SURFING FOR SEX:

STUDYING INVOLUNTARY
CELIBACY USING THE INTERNET

Elisabeth O. Burgess, D e n i s e Donnelly, J o y Dillard,

and R e g i n a D a v i s
Department of Sociology, Georgia State University,Atlanta, GA 30303
(soceob@ langate.gsu.edu)

The Internet offers possibilities for sexuality research that could not have
been imagined even a decade ago. Although Internet users are not representa-
tive of the general population, they are easily accessible, and the openness
with which they discuss sensitive topics has created a tremendous and largely
untapped pool of respondents for sex research. Moreover, the web provides
access to populations that are largely hidden and difficult to reach using
traditional methods. In this article, we explore such issues as sampling, re-
search design, data collection and management, and the ethics of web-based
research. In doing so, we review past research, investigate the advantages and
disadvantages of using the Internet in sexuality studies, draw examples from
our web-based study of involuntary celibacy, and recommend guidelines for
future web based inquiries.

Introduction

T h e World W i d e W e b offers a unique and h e r e t o f o r e largely

u n t a p p e d opportunity for sexuality researchers. Internet research
has the potential to reach a w i d e array o f respondents, can b e
c o n d u c t e d q u i c k l y and inexpensively, and eliminates m a n y o f
the p r o b l e m s o f in-person mail or p h o n e interviews. B e c a u s e o f
the interactive nature o f the Internet, the illusion o f a n o n y m i t y (real

The authors would like to thank Kim Ainsworth-Darnell, Hugh Potter, Jaynette
Shaner, and Debra Van Ausdale for their helpful comments and critiques. We
would also like to thank the Department of Sociology at Georgia State Uni-
versity for providing space on their web page for our survey.
5
6 Sexuality & Culture

or virtual), and the potential for instantaneous communication, some

people feel more comfortable discussing sex on-line than in real
life. In some ways, the Intemet provides the perfect forum for sexu-
ality research, especially with difficult-to-reach, hidden, or stigma-
tized populations.
Few guidelines exist, however, for conducting Intemet-based
studies. Thus, in this article, we explore key methodological is-
sues involved in web-based studies of sexuality, focusing on sam-
piing, research design, data collection and management, and the
ethics of Internet research. In doing so, we examine past Intemet
research, explore the advantages and disadvantages of using the
Intemet in sexuality studies, and draw illustrative examples from
our own web-based survey of involuntary celibacy (Donnelly,
Burgess, Anderson, Curry & Dillard, 2001). We conclude with
recommendations for others interested in Internet research.

Background
Our study used the Internet to gather information from 300
involuntary celibates, persons who had not had sex during the
six months prior to our survey, but strongly desired a sexual
partner and were disturbed by the lack of interpersonal sexuality
in their lives. Respondents were recruited and interviewed solely
through electronic media such as search engines, e-mail, listservs,
and web pages. The Internet proved perfectly suited to our re-
search for two reasons. First, involuntary celibates are notori-
ously difficult to locate. The intensely personal nature of their
predicament means that there are no formal organizations for
involuntary celibates, and certainly no lists of persons in celi-
bate relationships. Recruiting over the Internet allowed us to
locate this population fairly quickly and easily. Second, the
Internet provides an opportunity to discuss this very sensitive
issue in an anonymous and private manner. Thus, respondents
were more likely to disclose their situations, and to be forth-
coming about the circumstances of their celibacy. In the follow-
ing sections, we use our study of involuntary celibacy to highlight
and illustrate some of the most common challenges of on-line
 Surfing for Sex: Studying Involuntary Celibacy Using the Internet 7

research, and to offer suggestions to those considering the Internet

as a research tool.

Research Using Internet Populations

Sampling Internet Populations

Internet Users. In the early days of the World Wide Web, the
majority of users were white, well-educated, technologically
savvy, young males (Taylor, 1999; U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1999;
Kehoe, Pitkow, Sutton, Aggarwal & Rogers, 1999). The profile
of the on-line population is constantly changing, however, as the
cost of personal computers decreases and the accessibility of
Interrlet portals increase. The growth of Internet Service Provid-
ers (ISP), point-and-click technology, and graphical user inter-
face has made computers (and the Internet) more user-friendly
and more accessible to the general public than ever before. With
the advent of computer stations in public schools and libraries,
the Internet is available even for those who are unable to afford
their own computers. According to one survey, there were six
times as many users on the Internet in 1999 as in 1995 (Taylor,
1999). The U.S. Department of Commerce (1999) found that
32.7 percent of Americans have access to the Internet, while
another study estimated that 56 percent of U.S. adults are on-
line, representing approximately 115 million people (Taylor,
1999). Worldwide there were approximately 259 million users
in 1999, nearly 43 percent of whom were in the U.S. (CyberAtlas,
2000).
The difference between those who have access to the Internet
(and other forms of technology) and those who do not have ac-
cess is often referred to as the "digital divide." Income is the
best predictor of this divide (Pew Internet and American Life
Project, 2000; U.S. Department of Commerce, 1999). Those with
incomes under $15,000 are the least likely to have Internet ac-
cess, and those over $75,000 are the most likely. As more middle
class persons gain access to the web, at home or at work, it is
likely that the poorest Americans will be left further behind.
8 Sexuality & Culture

As reflected in Table 1, the demographic profile of Intemet users

is more complex than it was a few years ago. For the first time,
surveys are reporting almost equal numbers of w o m e n and men
accessing the Internet (Taylor, 1999; Media Mark Research Inc.,
2000). Although Internet users are still disproportionately white,
the percentage of Blacks on the Net increased from 2 to 7 percent
of Intemet users between 1998 and 1999. Age and education, how-
ever, remain very skewed. Eighty-five to 90 percent of users are
under the age of 55, and between 30 and 40 percent are college
graduates. Moreover, Internet veterans, those who have been on-
line for three or more years, spend more time on the Internet and
use it for a wider variety of activities than the newcomers (Pew
Intemet and American Life Project, 2000).

Table 1

Profile of I n t e r n e t U s e r s in U n i t e d States 1

GVU 10 th Harris PolP Cyberstats 4 U.S. Adult

Survey 2 Population 5

Sex Male 66.4% 50% 49.8% 48.0%

Female 33.6 50 50.2 52.0

Race/Ethnic White 87.2 81 -- 76

Black 1.9 7 -- 12

Hispanic -- 9 -- 10

Other 10.9 -- -- --

Age 18-34 42.2 -- 39.7 32.5

35-54 41.2 -- 47.4 39.9

55+ 10.6 -- 12.7 27.6

Education College Grad 59.2 32 38.0 22.5

Some College 28.5 32 34.8 26.5

HS or Less 11.3 35 27.2 51.0

Income $25,000 or less -- 14 -- 25

$25,001-50,000 -- 29 -- 29
$50,001 or more -- 41 -- 32

Marital Status Married 47.6 -- 61.6 57.2

Single 31.7 -- 27.5 23.7

Other 20.7 -- 10.9 19.1

 Surfing for Sex: Studying Involuntary Celibacy Using the Internet 9

Sampling Issues. As with all forms of survey research, Internet

research is only as good as the sample upon which it is based.
Previous research on Internet sampling focused on three issues: (1)
identifying and collecting representative samples; (2) targeting spe-
cialized groups; and (3) strategies for approaching Intemet users
for research purposes.
One of the major concerns of previous Internet research has been
to identify and collect representative samples of the on-line popula-
tion. Traditional random probability sampling techniques are not
well suited to the Internet because there are no listings of addresses
of all Internet users. Even if there were, the time and cost of sample
selection would be prohibitive. Thus, researchers have had to de-
velop techniques specific to the medium (Bradley, 1999; Witmer,
Coleman & Katzman, 1999).
The most common method of obtaining a representative sample
of users has been to create a list of all newsgroups, discussion
groups, and chat rooms on the Internet. Then, a sampling frame of
regular posters to these groups is created, or solicitations to partici-
pate in the survey are posted to a stratified sample of users (Brad-
ley, 1999). One problem with this strategy, however, is that not all
Internet users participate in online newsgroups or discussions. A
second is that with the dramatic increase in the number of
newsgroups, public chat rooms, and web-based bulletin boards,
just finding and listing all the groups has become a gargantuan task
in itself. Thus, it is doubtful that this strategy will remain a viable
method of obtaining representative samples of Net users.
Another technique is to gather a large sample and weight it based
upon national population statistics. The National Geographic
Society's (NGS) Survey 2000, relied upon just such a strategy
(Witte, Amaruso & Howard, 2000). In 1998, the NGS Survey was
on the organization's website for two months, collecting over 80,000
responses worldwide. The survey was publicized in print and elec-
tronic media, and respondents were solicited through posts to
newsgroups and listservs. Although the survey was by no means ran-
dom, representativeness was measured and validated through com-
parison with multiple items from U.S. Census and established
surveys such as the General Social Survey. The sample was
weighted to reflect the U.S. population.
10 Sexuality & Culture

The Internet is also well suited to those who are interested in

targeting hard-to-reach populations, such as drug users (Coomber,
1997) or others engaged in deviant activities. The Internet allows
researchers to capture a broader segment of these populations than
generally available through in-person convenience samples
(Coomber, 1997). Indeed, sample bias may be less of an issue for
researchers interested in studying a rare-element or difficult to ac-
cess group, because the problem is not randomly distributed through-
out the population (Coomber, 1997). Studies designed to explore
or describe emerging trends and topics also benefit from the low
cost and quick turnaround of on-line research (Schmidt, 1997).
Regardless of sampling procedure used, the manner in which
potential respondents are approached is an important issue. Sub-
jects can be recruited through internal, Internet-based, strate-
gies such as newsgroups and listservs, hyperlinks on web pages
and links from search engines or through external strategies such
as press releases, advertisements, and magazine or newspaper ar-
ticles (Bradley, 1999). A combination of internal and external meth-
ods is most likely to create a broad sample base by recruiting
respondents from diverse locales (Witte et al., 2000; Bradley, 1999).
How participants are approached can also be a sensitive issue.
Internet users can be contacted directly through an e-mail or indi-
rectly through web pages or discussion lists. In both cases, the pre-
ferred method is to send an introduction to the research and an
invitation to participate, instead of sending an unsolicited question-
naire. With a separate introductory message, respondents are less
likely to perceive the survey as junk mail and are thus more likely
to respond (Witmer et al., 1999).
Another problem for sampling is individuals with multiple e-
mail addresses. For instance, the same individual may have dif-
ferent e-mail addresses at home and work. With an increasing
number of sites providing free e-mail, the number of potential
e-mail addresses for each individual is increasing. This is a prob-
lem because in random probability samples it increases the like-
lihood of an individual being chosen. In addition, the same
individual could respond multiple times to the same survey by
using different e-mail addresses.
 Surfing for Sex: Studying Involuntary Celibacy Using the Internet 11

Sampling Involuntary Celibates on the Internet. Unlike other

researchers who specifically chose Internet samples, ours was
serendipitously thrust upon us. Our project began in August 1998,
when a member of an on-line listserv for involuntary celibates
approached one of the authors via e-mail asking for current infor-
mation on involuntary celibacy. As this conversation ensued, it
became apparent that very little current scholarly research existed
on celibacy, particularly the involuntary type. The contact person
then went back and talked to other listserv members about the
lack of research, and after some debate, the list members (as a
group) volunteered to participate in a research project on invol-
untary celibacy. A research team was created to study the issue,
and one of us joined the listserv, announcing her presence as a
researcher and her desire to learn more about involuntary celi-
bacy and participate informally in listserv discussion. No data
was collected directly from the listserv, but our presence assisted
in establishing relationships with future informants and potential
respondents, and in garnering feedback on initial versions of the
questionnaire. After several months of talking with informants
and constructing and pre-testing the questionnaire, the research
team posted a message to the listserv soliciting participants for
our study.
Initially, we e-mailed an informed consent form and question-
naire to each person who had indicated a willingness to participate.
By returning the completed questionnaires they were agreeing to
take part in the study. Original participants in the study were all
listserv members. Interest in the project grew, however, and addi-
tional respondents were recruited through links on web pages for
married and single celibates. Initial listserv respondents also be-
came "key informants," informally recruiting others through dis-
cussing the survey with on-line friends and in other discussion
groups. Finally, several major search engines picked up the survey,
and respondents found it by searching on terms such as "celibacy"
or "involuntary celibacy." As interest in the project grew, collecting
data via e-mail became too time consuming. Thus, we converted
the informed consent and questionnaire to HTML format and posted
it on a web page hosted by our department.
12 Sexuality & Culture

The survey remained on the departmental web page from June

1999 through June 2000. During that time 300 involuntary celi-
bates successfully completed the questionnaire. Fourteen percent
of respondents were current or former members of the original
listserv, while 25 percent came to us from links on celibacy web
pages. Fifty percent located us through surfing the Net or using a
major Internet search engine, and 11 percent were referred by word
of mouth or postings on discussion groups or web pages. Thus, our
sample was a self-selected non-probability sample of involuntary
celibates using the Internet. Even though the sample was non-ran-
dom, our project is the only one to date to examine the dynamics
and characteristics of involuntary celibates (See Donnelly et al.,
2001), and it has provided us with a great deal of descriptive infor-
mation. Given the hidden nature of involuntary celibacy, the Intemet
proved to be one of the few viable methods of accessing this group.
The final sample of involuntary celibates consisted of 192 men
and 108 women who are described in more detail in Table 2. Sixty-
four percent of respondents were age 34 or under. Twenty-seven
percent were married or living with a long-term partner. Less than
5 percent had not completed high school, while 88.3 percent had
attended or completed college. Eighty-two percent of the sample
were white and 7 percent were of African descent. Seventy-four
percent resided in the U.S., with 26 percent of respondents living
outside the U.S. (primarily in Western Europe or in nations for-
merly colonized by the British).
Even though access to the Internet is becoming more wide-
spread, our sample characteristics were reflective of the group
of persons traditionally most likely to have access to computers.
The majority were young, male, white, well-educated persons
who held professional jobs and enjoyed middle class lifestyles.
As illustrated in Table 3, they were skilled in computer usage
and spent substantial amounts of time on e-mail, web-surfing,
chat rooms, and on-line gaming. Respondents averaged 17.5
hours a week on recreational computer activity and 16.9 hours a
week on work-related computer activity. Although our sample may
be comparable to that of other studies of Internet users, it is none-
theless not representative of the U.S. population, or of involuntary
celibates, and should not be generalized to other groups.
 Surfing for Sex: Studying Involuntary Celibacy Using the Internet 13

Table 2
Involuntary Celibacy Sample

Early Responders Late Responders Total Sample

(3/15/99 to 11/31/99) (12/01/99to 6/30/00)
% N % N % N
Sex
Male 68.9 104 59.1 88 64.0 192
Female 31.1 47 40.9 61 36.0 108
Age
18-24 26.5 40 30.9 46 28.7 86
25-34 35.8 54 34.9 52 35.3 106
35-44 23.2 35 20.1 30 21.7 65
45-54 11.3 17 8.7 13 10.0 30
55-64 3.3 5 4.0 6 3.7 11
65+ 0 0 1.3 2 0.7 2
Race
White 85.0 125 78.6 114 81.8 239
African Descent 5.4 8 9.0 13 7.2 21
Hispanic 1.4 2 1.4 2 1.4 21
Asian 2.7 4 1.4 2 2.1 6
Native American 0.7 1 1.4 2 1.0 3
Multi-Racial 3.4 5 6.2 9 4.8 14
Other 1.4 2 2.1 3 1.7 5
Marital Status
Single 71.5 108 74.5 111 73.0 219
Matried/Parlnered 28.5 42 25.5 38 27.0 81
Education
less than HS 3.3 5 6.0 9 4.7 14
HS Grad 6.0 9 8.1 12 7.0 21
Some College 30.5 46 34.2 1 32.3 97
College Grad 28.5 43 21.5 32 25.0 75
Some Grad Work 6.0 9 8.7 13 7.3 22
Grad/Prof Degree 25.8 39 21.5 32 23.7 71
Residence
Within the US 7.7 112 75.5 111 75.6 223
Outside the US 24.3 36 24.5 36 24.4 72
Member of
Celibacy Listserv
No 81.1 116 90.9 130 86.0 246
Yes (Current
or Former) 18.9 27 9.1 13 14.0 40
Found Us
Celibacy Listserv 27.3 24 5.9 8 14.3 32
Web page 19.3 17 28.7 39 25.0 56
Other Web page 12.5 1l 10.3 14 11.2 25
Surfing the Net 40.9 36 55.1 75 49.6 111
14 Sexuality & Culture

Table 3
Computer Usage (Hours Per Week)

Early Late Total Sample

Respondents Respondents
Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD)

Leisure
E-mail 4.2 (4.7) 4.2 (5.2) 4.2 (5.0)
Surfing 5.8 (5.2) 6.8 (6.6) 6.3 (5.9)
Games 1.9 (4.5) 1.8 (3.3) 1.8 (3.9)
Chatrooms 2.1 (12.1) 1.5 (4.3) 1.8 (9.1)
Word Processing 2.1 (5.3) 2.4 (4.8) 2.3 (5.1)
Data Management 0.8 (2.7) 2.3 (7.0) 1.5 (5.3)
Total 17.1 (16.4) 18.0 (15.0) 17.5 (15.7)
Work
Total 17.7 (16.5) 16.1 (16.2) 16.9 (16.3)

Lessons Learned. Our experience with web-based research raised

several questions about sampling. First, our sample was self-se-
lected and non-representative. Given the exploratory and descrip-
tive nature of our research, this was not an insurmountable problem.
We were interested in exploring the issues surrounding involuntary
celibacy, building theory, and creating a typology of involuntary
celibates. Had we planned to generalize to the U.S. population, or
even to the population of all involuntary celibates, this sampling
consideration would have been much more serious. The latter would
have been impossible regardless of the sampling scheme used, since
we had no way of knowing the characteristics of the entire popula-
tion of involuntary celibates and since there was no way to enu-
merate this group.
The sample that we obtained using the Internet is probably
much larger and broader than we could have reached by contact-
ing them through more traditional methods, such as snowball or
convenience sampling. Similar to Coomber (1997), we found
that the Internet provided access to a geographically diverse, hid-
den, stigmatized, and difficult to specify population. In fact, the
Internet may be the perfect place to locate involuntary celibates,
since previous research shows that they tend to be shy, reserved,
and socially isolated individuals--just the type of persons who may
 Surfing for Sex: Studying Involuntary Celibacy Using the Internet 15

be drawn to the anonymity of computer usage. Nonetheless, we

acknowledge that our sample tells us little about how people of
color, poor people, less educated persons, and older adults experi-
ence involuntary celibacy.
Since our survey was on-line for a year, we realized that early
and late responders might differ substantially. Unlike persons
responding to a one-shot mail or phone-based questionnaire, our
respondents could have been affected by events occurring over
the year in which the survey was in place. Previous research has
shown that the population of Internet users is changing rapidly,
thus we analyzed differences in our respondents over time to tap
into developing trends. Despite these trends, as Table 2 shows,
the characteristics of the respondents remained fairly constant
over time.
Had there been a body of previous research on involuntary
celibacy, we could have compared our findings back to these to
determine the reliability of our sample. Our previous research
has shown (Donnelly et al., 2001), however, that few studies of
involuntary celibacy have been undertaken, that none defined
the problem in the precise terms that we used, and that none
used representative samples. Thus, there were no comparable
samples to evaluate ours against.

Research Design
Prior Research. When designing an electronic survey, re-
searchers must be concerned with survey construction and tech-
nological expertise of respondents. As with traditional survey
research, respondents who feel burdened by the questionnaire
will either refuse to complete the survey or will not participate
at all. In mailed surveys, longer questionnaires are generally
perceived as more burdensome to respondents, but Witmer et al.
(1999) did not find a significant difference in response rates be-
tween long and short e-mail questionnaires. Thus, e-mail may be
the preferred medium for more in-depth questionnaires.
In addition to design concerns common to all studies, electronic
research raises the issue of the most effective format for presenting
16 Sexuality & Culture

the questionnaire. For instance, surveys can be embedded in e-

mails, attached to e-mails, or linked to web pages. Dommeyer and
Moriarty (2000) found that surveys embedded in the text of an e-
mail received higher response rates than those sent as e-mail at-
tachments, but that there were no differences in response speed or
item omissions.
This raises a design issue unique to the Internet--that of the tech-
nological experience of potential respondents. Previous research
has suggested that simpler text-based questionnaires result in higher
response rates and more completed surveys (Smith, 1997). This is
based on the belief that only the most technologically savvy Internet
users will be able to interact with complex documents. While this
may be true with e-mail-based surveys (because of the need to down-
load and manage attachments), web-based survey forms may actu-
ally be more user friendly to the general public. Ideally, the
respondent will click on a link to the web page, type in responses,
and submit the information directly to the researcher. Unfortunately,
there is little previous research on the design and effectiveness of
web-based research instruments (Smith, 1997).
Designing the Involuntary Celibacy Survey. Our questionnaire
contained 13 closed ended questions assessing demographic
characteristics and 58 open ended questions regarding such ar-
eas as: past sexual experiences, current relationships, initiating
relationships, sexuality and celibacy, non-sexual relationships,
and the consequences of celibacy. It was organized so that de-
mographics appeared first, followed by the loosely chrono-
logical, open ended questions.
The first 30 respondents were e-mailed the informed consent
form and questionnaire. Depending upon the preferences of re-
spondents, the questionnaire was sent either as an attached docu-
ment or embedded text and returned to us in a similar format. The
remaining 270 respondents filled out the web page version of the
questionnaire (which was nearly identical to the e-mail version).
The web page questionnaire was designed using simple HTML
programming instead of special survey software. The design in-
cluded radio buttons for closed-ended questions and textboxes for
open-ended questions.
 Surfing for Sex: Studying Involuntary Celibacy Using the Internet 17

The flexibility of the Web-based questionnaire allowed respon-

dents to complete the survey at their own pace. Because of the
open-ended nature of the questionnaire, completion times ranged
from under an hour to around four hours. Our respondents accessed
the survey at different times of the day and week. Seventy-seven
percent of respondents retumed the survey on weekends. Fifty-six
percent of our respondents retumed the survey between six in the
evening and six in the morning. The majority of respondents were
employed full time, therefore they were more likely to have leisure
time at night or on weekends.
Lessons Learned. During the course of our study, several is-
sues arose around research design. First, since almost 25 per-
cent of our respondents resided outside the U.S., some respondents
had difficulty interpreting questions designed for the U.S. audi-
ence. For example, designations of race and political orientation do
not translate easily across cultures. One solution to this problem
would be to have separate surveys for the U.S. and intemational
respondents, such as the design used by the NGS research team
(Witte et al., 2000).
Another issue of research design was questionnaire construc-
tion. Our on-line questionnaire underwent several revisions as
we experimented with formats to determine which worked best.
Two of the most persistent problems were questions that did not
allow users to have multiple responses and people assuming that
they could only enter responses that would "fit" in textboxes
(not realizing that they could scroll up and down within the box).
Had we used some of the newer questionnaire design software,
both of these problems could have been avoided.
In addition, the original "skip" directions, which instructed re-
spondents to move to later sections of the survey, were unclear, and
some respondents became frustrated when they thought they were
being asked questions that did not apply. Skip patterns are interpreted
differently on paper, flipping pages, than on the computer screen,
scrolling up and down. A more dynamic or interactive program might
have relieved the respondents of some of this burden. Again, the use
of web questionnaire design software would have allowed us to
avoid these problems (Witte et al., 2000; Schmidt, 1997).
18 Sexuality & Culture

A final problem was how to make the questionnaire accessible

to a variety of Interuet users. Most web-browsers were able to dis-
play and submit the questionnaire without any problem, but some
who attempted to complete the survey using WebTV had difficulty
maneuvering through the survey and answering questions. More-
over, for all respondents, there was no way to save the survey and
come back to it later. Some persons simply got tired, and were
faced with the choice of closing the questionnaire and losing their
responses or finishing the survey and submitting it as quickly as
possible. Since some respondents gave longer answers at the be-
ginning of the questionnaire than at the end, we speculate that the
"tiredness" factor was a major contributor to this response style. In
addition, if someone were interrupted while taking the survey, or
an ISP disconnected, all prior answers were lost. Several enterpris-
ing respondents got around this problem by downloading the ques-
tionnaire and e-mailing their results, but we have no measure of
how many potential respondents simply gave up because they were
disconnected, interrupted, or simply became tired. More sophisti-
cated software and programming would have allowed the respon-
dent to take "coffee breaks" or save their responses (Smith, 1997).

Data Collection and Management

Prior Research. One of the most appealing aspects of Internet

research is that it saves a considerable amount of time and money.
There are no publishing or distribution costs. Data collection
and data entry are facilitated by computers (Schmidt, 1997). Once
the survey is designed, however, the problems of data manage-
ment arise. The technological expertise of the research team can
influence the success of data collection. The convenience and cost
effectiveness of electronic research is meaningless if the research
team does not have an understanding of the technological com-
plexity of web-based research or lacks web support. For instance,
if researchers cannot easily modify the questionnaire, access data
from completed surveys, or move data from one location to an-
other, the advantages of the Internet are outweighed by the time,
effort, and frustrations of data management.
 Surfing for Sex: Studying Involuntary Celibacy Using the Internet 19

Another data management issue is security. If the web page is

not on a secure host and not regularly monitored by the research
team, the fear arises that mischievous Internet users might at-
tempt to alter or hijack the questionnaire or responses (Hewson
et al., 1996). More serious still is the problem of intruders who
gain access to sensitive personal information contained in com-
pleted surveys.
Involuntary Celibacy Survey. During the course of data collec-
tion for this project, we collected quantitative and qualitative data
from 300 respondents resulting in over 1,400 pages of text. Re-
viewing and monitoring the incoming data was an arduous task.
Responses were sent to the e-mail address of one of the researchers
who reviewed the quality of each survey and distributed it to the
research team. When responses were not processed and downloaded
several times a week, the e-mail account could become overbur-
dened. We dealt with this issue by having other team members
monitor the e-mail account when the primary team member was
not available to manage the data collection.
In order to address the quality and authenticity of responses, we
set up the survey so that only one response was accepted from each
e-mail address. To assess the quality of surveys, the researcher
managing the surveys read each before downloading. Suspicious
responses were flagged for examination by other research group
members, and were discussed in research meetings. We looked for
answers that contradicted previous responses, seemed extremely
outlandish, or made no sense in the context of the question asked.
For example, one respondent answered the survey but was cur-
rently sexually active and went into great depths to describe his
sexual exploits. Finally, SPSS was used to make sure that no two
respondents were identical in terms of demographic information (a
sign that someone had responded multiple times). Because a mem-
ber of our research team belonged to the listserv on involuntary
celibacy and maintained a regular correspondence with several ac-
tive involuntary celibates, we felt that we began with a better un-
derstanding of the issues surrounding involuntary celibacy than the
general public. In addition, approximately the first thirty responses
to the survey came from known participants on the listserv or refer-
20 Sexuality & Culture

rals from the list. As a result, we quickly developed a knowledge

base that allowed us to identify fraudulent responses.
Also, we were concerned whether our respondents (especially
those not recruited from the listserv) trusted us enough to reveal
very sensitive personal information. In order to address these
issues and assuage their concerns, we provided an introduction
of ourselves and our project on the web page. This clearly estab-
lished our reputations as experts in sociological research and
our affiliation with an established research institution. We found
that most appreciated the assurance of anonymity provided by
the Net. Their trust was evident in lengthy responses that in-
cluded painful details about insecurity and shyness, childhood
sexual and emotional abuse, and embarrassing interactions with
potential sexual partners.
Lessons Learned. Overall this was a very successful endeavor,
but data collection was not without its challenges. Initially, we
were unprepared for the number of responses to the survey. This
project began as an exploratory survey and we had no intentions
of collecting hundreds of responses. We clearly underestimated
the popularity of Internet research. As demonstrated in Table 2,
nearly 50 percent of our respondents found us because they were
surfing the Net for information about sexuality and/or celibacy.
Moreover, respondents continued to contact the research team
long after the data collection process ended. Because our re-
search team did not have access to the many links that strangers
and search engines had to our survey, we had no way to inform
everyone that data collection was complete. Eventually, we
placed a paragraph on the department web page, thanking respon-
dents and summarizing the initial findings of the study.
Another set of problems arose in on-going data management.
When flaws in the questionnaire were discovered, it was diffi-
cult to fix them because of limited access to the host web page.
For reasons of cost and convenience, we relied on our institution's
server and web page to host the survey. Because only certain per-
sons had passwords and could access the web page, none of the
research team could easily make changes to the questionnaire. When
the departmental computer assistant changed jobs, we were unable
 Surfing for Sex: Studying Involuntary Celibacy Using the Internet 21

to access the questionnaire at all until a new person was hired. As a

result, we were only able to upload a revised version of the ques-
tionnaire once during the data collection period.
Despite these problems, respondents found taking the survey to
be a pleasant experience. A remarkable number of people thanked
us for conducting research on this topic. Many respondents had
investigated involuntary celibacy on their own and were aware of
the dearth of research on the topic. They often asked for copies of
results or research reports and encouraged us to publish results for
the general public. Several remarked that taking the survey was a
helpful or even enjoyable experience. A few also commented that
taking part in the survey and reading the questions made them real-
ize that they were not alone as involuntary celibates.

Ethics

Prior Research. When dealing with sensitive information such

as sexuality, there are several ethical issues to consider; (1) ad-
hering to Netiquette; (2) gaining informed consent; (3) issues of
confidentiality and privacy; and (4) gathering sensitive infor-
mation. Early in the development of the Internet, several rules
of etiquette, commonly referred to as Netiquette, were created
to make the Web a more pleasant environment. Researchers us-
ing the Internet should be aware of basic Netiquette to avoid
angering potential respondents. Spamming, which is defined as
unsolicited or repeated mass mailings, is frowned upon by Internet
veterans and newcomers alike. Mehta and Sivadas (1995) found
that users tend to be suspicious of unsolicited mailings and attach-
ments. Witmer et al. (1999) received such harsh responses when
they e-mailed an unsolicited questionnaire to USENET newsgroup
members that they halted their research and revised their method to
send an introduction and invitation to the potential respondents.
Wariness regarding unsolicited e-mail is only likely to increase as
the fear of computer viruses spreads.
Another ethical concern for Internet researchers is gaining in-
formed consent. In accordance with Institutional Review Board
(IRB) codes at most universities and research institutions, re-
22 Sexuality & Culture

searchers are required to inform subjects of potential benefits, dis-

close possible risks, and clearly specify how the data will be used.
Because of the illusion of anonymity surrounding the Internet, re-
spondents may feel more comfortable disclosing information via
electronic media than in real life. Thus, researchers should remind
respondents about privacy issues, clearly state how the information
will be used, and give them the opportunity to control how much
they disclose (Shaft, 1999; Binik, Mah & Kiesler, 1999). Research-
ers must also be careful not to use the material collected in ways
that were not consented to by respondents (Shaft, 1999).
A third issue is the maintenance of confidentiality and privacy.
The Internet allows researchers the technological ability to monitor
who turns in surveys and who does not through the use of embed-
ded codes. This is often necessary to avoid duplicate responses or
false responses, but some respondents fear that researchers will use
this information for other purposes (Binik et al., 1999). No matter
how comfortable you try to make them, some people are afraid to
provide identifying information or address sensitive issues on the
Net for fear that their identities will be disclosed, that they will be
solicited by marketers, or that they will be the victims of on-line
scams. With the increase of identity theft, some are hesitant to give
out any personal information on-line.
A final concern involves the collection of sensitive information.
This issue is twofold, involving protecting the respondent's pri-
vacy and assisting the respondent if a crisis should occur. Collect-
ing information about sexual activity, personal history, and attitudes
over the Internet raises concerns regarding protection of the sub-
ject. Thus, it is important to assess the security of the network.
Who has access to the data being transferred electronically? Are e-
mails and servers monitored by a third party? If so, can they be
trusted to respect the confidentiality of the respondents? Research-
ers must be vigilant in their efforts to manage and store the data in
ways that protect their respondents (Shaft, 1999). As with collect-
ing any sensitive information, the possibility also arises that a re-
spondent might experience distress over issues discussed in the
survey. Vulnerable populations may feel overly burdened or threat-
ened by electronic research, since the researcher remains virtually
 Surfing for Sex: Studying Involuntary Celibacy Using the Internet 23

anonymous, and asking for assistance may involve phoning or e-

mailing someone totally unfamiliar to the respondent (Sharf, 1999;
Coomber, 1997).
Ethics and sexuality research. In conducting research on this
sensitive topic, we were concerned with all of the ethical issues
mentioned earlier. First, we made sure to adhere to good
Netiquette. To avoid sending unsolicited e-mail, we sent an in-
troduction letter and invitation to participate in our study to the
listserv, and only mailed copies of the questionnaire back to
persons requesting it. Later in the study, our solicitations in-
cluded the web address of the survey, and were posted to the
listserv and several Internet bulletin boards, but were never sent
to individuals. We e-mailed the informed consent along with
the questionnaire to early respondents. For web page respon-
dents, we layered the web page so that the survey was only ac-
cessible after later respondents had read an introduction and
informed consent form and clicked on a button indicating their
agreement to participate. Confidentiality was maintained by set-
ting up the survey so that the headers were stripped from re-
sponses, which were then e-mailed back to us.
Finally, general information about the sensitive nature of the
questions was included in the informed consent, as well as con-
tact information for the primary investigators. We also noted that
assistance in locating counseling would be given to persons expe-
riencing discomfort or crisis situations while answering the ques-
tionnaire. Because the research team had contacts across the country
in the area of sexuality counseling, we were able to meet any re-
quests for counseling that arose.
Lessons Learned. Overall, we avoided many ethical problems
by preparing for them in advance. Two respondents were provided
with referrals to qualified therapists in order to explore ways of
dealing with involuntary celibacy and interacting with potential
partners, but apparently the survey precipitated no emergencies.
We did, however, experience several other interesting situations.
Because the survey was on the Web, we encouraged respondents
to e-mail us with any questions or concerns. The majority of corre-
spondents were courteous and informative. Unfortunately, one re-
24 Sexuality & Culture

spondent became a bit too attached, asking personal information of

one of the researchers, and attempting to engage her in on-going
dialogue. In this case, the researcher carefully but assertively dis-
engaged herself from the correspondence by noting that her role as
researcher made it unethical for her to have personal correspon-
dence with research subjects. Another respondent sent a rather dis-
jointed and disturbing note to the research team, detailing the
emotional difficulties that she had experienced because of the in-
teractions of involuntary celibacy and physical handicaps. She was
given a referral to a psychologist in her area, and the IRB was
provided with a copy of her correspondence and the research team's
response.
Finally, a number of respondents shared suicidal thoughts in the
text of their responses. Because involuntary celibacy is such an
isolating experience, often interacting with issues of shyness or
social anxiety, some respondents were severely depressed. To our
knowledge, none of these respondents attempted to contact us in-
dividually. Because their responses did not contain any identifying
information, we were helpless to intervene. Other respondents were
not suicidal, but their completed surveys contained graphic sexual
content or very emotional stories that touched us as individuals.
Working together as a research team, we spent many hours de-
briefing and processing this difficult information.
Over the course of the two years we spent conceptualizing and
designing this research and collecting the data, our research team
learned many lessons about Intemet research. In that same time
period, the environment of the Internet developed considerably, and
a body of literature on Internet research methods began to appear.
In the concluding section below, we use our experiences and knowl-
edge gained to make recommendations for future scholars inter-
ested in conducting sexuality research on the Internet.

Recommendations for Future Research

Sexuality scholars interested in conducting research using the

Intemet need not only be well versed in traditional research meth-
ods, but they must also be aware of the unique issues of conducting
 Surfing for Sex: Studying Involuntary Celibacy Using the Internet 25

research in this environment. We suggest that researchers consider five

dimensions before conducting research on the Internet.
First, researchers must determine the suitability of this method
to their research questions. Despite easy access to respondents
and the low cost of Internet research, not all topics are appropri-
ate. Internet research is especially suited to exploratory or de-
scriptive research: projects that do not require representative
samples. Moreover, some topics likely lend themselves easily
to fraudulent responses, and other topics are too sensitive or
complex to address without face-to-face interaction.
Issues of Internet access also contribute to suitability of a
project. Some population samples are not likely to be accessible
on-line because of the digital divide. Children, older adults, poor
people, and people of color are less likely to be readily acces-
sible on-line. Also, the population must be literate and computer
literate. In addition, the research design needs to be appropriate
for the Web. If the research necessitates visual clues or subtlety
in tones of voice from the respondent, the text-based environ-
ment of the Internet would yield incomplete results.
Second, by identifying on-line forums, researchers can gain ac-
cess to informants and subjects. Because virtual communities are
significantly different from real life communities, researchers should
interact with them as part of their information gathering stage. Web
pages about the topic of interest and web page managers can be
instructive in identifying whether there is already a discourse about
the topic on the Internet. Given the way information is networked,
web pages can lead to pertinent listservs, newsgroups, and discus-
sion boards on the topic of interest. By observing on-line discus-
sions, formally or informally, researchers can grasp the complexity
and depth of an issue in a way not possible in real life.
Engaging in on-line discussion or querying participants can pro-
vide insight into their concerns, and allows the researcher to estab-
lish a rapport with future subjects. Earlier informants who have
assisted in questionnaire construction may be willing to have
hyperlinks to the survey placed on their web pages, and to contact
on-line friends and acquaintances about the project. Other strate-
gies for recruiting subjects are to query major search engines about
26 Sexuality & Culture

Table 4

Suggestions for Future Internet Research

Determine the suitability to this method:

Is the topic appropriate?
Are subjects on-line?
Can the research design be adapted for Internet?
Identify and recruit subjects and informants:
"Webpages and Web page managers
Listservs, Newsgroups, and Discussion Boards
Observe on-line discussion
Query informants
Get listed on major search engines
Announce call for participation in the print media
Design research for on-line platform:
Identify host site
Create informed consent and introductory pages
Create a secure environment
Design research with software for on-line surveys or hire a web consultant
Use interactive skip patterns
Pre-test survey on-line
Make text copies available
Consider separate survey for internationalrespondents
Data collection and management:
Filter for multiple submissions
Have access to host for altering survey as needed
Monitor survey for security
Monitor incoming responses for fraud
Ethical considerations:
Create informed consent form
Clearly identify research team as scholars
Provide resources for sensitive subjects or distressed respondents

the process of inclusion and announce calls for participation in the

print media.
Third, the research must be specifically designed for on-line plat-
forms. Web-based surveys require a host server and web page. The
host site should be a reliable one that will remain viable for the
course of the project and be easily accessible to the research team.
The environment should be as secure as possible from hackers or
 Surfing for Sex: Studying Involuntary Celibacy Using the Internet 27

vandals. In addition, special software for on-line surveys will pro-

vide the ability to use interactive skip patterns and dynamic survey
techniques and allow for breaks during the questioning process.
Pre-testing the survey on-line will allow researchers to discern and
deal with any technological problems. If the research team does
not include an Intemet and computer expert, our experience sug-
gests that it is well worth the additional cost to hire a consultant.
When designing the survey, researchers should recognize that
some participants may prefer alternative forms of the question-
naire. If some participants may prefer to respond via e-mail or
U.S. mail, then a text-based version of the survey could be eas-
ily mailed to them. Because of the global network provided by
the World Wide Web, respondents from outside the United States
are likely to locate the survey. The research team should con-
sider a separate survey for international respondents.
Fifth, researchers must remain vigilant during the data collection
and management phases of research. We recommend having a pro-
cedure in place for data management, assigning team members re-
sponsibility for downloading, saving, and handling data. At least
one person should initially filter responses for multiple submissions,
and researchers should have methods in place for screening bogus
responses and identifying persons in crisis. The team should regu-
larly review responses for comments about technological flaws and
alter the survey as needed. Additionally, it may be necessary to
monitor the host site and on-line survey for security and fraud.
Finally, researchers must address ethical concems. Because of
the novelty of Internet research and perceptions of anonymity pro-
vided by this form of communication, researchers need to take ex-
tra precautions to protect subjects. Initially, the team should create
an on-line informed consent, getting IRB approval as needed. When
contacting potential informants or respondents, researchers should
adhere to basic Netiquette. They should design introductory mes-
sages to clearly identify themselves as scholarly researchers. More-
over, at least one member of the team must have access to counseling
resources if the subject is particularly sensitive and may cause dis-
tress. If researchers need to develop a network of counselors we
suggest they contact the American Association of Sexuality Edu-
28 Sexuality & Culture

cators, Counselors, and Therapists (AASECT) or the American

Association of Marriage and Family Therapists (AAMFT).
In sum, this article has described past research, examined the
advantages and disadvantages of using the Internet in sexuality
studies, and suggested guidelines for future web-based inquir-
ies. Because of our experiences with a web-based study of invol-
untary celibates, we highly recommend the use of the Internet
for future research on sexuality. The World Wide Web is recog-
nized as a valuable tool for business, communication, and infor-
mation gathering. As access to the Intemet continues to expand,
more scholars will look to it as a tool for conducting research.
We believe the Internet provides an excellent opportunity for
sexuality scholars to conduct research as long as they take into
account the special concems of this platform and the popula-
tions that it serves.

Notes
1. Surveys do not necessarily represent comparable populations and vari-
ables were not measured uniformly, but these are the most complete data
available or Intemet demographics.
2. Georgia Tech Research Corporation GVU WWW Tenth Survey http:
//www.cc.gatech.edu/gvu/user_survey/. Non-probability on-line survey
of over 5000 Internet Users from October 10, 1998, to December 15,
1998. (Income:7.5% under $20,000; 30.0% $20,000-49,999; 45.2%
$50,000 or more)
3. Taylor (1999) Harris Poll #76 Random probability telephone survey of
2000 or more adults conducted in October through December 1999. (Age:
28% under 30; 50% 30-49; 20% 50 or older)
4. MediaMark Research Inc. (2000) CyberStats. http://
www.mediamark.com/. No information available on survey methods or
sample. (Income: 55.1% under $50,000; 44.9% $50,000 or more. Does
not include measures of race or ethnicity.)
5. US Census Bureau (1999) Statistical Abstract of the United States.

References
Binik, Y. M., K. Mah & S. Kiesler. (1999). Ethical issues in conducting sex
research on the Internet. Journal of Sex Research, 36, 82-91.
Bradley, N. (1999). Sampling for Internet surveys: An examination of respon-
dent selection for Internet research. International Journal of Market Re-
search, 41,387-395.
 Surfing for Sex: Studying Involuntary Celibacy Using the Internet 29

Coomber, R. (1997). Using the Internet for Survey Research. Sociological

Research On-line. [on-line] Available WWW URL http://www.socreson-
line.org.uk/socreson-line/2/2/2.html
CyberAtlas. (2000) The world's on-line populations. [on-line] Available WWW
URL. http://cyberatlas.Internet.com/big_picture/demographics/article/
0,1323,5911_151151,00.html
Dommeyer, C. J. & E. Moriarty. (2000). Comparing two forms of an e-mail
survey: Embedded vs. attached. International Journal of Market Research,
42, 39-50.
Donnelly, D., E. O. Burgess, S. Anderson, R. Curry & J. Dillard (2001). Involun-
tary celibacy: A life course analysis. Journal of Sex Research, 38, 159-169.
Hewson, C. M., D. Laurent & C. Vogel. (1996). Proper methodologies for
psychological and sociological studies conducted via the Internet.
Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 28, 186-191.
Kehoe, C., J. Pitkow, K. Sutton, G. Aggarwal & J. D. Rogers. (1999). Results of
the GVU's Tenth World Wide Web User Survey IOn-line] Available
WWWURL http://www.cc.gatech.edu/gvu/user_survey/survey. 1998-10/
tenthreport.html
MediaMark Research Inc. (2000). Internet access and usage, Percentage of
Adults, 18+. Cyberstats. [On-line] Available WWW URL http://
www.mediamark.com/cfdocs/MRI/cs_a.cfm
Mehta, R. & E. Sivadas. (1995). Comparing response rates and response con-
tent in mail versus electronic mail surveys. Journal of the Market Re-
search Society, 37, 429-439.
Nielsen//Netratings. (2000). Nielsen//Netratings announces first-ever multi-
country Internet audience measurement results. [On-line] Available WWW
URL http://nielsen_netratings.com/press_releases/pr 000504.htm.
Pew Internet and American Life Project. (2000). Tracking on-line life: How
women use the Internet to cultivate relationships with family and friends.
[On-line] Available WWW URL http://www.pewinternet.org
Schmidt, W. C. (1997). World-wide Web survey research: Benefits, potential
problems and solutions. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments and
Computers, 29, 274-279.
Sharf, B. E (1999). Beyond Netiquette: The ethics of doing naturalistic dis-
course research on the Internet. In S. Jones (Ed.) Doing Internet research:
Critical issues for examining the net (243-256). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Smith, C. B. (1997). Casting the net: Surveying an Internet population. Jour-
nal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 3(1) IOn-line]. Available
WWW URL http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol3/issuel/smith.html
Taylor, H. (1999). The Harris Poll # 76: On-line population growth surges to
56% of all adults. [On-line] Avaiable WWW URL http://
www.harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll
U.S. Census Bureau. (1999). Statistical Abstract of the United States. Wash-
ington, D.C.
U.S. Department of Commerce. (1999). Falling through the net: Defining the
digital divide. National Telecommunications and Information Adminis-
tration, 27 pages. [On-line] Available WWW URL http://ntia.doc.gov/
ntiahome/fttn99
30 Sexuality & Culture

Witte, J. C., L. M. Amaruso & R E. N. Howard. (2000). Research Methodol-

ogy: Method and representation in Internet-based survey tools--mobil-
ity, community and cultural identity in Survey 2000. Social Science
Computer Review, 18, 179-195.
Witmer, D. F., R. W. Colman & S. L. Katzman. (1999). From paper-pencil
to screen-and-keyboard: Toward a methodology for survey research on the
Internet" In S. Jones (Ed.) Doing Internet research: Critical issues for
examining the net (145-161). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.