so that if one aircraft is unable to
take off because of some defect in machinery, another aircraft
can bypass it for takeoff.

 The size of holding apron depends upon peak hour of traffic,
aircraft size.
 The size of holding apron should be sufficient to accommodate
two to four aircrafts and to allow one additional aircraft to
bypass without any difficulty.
 The entry into runway should be made an angle less than 90 as
otherwise the pilot would not be able to turn aircraft rapidly
from the taxiway.
N.B-The figure and other details are discussed in class room.
Refer your class note.
Fillets:
 These are provided at the junction or intersection of two or

more number of traffic ways e.g. runways, taxiways.
 If adequate fillets are not provided, one of the main gear of
the aircraft, generally the one having large wheel base is
likely to go off the pavement and landed on the shoulder.
 As per ICAO, radius of fillet should not be less than width
of taxiway.
For figure, refer your class note.
Turnaround or bypass taxiway:
 In initial stages of an airport, there may not be enough traffic for

justifying the construction of parallel taxiway. As the traffic
increases, the need of parallel taxiway may be felt, although it
may not always feasible to provide it from economic point of
view.

 Due to above reason, a bypass or turn around taxiway is
constructed as a substitute for parallel taxiway. It also serves the
purpose of holding apron.
For fig. Refer class note.
Separation clearance:
To provide a margin of safety in airport operating areas, the traffic
ways must be separated sufficiently from each other and from
adjacent structures. The separation clearance depends on the
following factors:
 Navigation aids available at the airport.

 Types of airport
 Wing span of aircraft.
Terminal Building:

It usually refers to a building which is mainly used for passengers,
airline staff and administrative managements.
Design objectives in terminal building:

For the purpose of convenience, design objectives can be grouped into
following categories.
 Airline objectives:
These includes provision of security, accommodation of aircraft
fleets with maximum operational efficiency.
 Airport management objectives: These include provision of
facilities to generate maximum revenue, maintenance of existing
terminal operation, measures to minimize maintenance and
operation cost.
 Community objectives: These includes co-ordination with the
existing and planned-off airport highway system.
 Passengers’ objectives: These include convenient access to
parking facilities, satisfying the needs of the people for
convenience and comfort.
Facilities provided at airport:
1. Passengers’ and baggage handling counters for booking.
2. Baggage claim section
3. Enquiry counter
4. Space for handling and processing mail, express and light cargo.
5. Public telephone booth
6. Waiting hall for passengers and visitors.
7. Toilet facilities
8. Restaurant and bars
9. First aid room

10. General store and gift shops
11. Space for magazines, newspapers, advertisement display
etc.
12. Office space for airport staffs
13. Post office and banking facilities
14. Control tower
Basic requirement for site selection:

 Sufficient area for the first stage of building development with
possibility of further expansion.
 Sufficient area for roadways
 Adequate area for car parking
 Convenient access of the main highway
 Central location with respect to runway
 Proximity and easy installation of utilities like telephone,
electricity, water, sewage etc.
Planning of terminal building:
Following are two concepts of planning the terminal building.
1. Centralized system:
 In this system all passangers, baggage and cargo are routed
through a central location and then passed on to the respective
aircraft positions.
 This system is convenient when the aircraft parking area is
within a walking distance of 180 m.
 It proves to be economical due to presence of large no of aircraft
gate positions.
2. Decentralized system:
 In this system, the passenger facilities are arranged in smaller
units and repeated in one or more building.

 Each unit is arranged around one or more aircraft gate
positions.
 All airline functions are carried out adjacent to departing
plane.
 The system proves to be uneconomical.
Parking of vehicles:
The passenger and visitor parking are segregated into following
categories.
 Short term:
 These parking facilities are very near to terminal building
and certain rent is charged for their use.
 The short-term parkers usually park for 3 hrs or less
 Long-term: These parking is slightly away from main terminal
complex and rents are usually discounted for long-term users
 Remote: It is quite distance from the main terminal building
and provisions are usually made to carry baggage between these
areas and main terminal building.
Parking configuration and patterns:
There are three types of parking patterns.
 Parallel parking: Vehicles parked parallel to kerb are

generally preferred bcoz they offer much less disruption to
moving traffic.
kerb

( Parallel parking)
 450 angle parking: It usually yields the best result but
maximum 600 is usually practicable.
kerb
450
 Right angled parking: It is only permissible under special

condition.
kerb
Size of apron: Following factors affect the size of apron.
 Gate position
 Number of gates
 System of aircraft parking
Gate position: size of loading area required for each type of aircraft
adjacent to terminal building is known as gate position.
Size of gate depends on
 Size of aircraft
 Type of aircraft parking
Type of aircraft parking:

The type of aircraft parking can be grouped into five categories.
 Nose-in parking
 Angled nose-in parking
 Nose-out parking
 Angled nose-out parking
 Parallel parking
Nose-in angled nose-in nose-out angled nose-out parallel
Nose in parking:
In this arrangement, the aircraft is parked at right angled

to terminal building with its nose as close as to building as
permissible.
Advantages:
 It causes less noise because no powered turning is
required
 Hot blast is not directed towards terminal building
 The aircraft forward door is close to terminal
building

Disadvantages:
The aircraft rear loading door is far away from terminal
building.
Angled nose in parking:
Aircraft is not parked perpendicular to terminal building.
Advantages:
 Hot blast is not directed towards terminal building
 The aircraft forward door is close to terminal
building
Disadvantages:
 It requires large gate area.
 Causes higher noise level
Nose-out parking:
In this arrangement, the aircraft is parked at right angled to terminal
building with its tail as close as to building as permissible.
Advantages:
 Less power is required while manoeuvring the aircraft out of
gate position.
 The rear loading door is close to the terminal building
Disadvantage: Hot blast is directed towards terminal building.
Angled Nose-out parking:

In this arrangement, the aircraft is not parked at right angled to
terminal building
Advantages:
 Less power is required while manoeuvring the aircraft out of
gate position.
 The rear loading door is close to the terminal building
Disadvantage:
 Hot blast is directed towards terminal building
 Noise is pointed towards terminal building.
Parallel parking:
Advantages:
 The rear loading and front loading door is close to the terminal
building
Disadvantage:
 Hot blast is directed towards terminal building.
 It requires more space
 Noise are directed towards the adjacent gate position.
No of gates: # of gates depend on
 Estimated peak hour volume

 Gate occupancy time: the amount of time an aircraft occupies a
gate is known as gate occupancy time. It is as low as 20-30
minutes to as high as 40-60 minutes.
 Gate capacity analysis: The basis of gate capacity analysis is
that the gate time demanded by aircraft should be less than or

equal to gate time supplied for such aircraft. Two methods are
used to determine gate capacity.
 Unrestricted gate-use – It assumes that all aircraft can use
all the gates available at an aircraft.
 Restricted gate use: It assumes that the aircraft of a certain
size can only use the gate which are specially designed for
these aircraft.
 Gate utilization factor
Formula used for calculating gate capacity.
𝐶𝑇𝐶𝑇
𝐺 =𝐺 =
𝑈𝑈
Where G = no of gates
C = Design volume or capacity of gate in an aircraft per
hour for arrivals or departures
T = weighted average gate occupancy time in hour
U = coefficient indicating gate utilization factor.
Example -1: An airport has 4 gates which are available for all
aircraft. It serves three class of aircraft having mix and average
occupancy time during peak hour as follows:
Aircraft class Mix( %) Average occupancy

time in minutes
1 30 60
2 50 45
3 20 30
If the maximum gate utilization factor is 60%, find capacity of

the gates at this airport to process the aircraft.

Solution :
𝐶𝑇
Using 𝐺 = 𝑈
G =4
T = (0.30×60)+(0.50×45) +(0.20×30) ×1/60 = 0.775 hour
U = 0.60
𝐶×0.775
Substituting, 4 =
0.60
C = 3.10 aircraft per hour.
Every aircraft at a gate has two operations namely arrival and departure, hence
hourly capacity of gates = 2× 3.10 = 6.20 operations per hour.
Example-2:
Find the capacity of the 12 gates which are exclusively used by three
classes of aircraft with particulars as follows:
Aircraft Gate group No. Of gates Mix (%) Average
type occupancy
time in
minutes
A I 2 15 25
B II 4 35 45
C III 6 50 60
Assume gate utilization factor as unity.

Solution:
In this case, the capacity of each gate C1, C2 ,C3 is to be worked out
and
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑀𝑖𝑛{𝐶11, 𝐶, 2𝐶,2𝐶,3𝐶3
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑀𝑖𝑛{𝐶
𝐶𝑇
𝐺=
𝑈
𝐶1 ×0.15×25
2=
1×60
C1 = 32 aircraft per hour

𝐶2 × 0.35 × 45
4=
1 × 60
C2 = 15.24 aircraft per hour
𝐶3 × 0.60 × 50
6=
1 × 60
C3 = 12 aircraft per hour.
Final capacity = minimum of (32,15.24,12) = 12 aircraft per hour =
24 operations per hour.
Check:
Gate time supplied > Gate time demanded
1.0×12×60 > [( 0.15×25) +(0.35×45)+(0.50×60)]×12
720 > 594 OK.

Visual aids:
For assisting the pilots in guiding the aircrafts on the runways and
taxiways, the pavements are marked with lines and numbers are
known as visual aids.
Purposes:
 To avoid accidents during landing of aircraft
 To direct the pilot to make the landing of the aircraft in the
landing area only
 To enable the pilot to locate and identify the particular features
specified by marking
 To maintain an orderly flow of aircraft without any congestion
 To satisfy the visual requirements for take off and taxing.
Requirements of pilot for visual aids:
Following are complaints made by pilot
 Inadequate and faulty runway lighting
 Poor navigation aids
Pilots require visual aids
 Daytime with clear weather
 Night and day time with bad weather
Airport marking:
 Airport markings are essential for recognising the various
airport elements during daytime and dusk to the pilot.

 White colour is used for all markings on the runways and
for markings on the aprons and yellow colour is used on
taxiway.
Airport marking are divided into following groups
 Apron marking: yellow colour is used . The apron is

provided with certain guide lines to indicate the path
of nose gear of aircraft.
 Landing direction indicator: To indicate the landing
direction ,an arrow or a T is placed at centre of a
segmented circle. It is painted by orange or yellow
colour for being spotted in daytime and during night
time
 Runway marking : Following are the marking made
on runway
 Runway centre-line marking:
 Runway edge strip
 Runway numbering
 Touch down or landing zone: indicated by
series of strips arranged symmetrically about
the centre line with their number decreasing
gradually in the direction of landing.
 Threshold marking: indicated by series of
parallel line from a distance of 6 m from
runway end.
 Two or more parallel runway: When there are
more than one runway in the same direction,
the following letters are used.
 Two parallel runway ......... L, R
 Three parallel runway ...........L ,C, R
 Four parallel runway...............L, R, L, R

 Five parallel runway................L,C,R,L,R
 Shoulder marking:
 Shoulder marking pained with yellow colour
 Runway shoulders are marked with diagonal stripes each
with a width 90 cm.
 Taxiway and holding apron shoulder s are marked with
stripes right angled to the direction of travel of aircraft.
 The blast pad about 45-60 m length is marked with
chevron or v shaped lines.
 Taxiway marking:
 A single continuous 15 cm yellow stripe is used to mark
the centre line of the taxiway.
 At intersection of taxiway with runway ends , the centre
line of the taxiway is terminated at the edge of runway.
 At the taxiway intersection, the centre line marking of the
taxiway continue through intersection area.
Factors affecting airport lighting
 Airport classification
 Amount of traffic
 Availability of power
 Nature of aircraft using the airport
 Type of night operation planned
 Type of landing surfaces provided
 Weather conditions
Elements of airport lighting:
 Airport beacon:
 A beacon is a strong beam of light which is used to
indicate any geographical location. It is place slightly
above the horizontal and rotated to produce flash light to
an observer.

 It gives out white and green flashes in the horizontal
direction 180 degree apart.
 It rotates about 6 revolutions per minute and usually
mounted over the top of terminal building or hanger.
 Code beacon consists of two 500 watts bulb with green
colour screen to provide sufficient light to clear all
obstructions.
 Approach lighting: Before the runway actually begins, there is a
sequence of high intensity lighting arrangement for a length of
900 m.
 Apron and hanger lighting:
The apron and hanger areas are flood lit for the convenience in
servicing and loading. The flood lighting system constitutes a
projector designed to be arranged to illuminate surface.
 Boundary lighting: It is indicated by red light at centre to centre

distance about 90 m with height of about 75 m from the ground.
 Lighting of landing direction indicator: to use aircraft at night.
 Lighting of wind direction indicator: is illuminated by four 200
watts angle reflectors placed 1.8 m above the top of cone for
providing continuous lighting..It is suitable during night and bad
weather condition.
 Runway lighting:
White light of narrow gauge pattern is used for runway lighting
to eliminate black hole.
Black hole effect: is the effect by which the pilot virtually
flying blind when the central area of runway appears
excessively black when pilot crosses the threshold and continues
to look centre line.
 Taxiway lighting: Taxiway edge lights are blue and
centre –line lights are green.
 Threshold lighting:

 The identification of threshold is a major factor for
the decision of the pilot to land or not to land. For
this region special lighting are arranged.
 The threshold lights in the direction of landing are
green and in opposite direction, they are red to
indicate the end of runway.
Important of air traffic control:

 It avoids the possibility of occurrence of accidents in the air
 It grants the economic and efficient utilization of the aircraft and
the airports
 It guides the aircraft to their destinations safely and speedily.
 It increases the confidence of passengers using the facility of air
travel
 It separate the aircraft to a safe distance during their flight both
vertically as well as horizontally.
Flight rules:
Following are two basic types of flight rules.
 Instrument flight rules (IFR)

 Visual flight rule ( VFR)
These rules are differ in the following categories.
 Meaning:
VFR conditions are said to prevail in good weather. The
IFR prevail when visibility falls below those prescribed
under VFR.
 Principle: The aircraft are allowed to fly on the principle of see
and seen in the VFR condition. In emergency, flights under VFR
will be intervened by IFR.

 Responsibility: In IFR condition, the safe separation between
aircraft is responsibility of air traffic control personnel. In VFR
condition, the pilot is considered for the safe separation between
aircrafts
 Type of control: The control exercised under VFR is rather
passive in nature. The positive traffic control is exercised only
when the IFR condition prevail. The IFR requires the
assignment to specific routes and altitudes and maintain
minimum separation between aircraft.
Air traffic control network:
Following are three components of an air traffic control network
 Control centres: The air route traffic control centres (ARTCC)
have responsibility of controlling the movement of air craft
along the airways. Each centre has control over a definite
geographical area. The ARTCC is primarily concerned with the
control of aircraft operating under IFR. In India,ARTCC are
located at Bombay,
Madras,Calcutta,Delhi,Nagpur,Allahbad,Jodhpur and
Ahmedabad.
 Control towers: The air traffic control tower (ATCT) is located
in terminal area and it supervises ,directs and monitors the
traffic at the airport. The tower is responsible for issueing
clearance to all arriving and departing aircrafts and providing
the pilots with information such as temperature,wind
direction,barometric pressure etc. It is operated only a radius of
40 km from tower. If traffic is heavy ,the aircraft are detained at
this place known as holding fix and they are required to keep
moving with a vertical separation of 300m.
 Flight service stations The flight service station (FSS) are
located along the airways and at the airports. They relay the air
traffic control messages between the ARTCC and enroute

aircraft. They also furnish necessary information to the pilots
before flight and in flight on weather,navigation aids.
Q: What do you mean by minimum circling radius? (BPUT)
Ans: A certain minimum radius in space is required for the

aircraft to take smooth turn known as minimum circling radius.
It depends on type of aircraft,air traffic volume and weather
condition
Q: What are the imaginary surface of airport?
Ans: The imaginary surfaces are the established surface in

relation to airport and to each runway above which no
obstruction should project. The size of imaginary surface will
depend on the category of each runway and type of approach
planned for that runway.
Q: Write short notes on zonig laws ,clear zones and approach

zones.
Ans:
ZONING LAWS
 The permissible height of structures depends upon the airport
and the aircraft types which would use the airport.
 The use of land for manufacture of certain items which may
result in smoke nuisance, foul odour etc. is also controlled by
the zoning laws; It should, however, be coz that all zoning
ordinances are reasonable and the application is fair;
otherwise they are likely to create resentment from t public and
may result in mass obedience.

 Whenever it is felt that the zoning laws are provocative,
sufficient compensation should be announced in order to
ascertain its effective implementation.
APPROACH ZONE
 During landing, the glide path of an aircraft varies from a steep

to fiat slope. But during take-off, the rate of climb of aircraft is
limited by its wing loading and engine power.
 As such wide clearance areas, known as approach zones are
required on either side of runway along the direction of landing
and take-off of aircraft.
 Over this area, the aircraft can safety gain or loose altitude.
 The whole of this area has to be kept free of obstructions and as
such zoning laws are implemented in this area.
 The plan of approach zone is the same as that of the approach
surface. , The only difference between the two is that while
approach surface is an imaginary surface,the approach area
indicates the actual ground area.
Clear Zone
 The inner most portion of approach zone which is the most

critical portion from obstruction view-point is known as clear
zone.
 Its configuration and dimensions are shown in Figure


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Syllabus

Prepared by R.R.Sahoo, Assistant Professor/civil Page 1

Prepared by R.R.Sahoo, Assistant Professor/civil Page 2

Calm period = 100 – Total wind coverage

Cross wind: Transverse component of wind at 900 with the direction

 Airfield and Airport

Prepared by R.R.Sahoo, Assistant Professor/civil Page 6

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 The regional plan usually provides the following information:

Prepared by R.R.Sahoo, Assistant Professor/civil Page 8

 Aircraft weight and wheel arrangement:

Prepared by R.R.Sahoo, Assistant Professor/civil Page 9

Prepared by R.R.Sahoo, Assistant Professor/civil Page 10

 The wind data should usually bi collected for a period of at least

 As far as possible, these observations should be taken at or near

Prepared by R.R.Sahoo, Assistant Professor/civil Page 11

Type I Wind Rose

 This type of wind rose is illustrated in Figure

Prepared by R.R.Sahoo, Assistant Professor/civil Page 12

 This type wind data is used for of wind rose is illustrated in

Prepared by R.R.Sahoo, Assistant Professor/civil Page 14

 It is defined as the ability of runway system to accommodate

Prepared by R.R.Sahoo, Assistant Professor/civil Page 16

Factors affecting runway capacity:

 Air traffic control

Runway numbering : The end of each runway is marked with a

Prepared by R.R.Sahoo, Assistant Professor/civil Page 17

Rule: If one end marked with X, then other end = X ± 18

Q: Find missing no. ANS; 13+18= 31, 22-18 =4

Prepared by R.R.Sahoo, Assistant Professor/civil Page 18

 No wind is blowing on the runway.

Factors affecting basic runway length:

Safety Requirements: The manner in which an aircraft actually performs the

Following three cases are considered.

 Normal Landing: The aircraft should come to stop within 60% of

60% of landing distance

Prepared by R.R.Sahoo, Assistant Professor/civil Page 19

115% LOD clear way should not be more than

TOD half this distance

Distance to reach a height of 10.5 m

Airport Environment: It comprises

Prepared by R.R.Sahoo, Assistant Professor/civil Page 20

Standard Temperature at an Elevation STE

STE = Temperature at mean sea level – rate of change

Where h is the elevation/ height above sea level in meter.

Correction to Basic Runway Length:

Prepared by R.R.Sahoo, Assistant Professor/civil Page 21

Note: According to ICAO, total correction for elevation plus

Prepared by R.R.Sahoo, Assistant Professor/civil Page 22

Prepared by R.R.Sahoo, Assistant Professor/civil Page 23

Corrected length for elevation = LE = LB + Ie = 1600 + 103 =1703m

Prepared by R.R.Sahoo, Assistant Professor/civil Page 24

Rise in temperature T = ART –ST = 32.4- 13.21 = 19.190C

As per ICAO, this is less than 35%, hence O.K

Actual runway length = LT + Ig = 2030+ 82 = 2112m ---------Ans.

Prepared by R.R.Sahoo, Assistant Professor/civil Page 25

Corrected length for elevation = LE = LB + Ie = 1500 +315 =1815m

Rise in temperature T = ART –ST = 20- 9.15 = 10.850C

As per ICAO, this is less than 35%, hence O.K

Prepared by R.R.Sahoo, Assistant Professor/civil Page 26

Actual runway length = LT + Ig = 2012+ 202 = 2214m ---------Ans.

Corrected length for elevation = LE = LB + Ie = 1260 +118 =1378m

Prepared by R.R.Sahoo, Assistant Professor/civil Page 27

Rise in temperature T = ART –ST = 32.4- 12.4 = 200C