PLANNING, PRODUCING AND DIRECTING

TELEVISION OUTSIDE BROADCASTS

by

PETER GREGORY BURNETT

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the

MASTER’S DEGREE IN TECHNOLGY

Motion Picture Production

in the

MOTION PICTURE ACADEMY

Tshwane University of Technology

Study leader: Mr JF Human

Co-study leader: Prof PH Roodt

August 2004
 ABSTRACT
The aim of this research is to open up the world of Outside Broadcasts; so that both
students of television and practitioners in the industry can gain insight into OB planning,
production and directing. There are no real ‘research results’; instead the researcher has
attempted to place on record what exists inside the heads of OB planners and crews the
world over, but has hardly been put on paper. It is not the definitive work on television
outside broadcasts, since that would stretch to many, many volumes; it is instead an
overview of this form of television production.

There are three main forms of television production, namely single camera, multi camera
studio and multi camera remote, also known as an Outside Broadcast. Television Outside
Broadcasts are watched by millions of people around the world every day and they
regularly draw the highest audiences of any form of television. Advertisers pay the
highest rates of any form of advertising for their commercials to appear in them, and they
are by far the biggest influence on the endorsements of sportsmen and women. Yet very
little has been written on how they are produced.

In Chapter 1 the researcher explains the type of research, and the context of the study. He
underlines the fact that there is a general paucity of writing and research on the subject of
television outside broadcasts, even though it is a highly specialised form of production;
and that his primary sources are interviews he has conducted amongst professionals, as
well as his own experience. This chapter further continues with a background to
television broadcasting in general, and specifically the growth of not only outside
broadcasts but also how this has influenced change in television viewer ship, revenues
and professional sports. Since outside broadcasts are such a niche area of television
production the researcher has also tried to give some idea of what it is like to crew on
these productions.

The second Chapter starts to delve into the facilities and equipment which is needed to
produce an event live on air. The reader is taken on a tour of an outside broadcast
compound, and the environment both inside and outside a typical OB van is put in
perspective. Explanation is given as to how signals are sent live from the production to
the viewer at home, and the needs of the production team are analysed and described.

Chapter 3 deals with the sources of the outside broadcast which are apparent to the
viewer at home; that is the pictures and sounds which make up the broadcast. Although
the visuals are primarily derived from cameras, the importance of other visuals such as
graphics and playback are also clarified. These visual sources are dealt with in detail,
especially where the equipment differs from other forms of television production, and
often are unique to, and developed specifically for, television OB’s. Similarly, audio
requirements for OB’s are detailed.

In Chapter 4 the process of planning coverage of an event is dealt with, and the approach
a director of the broadcast would take to implement their vision of the transmission. In
the second part of this chapter examples of specific sports are analysed, and the camera
placements for contemporary events are shown and their use explained.

The last chapter, Chapter 5, deals with what it is like to actually be in production, both
from a crewing and directing point of view. The rigging of the event beforehand is
covered, as well as the derigging afterwards. The focus of this chapter, however, is the
way a director should manage the broadcast, and how they would control the time they
are on air.
 EKSERP

Die doel van hierdie navorsing is om lig te werp op buite-uitsendings sodat beide
studente in televisie en professionele persone insig kan verkry in BU beplanning ,
produksie en regie. Die navorser het gepoog om dit wat in die koppe van die BU
beplanners en produksie spanne dwarsoor die wêreld aangaan, op rekord te plaas, maar
dit is nouliks verwesenlik. Dit is egter nie die beslissende werk op buite-
televisieuitsending nie, want dit sou strk oor baie volumes; dit is eerder ‘n oorsig van
hierdie televisie produksievorm.

Daar is drie hoofafdelings onder televisie-produksies, naamlik enkel-kamera, veeldoelige

kameraklankateljee en multi-afstandbeheer, ook bekend as ‘n buite-uitsending.
Buitetelevisie uitsendings word daagliks deur miljoene mense van dwarsoor die wêreld
gevolg en trek gereeld die grootste aantal kykers vanuit enige afdeling van televisie
uitsendings. Adverteerders is bereid om die hoogste tariewe vir advertensies te betaal om
sodoende in sulke handeluitsendings te verskyn en laasgenoemde het by uitstek die
grootste invloed op die ondersteuning van sportmense. Tog is daar min geskryf oor hoe
dit vervaardig word.

Die navorser verduidelik in hoofstuk een die soort navorsing en inhoud van die studie.
Hy beklemtoon die feit dat daar ‘n algemene gebrek aan beskrywing en navorsing van die
onderwerp van buitetelevisie uitsendings bestaan, alhoewel dit ‘n hoogs gespesialiseerde
vorm van produksie is; en dat sy primêre bronne uit onderhoude gevoer is, met
professionele persone sowel as uit sy eie ervaring. Hierdie hoofstuk volg verder met ‘n
agtergrond vir televisie uitsending in die algemeen en spesifiek die groei van nie net
buite-uitsending nie, maar ook hoe dit ‘n verandering teweeg gebring het in die kykers
getal, inkomste en professionele sport. Sedert buite-uitsendings so ‘n gesogte afdeling
van televisie produksie geword het, het die navorser dit ook instaat gestel om ‘n sekere
idee te vorm van hoe dit sou wees om in hierdie produksies op te tree.

Die tweede hoofstuk begin om in die fasiliteite en voorraad te delf wat benodig sou word
vir ‘n lewendige uitsending. Die leser word op ‘n toer van ‘n buite-uitsendingverbinding
geneem en die omgewing beide binne en buite van ‘n tipiese BU-wa, word binne
perspektief geplaas. ‘n Verduideliking word verskaf oor hoe seine lewendig uigesaai
word vanaf die produksie vir die kyker tuis en die behoeftes van die produksiespan word
ontleed en omskryf.

Hoofstuk drie behandel die bronne van die buite-uitsendings wat ooglopend vir die kyker
tuis is, dit wat die beeld en klank uitmaak vir ’n uitsending. Alhoewel visuele produk
grootendeels deur die kamera verkry word, word die belangrikheid van ander visuele
produkte soos grafiese effekte en terugspeel ook uiteengesit. Hierdie visuele bronne
word in detail behandel, in besonder waar toerusting verskil van produksie tot produksie,
en spesiaal ontwikkel is vir televisieBU’s. Eweneens word klank vereistes vir BU’s ook
gedetaileerd.
In hoofstuk vier word die proses van dekking en beplanning van ‘n byeenkoms behandel
en die benadering wat ‘n regisseur ten opsigte van die uitsending sou neem om die visie
van die transmissie toe te pas. In die tweede gedeelte van hierdie hoofstuk word
voorbeelde van spesifieke sport en die plaasing van kameras vir hedendaagse
byeenkomste en die gebruik daarvan te verduidelik.

In die laaste hoofstuk vyf, word die gevoel van ‘n werklike produksie ervaar, beide van
‘n deelnemende en ‘n aanwysende sieningspunt behandel. Die opstel van ’n gebeurtenis
word vooraf behandel, sowel as die afbreek daarvan. Die fokus van hierdie hoofstuk is
egter hoe die regisseur die uitsending behoort te bestuur en hoe hulle die lugtyd moet
beheer.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to:

• MNET Supersport, for arranging and allowing me access to their productions and
production schedules and plans, and to photograph the various aspects.

• Mr Louis van Sittert, Technical Manager: MNET Outside Broadcasts, for his
cooperation and willingness to answer my questions.

• Mr Steve Pickering, Project Manager for Minicam, for an interview and also
arranging for me to photograph setups on factory motorcycles.

• Mr Louis De Waal, Engineer in the Dept of Video Technology at DIT, but also
Broadcast Engineer and Vision Controller for all current International Outside
Broadcasts in South Africa; for his timeless patience in answering my many
questions, as well as for a few of the photographs which appear in this book.

• Mr Francois Human, my study leader in the Motion Picture Academy at the

Tshwane University of Technology.
 INDEX

PAGE

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER 2 OUTSIDE BROADCAST EQUIPMENT AND 8

FACILITIES

CHAPTER 3 THE VISUALS AND SOUNDS OF OUTSIDE 24

BROADCASTS

CHAPTER 4 PLANNING AND DIRECTING OUTSIDE 55

BROADCASTS

CHAPTER 5 PRODUCING AND DIRECTING OUTSIDE 118

BROACASTS

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION 131

BIBLIOGRAPHY 132
 LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

All photographs were captured by myself, except where otherwise credited. Likewise all
diagrams and illustrations were constructed by myself.

Page

FIGURE 1: A compact 4 camera OB van 8

FIGURE 2: Interior layout of a compact 4 camera OB van 9
FIGURE 3: Interior layout of a large 14 camera OB van 10
FIGURE 4: Photograph of a large 14 camera OB Van on site. 11
FIGURE 5: The Production Control area inside the OB van 12
FIGURE 6: The Vision Control area 13
FIGURE 7: The cable drums and patch bays at the rear of the van 14
FIGURE 8: The access stairs for crew and roof area for microwave links 15
FIGURE 9: Rear view of the Tender 16
FIGURE 10: The Generator outputs and Control Panel 17
FIGURE 11: The Earth Spike rigged with Grounding cables 18
FIGURE 12: The SNG vehicle with Uplink dish erected 19
FIGURE 13: Microwave links 20
FIGURE 14: A portable camera rigged with an Omni-directional link 21
(Photo courtesy of L De Waal)
FIGURE 15: A typical OB camera with a 55:1 zoom lens 26
FIGURE 16: An EFP camera 27
FIGURE 17: A hand held camera operating on the sidelines 28
FIGURE 18: A hand held camera with portable microwave link 29
FIGURE 19: The Steadicam components 30
FIGURE 20: The Jimmy Jib head 31
FIGURE 21: Wide shot of a Jimmy Jib 32
FIGURE 22: A Helicopter fitted with a Gyrocam system 33
FIGURE 23: Closeup of the Gyrocam pod 34
FIGURE 24: A Forward facing Racecam fitted to a factory motorcycle 35
FIGURE 25: Closeup of the same camera 35
FIGURE 26: The rearward facing camera under the fender 36
FIGURE 27: The Racecam Control area 37
FIGURE 28: A Stumpcam shown disassembled and in closeup 38
(Photo courtesy of L De Waal)
FIGURE 29: A Slomo Controller 39
FIGURE 30: A Super Slomo camera fitted with a 70:1 zoom lens 41
(Photo courtesy of L De Waal)
FIGURE 31: The Video Tape and Slomo area in the OB van 43
FIGURE 32: The Slomo Director’s area in the OB van 44
FIGURE 33: An Audio Assistant holding a Rifle mic 48
FIGURE 34: The graphic display of the Snickometer 49
FIGURE 35: The referees’ microphone and earpiece setup 50
FIGURE 36: The Lip Microphone 51
FIGURE 37: The Commentator’s Booth and Equipment 52
FIGURE 38: The Audio Mixing area in the OB van 53
FIGURE 39: The OB Compound 59
FIGURE 40: Determining the Master Shot height for tennis 63
FIGURE 41: The Master Shot height for Cricket 64
FIGURE 42: The Master Shot height for stadium sports such as Rugby 66
FIGURE 43: The Beauty Shot at Cricket 68
(Photo courtesy of L De Waal)
FIGURE 44: A typical Camera Scaffold 70
FIGURE 45: Cables flighted above Vehicle Access 71
FIGURE 46: Duckboards 72
FIGURE 47: Camera layout for Athletics – Track events 73
FIGURE 48: Camera layout for Boxing 77
FIGURE 49: Camera layout for Cricket 79
FIGURE 50: The Line/Run out Camera 83
(Photo courtesy of L De Waal)
FIGURE 51: Camera layout for Football (Soccer) 84
FIGURE 52: A Steadicam operating on the sidelines at football 86
(Photo courtesy of A Nel)
FIGURE 53: Master Shot, Follow Close up and Super Slomo 87
FIGURE 54: Camera layout for Golf (18th Hole) 89
FIGURE 55: A Scaffold at Sun City 91
(Photo courtesy of L De Waal)
FIGURE 56: Marathon Camera layout 93
FIGURE 57: Motor Racing camera layout 97
FIGURE 58: A Jimmy Jib 100
FIGURE 59: A Kerbcam 101
FIGURE 60: Camera layout for Rugby (Union) 103
FIGURE 61: Rugby Master shot 104
FIGURE 62: Hand held camera doing on field Interviews 105
FIGURE 63: The Corner camera at Rugby 106
FIGURE 64: Show Jumping camera layout 108
FIGURE 65: Swimming camera layout 112
FIGURE 66: Tennis camera layout 115
FIGURE 67: Unpacking to start the Rig 119
(Photo courtesy of L De Waal)
FIGURE 68: The Director briefing the crew 123
(Photo courtesy of L De Waal)
FIGURE 69: ‘Figure 8’ing’ a cable 130
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Television Outside Broadcasts are the type of television productions which are made
away from the television studio, in a way that several sources (including, but not limited
to, cameras) are mixed together to form a final finished product which generally does not
need editing or other forms of post production. Another way of describing this form of
television production is as a ‘Multi camera Remote’.

Technically the term ‘Outside Broadcast’ refers to those types of programme which are
mixed down and transmitted ‘live to air’. There is, however, a general consensus in the
industry that the term is also used to include those programmes which are recorded ‘live
to tape’, for broadcast at a later date. Since there are only very small differences in the
way each is planned or produced, this research will discuss them as one and the same.

1.1 Research problem

The purpose of this research is to provide a reference for industry professionals to use as
a basis for conceptualizing, planning and producing Outside Broadcasts. In addition,
students training in television production would find it useful. At present there is a
general paucity of books and reference works on the subject, and thus a definite need for
research of this type. It should be noted that in no way does this research produce the
definitive work on outside broadcasts, since it is such a vast area of production that it
would stretch to many volumes. Instead the intention is to provide a broad overview of
the subject.

1.2 Relevance of the research

Outside Broadcasts are significant for several reasons. On a global scale they regularly
draw the highest audiences of all forms of television production (Verna, 1987: 119). As
such they prompt the highest rates for advertising time in the television medium
(http://www.newswise.com/articles/view/502942.). In South Africa they are the single
biggest contributor to locally produced air time. Technological innovations in television
production regularly appear first in this form of production. They remain the one area of
local production where South Africa continues to be a world leader, or at least on par
with the rest of the globe.

1.3 Existing research

There is a scarcity of books and journals dealing specifically with this subject area. The
researcher has managed to source a few which cover parts of the topic he proposes to
write on, either as an overview as part of general textbook on television production, or
biased towards the influences of this form of media on culture, or dealing with live

1
television in general, or multi-camera production in general. The researcher has found
only one book which deals specifically with Directing Outside Broadcasts; and not only
is it outdated, but also it refers almost exclusively to one production, that of the Royal
wedding between the British Prince of Wales and Lady Diana Spencer.

There also seems very little available in Journals, or articles on the Internet; after
countless searches I came up with very few texts which were of value. A search via the
library electronic database also found no research of a similar nature. The main sources
of information come from practitioners in the field; it seems that the science of outside
broadcasting is handed down from one generation of workers to the next, largely by word
of mouth and observation.

1.4 Type of study

The research presented here is qualitative (Leedy, 2001: 105 - 106), and is and attempt to
shed light on a subject area which, although very much in the public eye, has had very
little explained about it. My most valuable source of information has been to interview
crew members of various Outside Broadcasting companies, and also to scrutinize the
Production Plans and Schedules they have produced, as well as analysing the various
broadcasts. Most of what I have written, however, comes from my own experience.

I am presently a lecturer in Television Production, in the Dept of Video Technology at

the Durban Institute of Technology (formed by the merger of Technikon Natal and ML
Sultan Technikon), and am also Head of this Department. One of the subject areas I am
responsible for is lecturing Outside Broadcast productions, in both theoretical and
practical aspects. My background to this is having been involved in the production of
OB’s for more than 30 years, starting as a Broadcast Engineer for the SABC in 1982.
Initially I was used in a Technical capacity, but soon went on to crew in a variety of roles,
including camera operations, videotape operations, audio mixing, vision mixing, vision
control and producing. I am still employed in some of these capacities for various
commercial programmes to this day. My main area of interest has however evolved into
Directing Outside Broadcasts, a role I undertake for commercial productions alongside
my lecturing responsibilities. I have directed both ‘live to tape’ and ‘live to air’
productions, in a wide variety of genres, from musical concerts to various sports; and
have won awards for some of these recordings. I have higher qualifications in both
Broadcast Engineering as well as Education. I am also a member of the Digital
Broadcasting Advisory Board, reporting to the Minister of Communication.

Since I remain involved in Outside Broadcasts, I have kept up to date with developments
in the industry. Even just watching a rugby match or motor race on television holds an
interest for me from a production aspect.

My own experience has thus been by far the largest source of information for this
research. I must also admit that having to teach the subject area for the last sixteen years
has gone a long way towards crystallizing my knowledge and experience into concrete
principles which can be explained and justified. What seems to be ‘common sense’ to

2
someone working for many years in the industry ultimately proves to be something they
have actually learnt; and this knowledge can be passed on to learners in the field. It is
worth noting that our department is the only Tertiary Institution in South Africa (and one
of the very few in the world) which has the capacity to teach Outside Broadcasting,
because we have an OB van which I designed and to a large extent built.

1.5 Purpose of Study

The aim of this study is exploratory (Mouton, 2001: 53 - 54), namely:

To develop a reference for both industry professionals, as well as students of
television production, working in the field of television Outside Broadcasts.

1.6 Delineation of research

I have attempted in this dissertation to provide information which would be valuable to

both newcomer and experienced crew member. The research begins with a short
Introduction into this form of production, then moves on to the Equipment and Facilities
common to OB’s. After that it will probe the Planning of productions of this sort in
general, and then look the Director’s treatment of specific examples of productions. It
ends with a general overview of what is involved in Rigging, Producing and Directing an
Outside Broadcast. The text will be supplemented wherever possible with photographs
and diagrams to explain particular notions or aspects.

The study does not cover aspects of production which can be resourced in typical
television production handbooks which are of a more general nature, but instead focuses
on those which are specific to Outside Broadcasts. So, for example in the section on
Planning I have chosen to leave out (for example) references to crew flight and hotel
bookings; even though they are a critical part of the planning in the context of this book
they are regarded as a ‘given’ – something any competent production secretary would
already understand and implement. Similarly there are no references to techniques for
camera or sound operations except where these are peculiar to OB’s; it is expected that
the operator entering the OB arena is already familiar with the essentials, and if not they
can be sourced in many other texts.

1.7 The Background and Context of Television Outside Broadcasting

Television was introduced to the viewing public in the 1950’s. At that time, before the
invention of videotape, all programming was transmitted ‘live’ from television studios; in
other words as the pictures were created they were simultaneously broadcast to air and
seen by the audience. Initially there was only one camera in the studio, but this soon
changed. Due to the nature of the television signal, and specifically the synchronising
pulses used to create this signal, it soon became possible to introduce more than one
camera, and synchronise all these cameras together. The outputs from these multiple
cameras were fed into a vision switching system, and a vision mixer operator chose
which camera they wished to be viewed on air simply by selecting it. This multi camera
ability proved to be one of the biggest advantages of television over the medium of film;

3
you no longer had to shoot a particular scene from different angles with a single camera
and then edit it together, you could now cover the scene with more than one camera and
the ‘editing’ occurred as you switched between them.

Programmes were still produced live to air, though. So, although there is an immediacy
with television not possible with film, there are also inherent problems. The greatest
problem associated with live television is that there are no second chances; any mistakes
which creep into the production are immediately seen on air. Now, any practitioner of the
art of motion picture production (be it film or television) will tell you that mistakes do not
only occur, they occur very easily and regularly. There is no fail safe method of
nullifying problems which may occur; all we can do is try and minimize them by careful
planning and rehearsal beforehand (Verna, 1987: 96). In film, if mistakes happen, we can
more often than not reshoot the scene, and use this take in the edit afterwards whilst we
discard the ‘mistake’ to the cutting room floor. Notwithstanding the above, well
rehearsed studio based live television still plays an important role in programme making.

It was only with the invention of video recording that pre recorded programme making
became possible. In the early days of video recorders, however, they were confined to the
studio because of their bulkiness; and it was not possible to edit with them, because
technologically they were fairly primitive compared to those available today. What was
possible though was the ability to record a programme, and, if a mistake happened during
the recording, to re-record it. Television production had taken a step closer to the way in
which films were made. There are three broad categories used to describe the production
process in television. The first of these is the process described above, and is
understandably described as making Studio programmes. Examples of these types of
programmes include News presentations, Game Shows, Talk Shows and Soap Opera.

Video recorders slowly made more and more technological advances. They developed the
ability to freeze frames of information, preview or review the pictures during spooling,
play in slow motion or even reverse motion, and probably most important of all (in light
of the above), to edit. While this was happening they, together with television cameras,
got smaller and smaller, until they became portable. Now, television programme making
could move totally towards the way film making happened.

A single camera could be used in a remote location, away from the studio. The scene
could be shot (and reshot if necessary) from a variety of angles and edited together to
produce a story at a later stage. The approach taken to producing these stories was closely
allied to the way film had been produced for many years. The story is conceptualized and
researched, locations and actors are found and cast, the crew shoot the various scenes
from different angles according to the Director’s instructions, and then finally the
programme is finished off in editing and post production. Single camera shoots such as
these are the second broad category of television production, and are known as Electronic
News Gathering (ENG) shoots. The designation is given because the way of shooting
arose out of what was originally news crews working on location using a single camera,
and is therefore somewhat confusing but nonetheless applicable to other productions
where the source material is gathered using an individual camera. Examples, besides

4
news reporting, could be Documentaries, Music Videos, Commercials, Inserts and so
forth. More often than not they are shot and sourced away from the studio, on location.

The feature common to both of the above methods of production is the amount of control
one is able to exercise over the production process. The environment is controlled from
the point of lighting, cameras, sound, action, script and so forth. The actual recording of
the material is controlled, with retakes if necessary; and the content is controlled with
editing and scripting in most cases. The results, generally speaking, are slick and,
hopefully, riveting.

The two production methods mentioned so far are by far the most common ways of
making television programmes. They generally have the biggest budgets for producing
them, and take the longest time to make; compared to the amount of ‘air time’ they are
flighted for. They are the best known forms of production, from both an industry and
public point of view; and are also greatly emphasised when teaching takes place in
television schools. One would thus assume that they hold strategic importance in
programming.

If you asked a member of the public what their favourite television programme was they
would probably mention a title which fell into one of the above two categories, such as a
documentary or perhaps a sitcom or soapie. Surprisingly, however, you will find that the
type of television production which consistently collectively draws the highest audiences
worldwide do not fall into either of the first two categories. You will also be surprised to
learn that this third type of television production does not exercise the control over the
final product that the first two do. The location and environment is not controllable, and
the ‘script’ and action is most often totally unrehearsed. This is the world of ‘Outside
Broadcasts’ and it is the third broad category of television production.

Outside Broadcasts, or just ‘OB’s’, as they are commonly referred to, are multi camera
productions which cover events in the public realm, such as Sports, Pageants, Political
Rallies, Religious services and so forth. These events are not staged for television, unlike
Studio based programming or ENG type dramas. They are staged for the public, and
covered by television for the viewing audience at home (although often their major
income is derived from the selling of the television rights for this coverage). By far the
major contributor of OB airtime is sporting events, and because of this most of the
information presented in this book will refer mainly to this genre. In some countries, such
as South Africa, the largest contributor of locally produced airtime comes from outside
broadcasting. Outside Broadcast coverage of sporting events regularly draws the highest
audience measurements, with the World Cup Football Final in France 1998 holding the
number one spot of all time, 1.8 billion viewers. I have read reports which suggest the
funeral procession of Princess Diana was watched by more than 2 billion viewers
(http://whvfiles.org/048grief/main1.html), but other reports, for example by the BBC
(http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/tv_and_radio/1921737.stm) seem to dispute
this. Significantly though, it too was an outside broadcast. In America, which has the
greatest number of TV sets per capita in the world, and also the greatest number of
viewers of any country, the Gridiron final ‘the Superbowl’ has consistently attracted the

5
largest TV audience year after year since it was first televised in the early 1960’s.
Consequently, advertising rates during these events are also the highest for any form of
television (http://www.newswise.com/articles/view/502942).

It would seem that the intense television audience interest in these events is because of
the event itself, but very often this is not the case. In fact, the television coverage has
transformed the way many of the games are played, the huge revenues generated and, by
and large, the way they have become professional (Whannel, 1992: 73). Some sports,
such as Badminton and Squash, have failed to break into the ‘major leagues’ of
professionalism simply because they are not conducive to being watched on television;
even though they have large numbers of participants.

It would be naïve to assume that because an event is successful it is a simple matter to

cover for television. This is simply not the case. The object of television is not, and never
will be, to replace the experience of ‘sitting in the stadium’. It can never achieve this.
Instead it has to add to the experience for the viewer at home, in ways that those at the
stadium could not experience. There are many techniques employed to achieve this,
which will be discussed in this book. Some of them are so successful that the stadiums
themselves have integrated large screen TV’s, so that the crowds can have the television
experience while they are at the game (Whannel, 1992: 98). Similarly, television replays
of sections of the game are used by referees to decide on the outcome of the game. What
began as simply ‘an outsider (camera) looking in’ has now become an integral part of the
event itself.

There are two forms of outside broadcasts. The most well known are those which are
produced for ‘Live’ transmission to air. The other kind is produced ‘Live to tape’, that is
recorded onto video tape for transmission at a later date. Whist both are equally difficult
from a planning and production point of view the former is psychologically more taxing
because of the knowledge that millions, possibly billions, are watching your every move
as the event unfolds. Sustaining the levels of concentration required for a short studio
news broadcast live is easy; doing the same for a day long cricket match, or worse, a four
day golf tournament is quite literally a different ball game altogether. OB’s are not easy,
neither on the mind or the body.

OB’s are not easy on the equipment either. The bottom line is that electronic equipment
prefers stable environments. A television camera is far more reliable if confined to the air
conditioned environment of the studio floor, than if exposed to the rigours of the
outdoors, as happens with OB cameras. One day it may be working in searing heat, the
next it could quite easily be out in the rain or worse. The studio camera stays assembled
day in and day out; the OB camera gets rigged and assembled, and derigged and
disassembled day by day. The world of OB’s is as true a test of equipment reliability as
you are likely to find (De Waal, 2003).

There are many positives though, to working in the outside broadcast environment. There
is a camaraderie which exists between the crew which is not easily found in other forms
of production. There is the variety of experiences which comes with working in new

6
locations and places every day. There is what can only be described as an adrenalin rush
of being live on air. And last, but by no means least, there is the inner satisfaction that
comes from knowing that, although you are from the most overlooked aspect of
television production, you really have no equal when the audience count starts. My
intention with this dissertation is to give you some idea of the factors which contribute to
a successful outside broadcast, and inspire you to join that elite group of people who
produce them.

7
 CHAPTER 2

OUTSIDE BROADCAST EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES

Before we begin to examine how to go about producing outside broadcasts, we need to

know what facilities we have available to us. This chapter will deal with the equipment
used, and the technical aspects of producing these programmes.

Technologically, Outside Broadcasts have always stretched the envelope of television

production, and they continue to do so. Tried and trusted technologies are often used side
by side with newer, more creative ones. Even proven technologies find the rigors of
outside broadcasting demanding. Using new technologies in the OB environment is often
a baptism of fire. The variety and combination of equipment is never the same, whether
that be between different production companies, or between different productions
performed by one company. It would take volumes to describe all the possibilities, so this
chapter will deal with the most significant and common facilities.

2.1 THE OUTSIDE BROADCAST VEHICLE

If an Outside Broadcast setup can be likened to a spoked wheel, then the Outside
Broadcast vehicle (which we shall from now on refer to as the ‘OB Van’) is the hub of
that wheel; with all the ancillary equipment radiating out from that hub like the spokes in
the wheel.

OB vans come in a huge variety of shapes and sizes, from small minibuses to huge 18
wheeler behemoths. Whatever their size though, they are both the heart and the nerve
centre of the entire production. A simplistic approach to the size of an OB van is how
many cameras it has, but as we shall see later this is not nearly accurate. However, a
‘small’ OB van could be considered to be a 3 or 4 camera facility, while a ‘large’ one will
support 12 or more cameras.

Figure 1: A compact 4 camera OB Van

8
Whatever their size though, most vans
tend to have the same configuration as the
production and technical areas in a typical CAB
TV studio. That is, they will (at least) have
a Production/Directing area, a Vision
EQUIPMENT
Engineering area, an Audio Engineering RACK
area and some sort of Videotape

PRODUCTION SECRETARY
Operations area. Figures 2 and 3 give

CAPTION OPERATOR /
some idea of typical layouts for both small
CONTROL
and large vans. The most obvious DESK

VISION MIXER
difference is the fact that in the large OB

DIRECTOR /
van the areas mentioned above are all
separate and sectionalized, whilst in the
small van all the areas are combined into a
communal control room.

Constructing an OB van usually follows

three phases. The first is to decide,
(obviously within budget constraints) what
VISION CONTROLLER /
facilities the van should be able to offer. VT OPERATOR
The next is the actual design of the van,
and the third stage is implementing the
design. Usually a smaller OB van is
designed around an existing ‘off the shelf’
vehicle, which is then fitted out with the SOUND MIXER

equipment and facilities you desire. Large

OB vans are normally articulated vehicles,
and are usually purpose built from the CABLE DRUMS
& AIRCON UNIT
ground up, and then hitched to a ‘horse’ to
be delivered from one location to the next.

Designers of OB vans will tell you that the

single biggest factor to take into
consideration is space – every cubic
centimeter of space is critical (Van Sittert,
2002). A lot of time is spent deciding just
how to fit all the necessary equipment and personnel
into the space available, and many ingenious solutions Figure 2: Interior layout of a
have been incorporated over the years. One of the most
common in recent times is to use ‘expanding’ vans. Compact 4 camera OB Van
When the unit is being transported it occupies the same
‘footprint’ on the road as a typical articulated vehicle, but once it is installed on location
the sides of the vehicle expand outwards, so that the interior space is almost doubled. The
accompanying diagrams and photographs on the following page illustrate this concept.

9
As a crew member working inside
the van, your position in the
CAB
hierarchy of television production CONTROL
DESK
will normally determine how much
space you have around you.
Executive producers and directors EQUIPMENT
are usually afforded the most elbow RACK
AIRCONDITIONER UNITS
room, whilst those lower down the
food chain get less room in which to
operate. Whatever your position

SOUND ASSISTANT
though, you will always find that

SOUND MIXER
space inside the van is limited. This
is one of the ironies of Outside
EXPANDS ON EXPANDS ON
Broadcasts – the crew outside the SITE SITE
van is working in the great outdoors,
while those inside the van are CAPTION
working within tight confines. OB OPERATOR

vans are definitely not for the

claustrophobic! EXECUTIVE
VISION MIXER
PRODUCER

A major factor to consider is

SLO MO
ergonomics. The crew can often DIRECTOR
DIRECTOR
spend many hours at a stretch inside
the vehicle, and each workstation PRODUCTION
must be designed with this in mind. SECRETARY

It is no good having to crane your

neck to observe an important SLO MO HIGHLIGHTS
monitor, for example, because after OPERATOR EDITOR

the first hour of production you will SLO MO

have such a sore neck that you will OPERATOR SLO MO
OPERATOR
be unable to work effectively. Each
SLO MO
job inside the van needs to be OPERATOR
carefully analysed during the design
stage, to ensure comfortable working POWER
RETRACTS VT RETRACTS
conditions. When you are live on air IN OPERATOR IN
TRANSIT
to potentially billions of viewers, TRANSIT

your mind needs to be on the job at

CONTROLLER

CONTROLLER

CONTROLLER
CONTROLLER

hand, and likewise your hands need

VISION

VISION

VISION
VISION

to be (comfortably) on the job.

The environment inside the van also

has to be carefully considered. There
are several factors to take into account
here. The first is that the vehicle must be Figure 3: Interior layout of a large 14 camera OB
stable and level. To achieve this, the van with expanding sides
vehicle is supported on jacks once it is in

10
place at the location, so that the load is taken off the suspension. This limits any rolling or
yawing of the chassis as crew move around inside. When the jacks are deployed, they can
also be used to level the vehicle. On smaller vehicles the jacks are manually adjusted
until this is achieved; but on larger ones they are hydraulically controlled. Engaging a
switch on a control panel inside the van deploys the jacks, which then automatically
adjust until the vehicle is both stable and level. When the jacks are extended they
immobilize the vehicles ignition, so that it cannot be driven until they are fully retracted.

Figure 4: A large 14 camera OB van. Note the expanding sides to the trailer.

The second environmental factor to consider is sound. The production area is totally
soundproofed from the world outside, so that no extraneous noise can interfere with
communications inside the vehicle. In a sectionalized van, with more than one production
area, each area is acoustically isolated from those next to it. So, for example, the audio
engineer can monitor his/her sound at a level which suits them, without interfering with
personnel in other areas. Areas which still need visual contact with each other are
acoustically isolated by means of double glazed glass windows.

The climate inside needs to be carefully controlled as well; so that the crew is kept
comfortable. In colder climes, such as Europe, this involves heating the interior; whilst in
the subtropics a substantial air conditioning system is necessary. The first OB posting I
ever had was in Durban, one of the hottest and most humid parts of South Africa. We
commissioned a vehicle built by a reputable company in the UK. They had many years
experience building vans for the European market, but in those days television was still in

11
its infancy in South Africa. The van arrived with a climate control panel which proudly
displayed a switch with five positions, namely ‘Heat 1, Heat 2, Heat 3 and Heat 4’, and
then lastly ‘Cool 1’!. Needless to say, the crew all lost several kilograms over the next
few months, until the air conditioning was upgraded to be able to cope with 30° C plus
summers.

Figure 5: The Production Control area of the van shown in Fig 4.

Air conditioning is critical in OB vans, and it needs to be very reliable. A faulty aircon
unit can quickly lead to sweltering, unbearable and nauseating working conditions within
a confined and sealed area. Modern vans choose to use ‘chilled water’ systems which use
a lower water pressure than the equivalent high pressure Freon gas systems found most
commonly in domestic or industrial aircon plants (Van Sittert, L. 2002). These lower
pressures result in less faults arising from connections or piping which are exposed to the
flexing which comes from constantly rigging and derigging the vehicle than the
equivalent high pressure gas system. Obviously the mechanics of the plant and delivery
of the cool (or in colder climates warm) air to the crew should be silent as well, so as not
to intrude on communications within the production areas.

Illumination and lighting in the production areas is also carefully controlled. The overall
light levels are dim, but not dark, much as you would expect conditions for the viewer at
home to be watching the programme under. All extraneous light from outside the vehicle
is excluded by means of light tight shutters over any windows which may exist. Brighter
illumination inside the production areas is directed, and limited, to those parts of the

12
production desks where scripts need to be followed, or equipment operated. None of this
brighter illumination is allowed to ‘spill’ onto adjacent picture monitors or equipment.
Obviously there is also emergency lighting available, which is powered by backup
battery systems, in case the main power fails.

Figure 6: The Vision Control area.

This dim environment takes a while for your eyes to adjust to, but once adjusted they
cope very well. However, bright light entering from outside can greatly upset the balance,
such as when opening a door into the production area. The iris in the eye closes, and then
when the door is closed again, takes a while to readjust to the dim interior. All this while
you are concentrating on picture monitors in the knowledge that you are live on air. The
absolute worst, and something which will earn the perpetrator many a hairy eyeball, is to
stand in an open doorway in the middle of production. Never do this. If you absolutely
have to enter or exit the vehicle during production, do it as quickly, and quietly, as
possible.

2.2 OUTSIDE THE OB VAN

We will revisit the various areas inside the OB unit in a later section when we examine
the roles of the crew who are working in each section. In the meantime let’s step outside

13
and take a walk around the outside of an OB van which has been rigged for production.
Obviously, depending on the size of the vehicle and the facilities it can provide, what we
see will differ from one to the next. All of the different vehicles will, however, exhibit the
following sections, albeit on different scales.

The first thing you will notice is the number of panels and hatches around the exterior of
the van, some open and others closed. These hatches and panels service a variety of
needs. Some will seldom be opened, such as those used by engineers to service the wiring
side of equipment racks. Others are used to close storage facilities for cable drums and
other equipment. Louvered panels prevent rain from entering aircon plants, while
allowing intake and exhaust air for these plants to pass. The most significant set though,
are reserved for that part of the vehicle where a wide variety of cables run from the OB
van to all the ancillary equipment used on the production. Generally speaking, there is
usually only one such interconnecting area, but sometimes there may be two in different
parts of the vehicle. Traditionally though, you will find this happening at the rear of the
vehicle.

Figure 7: The cable drums and interconnection patch bays at the rear of
the vehicle

If it is raining these doors may be closed, and all you will see is a large number of cables
exiting through a small flap at the bottom of one of the doors. Swing the doors open
though and you will probably be confronted with a maze of cables and cable drums. This

14
area is the interface between the production areas inside the van, and the cameras,
microphones, commentators, satellite and microwave links, communications and power
for the vehicle. It will even sometimes be used to interconnect more than one vehicle to
another on really large productions.

Dominating this part of the vehicle are

the cable drums for the camera cables.
There will be at least one for each
camera, individually holding between
100 and 300 metres of cable. For
longer rigs, more drums of cable are
serially connected to achieve distances
which can sometimes be measured in
kilometers. These drums can either be
rolled up manually, or there could be a
motorized system of operating them.
The one end of the cable connects into
a multi pin panel mount connector on
the bulkhead, whilst the other
obviously connects into the camera.

On larger vans the floor of the

production area is usually raised above
the wheel arches, and retractable stairs
fold out from the base of the vehicle to
provide access for the crew into the
vehicle. A ladder up the side of the van
allows one to climb onto the roof of
the vehicle. Once on top you will see
that this is a convenient place to mount Figure 8: View of the OB van showing
microwave dishes, satellite dishes, off- access stairs and roof area with microwave
air antennae and other communications links.
equipment. This roof area can also be
used as a camera platform if needed, in which case it will normally have a safety rail
which surrounds it. This safety rail folds down in transit.

2.3 OTHER VEHICLES

As you continue your walk in the area, you will have noticed that in all probability there
is more than one vehicle, although none as dominating as the production unit, which
incidentally is known in many countries as the ‘Scanner’. Most often you will find at
least two other vehicles, although on very large productions there may be many more,
with several production units linked together to provide the extra facilities needed. At this
stage, however, let’s look at the two ‘support’ vehicles.

15
The first of these is called
the ‘Tender’, and it is used
for transporting the
equipment needed on the
OB. At the back you will
find a lifting platform, used
for raising the equipment
up to the bed of the truck
when loading, or lowering
it when unloading. In the
back of the Tender you will
find rows of shelves and
hatches for stowing
equipment. Often these
shelves are custom
designed for the equipment,
such as cameras, tripods
and other units, to fit
exactly into; thereby
guaranteeing their safe
transit. Often cargo nets are
secured over the equipment
once it has been packed.

The next vehicle you will

more than likely come Figure 9: Rear view of the Tender, showing custom built
across is the ‘Generator’, storage bays and loading elevator.
more affectionately known
as the ‘Gennie’. This vehicle is responsible for producing power for the main OB unit,
and has a diesel generator inside it. It will not always be present because there are times,
especially at venues which are designed to accommodate television broadcasts such a
large stadia, when the power might be supplied by the venue; in which case it is
designated ‘Local power’, or colloquially ‘House power’.

Most OB units run off 3-Phase power (abbreviation: 3Ø). So the diesel generator in the
back of the Gennie will need to be a 3-Phase generator, able to supply at least enough
power for the main OB unit. In practice, however, these generators can usually supply
much more, so that extra equipment such as any television lighting you may need for the
venue can also be powered off the same source. The OB unit and the Gennie are
connected together with high amperage 3-Phase cables and connectors, known by their
trade name as ‘Marachel’ connectors.

Television (and film for that matter) generators are not your average ‘off the shelf’ type
that you would normally encounter, they are highly specialized and designed specifically
for the purpose. There are several considerations to take into account.

16
The first of these is that the generator runs completely silently, to the extent that there are
only visual clues such as the readings on gauges or exiting exhaust fumes to reveal the
fact that it is operating. Now, anyone with experience with typical diesel motors or
generators will tell you that they are usually very noisy, so it is no mean feat of
engineering to quieten them to the extent needed. Extensive use is made of sound
absorbing materials and systems of baffles (since there still has to be a through flow of
air) during their design and construction. This can only really be appreciated by opening
maintenance hatches to the motor whist it is running (but definitely not while you are
recording) to realize just how loud it is inside the motor cavity.

The second
consideration for
television
generators is that
TV equipment
likes very stable
power sources.
This is especially
true when large
amounts of
equipment (such
as inside the OB
unit) is
interlinked. This
amounts to
keeping strict
control over both
the voltage and
the frequency of
the Alternating
Current (AC)
supplied by the
generator. Highly Figure 10: The Generator output cables, control panel and power
efficient monitoring meters.
regulators are
used to keep the voltage constant (i.e. at exactly 110 or 220 volts, depending on what part
of the world you are in), and fairly complex servo systems are incorporated so that
varying loads do not affect the speed of the generator, and thus the 50Hz frequency. More
specialized generators even have a facility to be ‘Phase locked’, so that two or more
generators can be linked together on really big productions which require large amounts
of power, and they will supply an AC voltage which is not only the exact same
frequency, but whose phases are also ‘in step’ (van Sittert, 2002). Some broadcasters
insist that, even if you are using stadium power, the gennie remains idling and phase
locked to the local power, so that if the stadium were to suddenly have a power failure,
the generator can immediately kick in, and the transmission still continues without any
break (Dorna; 2004: 37).

17
An extremely important aspect of supplying
power is the fact that the main OB unit and the
Generator (and any other vehicles requiring
power) are correctly ‘Earthed’ or ‘Grounded’.
There are two reasons for this, and the first is
probably immediately obvious – both vehicles
must share the same ground. The second is not
as obvious but in fact has far greater importance;
it is for the protection of the crew in the event of
the vehicle or any technical equipment such as
cameras or microwave transmitters being hit by
lightning. To properly ground the vehicle/s, a
large copper rod known as an ‘Earth Spike’ is
hammered at least one metre into the ground
close to the vehicles. Then thick copper cabling
is run from the chassis of each vehicle on the
production and connected to this earth spike
using large capacity electrical clamps. It is
imperative that this is properly done from a
safety aspect. I have personally met a sound
assistant who, when working on a wet rugby
field, had the soles of both feet burnt completely
off because there was a lightning strike and the
easiest way for it to get to ground was via the
microphone he was operating; rather than via the
earth spike which in that case was improperly
rigged. He was lucky to survive with his life, the
results could quite easily have been far worse. Figure 11: The Earth Spike with
grounding cables connected.

2.4 THE ‘LINKS’

As you continue to walk around the site, you may notice other vehicles which are part of
the production, especially if you are going out live on air or it is a large scale production.
The first of these is the satellite ‘Uplink’ vehicle, and can easily be identified by the large
satellite dish which is either on the roof of the vehicle or right next to it. The uplink
vehicle is often referred to as the SNG (from Satellite News Gathering) vehicle, even
though its purpose is not solely for news stories, it includes any form of Remote
production.

18
 Figure 12: The SNG vehicle with Uplink erected.

The satellite uplink transmits the production output signal on the Ku band to a satellite
positioned in a geosynchronous orbit above the earth, which in turn sends this signal back
down to a receiving dish positioned at the main broadcasting centre (Zettl,H. 1997: 525).
From there it is redistributed, again via satellite in all probability, to the various
transmission centres around the country or even around the world. It is not the intention
of this work to describe the effect that the introduction of satellite distribution has had on
the way television stories and events are seen around the world virtually instantaneously,
suffice to say they are revolutionary.

Further observations at the OB site will often reveal other dishes, similar in shape to the
parabolic reflectors of the satellite transmission dish but smaller and orientated almost
level to the horizon, rather than vertically as in the case of the satellite dish. These are the
Microwave links which are also used for the transmission of video and audio. They
operate in pairs, each with one Transmitter and one Receiver, in the 24 to 41GHz
frequency range. They are portable and mounted on tripods, usually on top of the OB van
or scaffolding nearby. Once set up the tripod head is locked to prevent it moving out of
alignment, with the tripod weighted or secured to stop wind from changing the
orientation. Due to the parabolic shape if the dish the link is very directional, and also

19
needs an unobstructed ‘line of sight’ to correctly send or receive the signal; any
obstructions such as buildings or trees will lead to breakup of the signal (Zettl,H. 1997:
524).

Before the days of satellite

systems microwave links
provided the only way of
transmitting live from a
remote location. The
programme audio and video
was relayed via microwave
from the location to the
nearest point where it could
be injected into the national
telecommunications grid, or
if it was convenient enough
to the broadcasting centre. As
a rigger, you were lucky if
you could achieve this with a
‘Single Hop’ system; that is
needing only one pair of
Transmitter / Receiver. More
often than not this was not
possible, especially in urban
environments where tall
buildings would obstruct the
line of site. In cases such as
these a ‘Double Hop’ (or
more) would be deemed Figure 13: Microwave links.
necessary. Here the initial
transmission from the remote
site is sent to an intermediate ‘Transceiver’ site which is often the tallest building in the
vicinity, and from there on re transmitted using the second hop to the broadcasting centre.

Nowadays, with satellite, the use of microwaves for this purpose is declining; mainly
because of the problems and time involved with rigging multiple hop links. However,
they are still used to a large extent within the OB itself. If the OB consists of various
vehicles at different locations, a microwave link will connect each vehicle to the Master
Control unit. In situations where the cable rig for a camera is unfeasible, perhaps because
the camera is very far away from the OB van, then a link can be used to get its pictures
back to the van. In such instances it is common to use directional links (with parabolic
reflectors) if both ends of the line are in static positions.

20
There are also omni-directional microwave systems, and these are gaining increased
popularity because of the convenience they give to roving or moving cameras. Often it is
impractical to have camera cables running to a roving camera, such as a hand held
camera working on the sidelines or in the middle of a sports field. At other times it is
totally impossible to rig cables, for example a camera mounted inside a motor vehicle
traveling round a racetrack.

In situations such as these, small battery

powered omni-directional microwave
transmitters are mounted on the back of
the camera or inside the motor car (or
any other moving camera carrying
platform). This transmits the camera
output to the OB van, sometimes via an
intermediary such as a helicopter which
hovers above the action. Links like these
have opened up all kinds of possibilities
for moving cameras with spectacular
results, for example by allowing the
viewer at home to be ‘the driver’ round
the racetrack.

Since these links are low powered and

also moving, they are more susceptible
to picture breakup because of
interference from bridges, trees and the
like than static mounted links. For this
reason it is common practice to insert a Figure 14: A portable camera rigged
frame storer between the link output and with an Omni-directional link
the OB van input. Now, should the (arrowed)
signal from the link be lost (even
momentarily) the last good frame of information is displayed, until the link reconnects
again. This is far more preferable than having the picture reduce to ‘snow’ each time the
link is lost, and is the reason the action may sometimes seem a bit stilted when being
watched. With modern digital links this is becoming less and less of a problem, because
of the error correction and redundancy inherent in digital transmission designs and
systems.

With careful pre production planning, it is possible to run several microwave links
alongside each other without any cross modulation of the signals. There are two ways to
achieve this. The first is to assign each link to a different frequency, so that the receiver is
tuned to a specific transmitter, and does not respond to other transmitters. The second
way is to polarize the link. Extending out of the front of the parabolic dish on the
transmitter or receiver is the microwave ‘waveguide’, and this waveguide can be attached
in two positions – horizontally polarized or vertically polarized. A vertically polarized
link can only receive vertically polarized transmissions, and similarly for horizontal

21
polarizations. So you can have two links operating side by side with the same frequency,
but if they are differently polarized they will exhibit no interference or cross modulation.

2.5 COMMUNICATIONS

The audio crew who are directly concerned about the quality of the sound being
transmitted or recorded pay close attention to it, but the rest of the crew at the OB have
far less interest in this aspect of the show. This is not to say that they are not aurally
stimulated, far from it in fact; because what they hear in their ears is probably the most
important aspect of a successful broadcast - the communications that take place between
the various personnel. Good communication is undoubtedly the most vital aspect of any
successful outside broadcast.

Communications equipment for television, and especially OB’s, is highly specialized and
often very complex. The system needs to be adaptable, to suit a variety of production
types and crew configurations. On big productions a separate team of engineers is often
assigned to this aspect of the production alone, to program, check and administer the
communications for that particular production.

As with the video system (see Chapter 4) on the OB unit the heart of the communications
system is a matrix, except that instead of a video matrix it is in this case an audio matrix.
This matrix allows sources of communications to be assigned to various communication
destinations. The configuration of this matrix can be different for each production,
depending on the facilities required; but generally the basic configuration for various
technical areas, cameras and the like stays the same from one production to the next, and
only extra or unusual facilities programmed in for a particular shoot. On really big
productions, such as those which require more than one OB unit, the matrices from each
unit will intertwine with each other.

The type of communications equipment which each member of the production team will
use depends on their function and role in the crew. The Director (or Executive Director,
as the case may be) is usually at the core of the communications system; information
tends to devolve outwards from them and filter back to them more than anyone else on
the crew. They are provided with a ‘Base Station’ communications console which has
keys on it used for accessing the various personnel, and facilities for listening to their
replies. Usually there is a loudspeaker on the base station for listening, and a gooseneck
microphone for speaking; although some directors prefer to use a microphone attached to
a headset because this allows them to scan and move their head quite a bit without going
‘off mic’ as might happen with a fixed microphone such as the gooseneck.

Most other personnel inside the OB unit such as Vision, VT, and Audio have similar
consoles, albeit configured via the matrix for their own particular requirements. Similarly
other areas where personnel work at production desks, such as Racecam control, would
have the same type of communications console.

22
If you are operating a camera however, you merely have a headset which consists of
earphone/s and a microphone on a small boom in front of your mouth. This headset plugs
into the camera body, and near this connection will be a few controls for adjusting your
communications. There will be two potentiometers, one adjusts the levels of the
instructions you are being given, and the other the level of the programme (i.e.
transmission) sound. You can configure your headset so that you hear programme sound
in one ear, and communications in the other (De Waal, 2003). This is useful so that you
can react to what the commentators are saying – if they mention a particular player in
their commentary you can frame up a shot of that player (as long as this doesn’t interfere
with higher priority instructions from the director). There will also be a switch which
allows you to turn your communications microphone on and off; ordinarily this is left in
the ‘off’ position to avoid live sound (such as the crowd, or wind noise) bleeding into the
communications (Zettl,H. 1997: 520). If you need to speak, switch the microphone on,
speak, and then switch it off once you are finished. Also, as with all multi camera
productions whether in the studio or at a remote location, there is a ‘Tally light’ inside
your viewfinder which lights up when your camera is ‘on air’. Strictly speaking this is not
part of the communications system but rather part of the vision mixer, but it is
nevertheless an important way of communicating to you your shots’ status.

If your camera is cabled to the OB van then the communications channel travels via this
cable. If, however, you are operating an RF camera you will need a communications
system which works via radio; and it needs to be a duplex system that can both send and
receive. Generally speaking this transceiver fits onto your belt, and your headset then
plugs into it. Usually RF cameras are of the hand held variety and so more than likely
your headset will be of the ‘single muff’ (i.e. one earpiece on the left hand side) as
opposed to the ‘dual muff’ common to fixed cameras; but this depends on the personal
preference of the operator. An RF Steadicam (see explanation of this term later) operator,
for example, would probably choose a dual muff headset.

The communications system will also allow other types of devices to be used. If you are
broadcasting live on air you will in all probability talk to the main transmission centre via
a telephone landline which is patched into the matrix via a telephone hybrid. Even
cellphones have their uses at times. Two way radios (‘walkie-talkies’) are also used, for
example by ‘Spotters’ on a golf course or at a marathon.

OB crews rely on communications systems which are reliable and clear. Without this the
production would not only be difficult, but well nigh impossible.

So far we have only looked at the environment in and around the OB van, but we have
not yet begun to look at the essence of outside broadcasts, and this is the visuals and
sounds which together make up the production.

23
 CHAPTER 3

THE VISUALS AND SOUNDS OF OUTSIDE BROADCASTS

3.1 THE PICTURES

In the early days of television Outside Broadcasts, the aim of the telecast was to place the
viewer at home in the ‘best seat in the stands’ for wherever the action at that particular
moment in time was occurring. This is no longer acceptable to an increasingly discerning
viewer, now the experience watching at home has to be collectively far better than
actually attending the event. As mentioned in the introduction, we are now at the stage
where stadiums erect large screens at the event, so that the crowd can experience what
they are missing if they had stayed home to watch the broadcast.

The reason behind this is because there is so much ‘dead time’ in different events such as
sports. In a survey done in the United States on baseball games it was found that the
average game lasted two and a half hours. Of this less than fifteen minutes could be
attributed to actual action during the game. Although some sports such as ice hockey and
football are not such serious offenders from this point of view, many sports such as
cricket and tennis are.

This is not such a problem if you are attending the event – the atmosphere at the event
fills in for the dead time you would be experiencing at home watching the television set.
So the outside broadcast Director has to find ways to fill in these inactive periods on the
field, aside from covering the play when it is active, for fear of losing the audience to
other channels which are more vibrant.

So when we consider the visuals which together make up the broadcast, we cannot rely
on camera angles alone, especially those which cover the action as ‘stock’ angles during
the action. These get supplemented with other visuals such as slow motion replays,
reverse angles and captioning or graphics with statistics of the sport, players and such
like. In some modern forms of the broadcast the viewer at home can even individually
choose which part of the play they prefer, and watch only that, whilst leaving the
standard transmission to less discerning types.

As we reflect on the visuals which are created to successfully cover a particular event we
will divide them into three categories, namely the cameras used, the prerecorded material
off either video tape or hard disc, and the graphics or captions which are provided as
further information. It should be noted that although we will discuss these in isolation at
this stage, most often they are used as combinations in any one visual. Also the
discussion at this point is only about the intrinsic qualities of the actual equipment, and
the positioning and implementation will be dealt with later.

24
3.1.1 CAMERAS.

No other form of television production comes close to the varieties of cameras used in
outside broadcasts, whether that be in size, complexity, specialty or the number used on
an individual production. In this section we will examine a variety of the most common,
and touch on the more specialized kinds. It is beyond the scope of this work to investigate
all the possibilities; that would form a book on its own.

It would be fruitless to look at the cameras only without considering their mountings as
well, since they form an integral part of the image the camera is creating. In some cases
there is no mounting, such as when a camera is being operated handheld, but at other
times the mountings are so ingenious as to render the camera worthless without them.

Technically cameras fall into two broad classifications, depending on the type of output
signal they supply to the outside broadcast system. The first kind has normal video
signals emanating from the cable at the rear of the camera (or whatever transmission
device such as a microwave is used). The second category of camera uses ‘Triax’ (from
Tri-axial) as the output signal. Triax is different from typical video in that it has
individual cables carrying three different signals, those being the three signals which
represent the primary colours used in television, namely Red, Green and Blue. Video on
the other hand is a signal which is the result of modulating and encoding these three
primaries, so that one signal carries information of all three primary colours. Without
going into too much technicality, triax is preferred over video because the signal losses
are not as great, and are much easier to electronically compensate for when long cable
runs, such as those used in OB’s, are implemented.

While on the subject of camera cables, it should be understood that whatever camera
cable is used, there is a multitude of other cables or electronic pulses running alongside
the main signal output of the camera, all enclosed into one multicore cable. The camera
needs power, synchronizing signals and control signals; and the operator needs
communications and tally information. These different bits of information can either be
carried on individual pairs of cable, or otherwise multiplexed onto a single pair. At the
end of the cable is a multipin connector which plugs into the camera.

There are other technical differences between cameras as well, but generally all cameras
on a particular OB unit will produce the same sort of electronic information for the
system. The two major differences to consider are whether the cameras are Digital or
Analogue; and then the aspect ratio of the picture they produce. Originally television was
displayed as a 4 X 3 (horizontal by vertical) aspect ratio, but more recently a 16 X 9 ratio
is becoming more popular and seems to be choice for the future.

Generally cameras and camera equipment designed for OB productions need to be sturdy
and robust because they operate outdoors; compared to their studio based cousins which
spend their lives in indoor temperature controlled comfort. There must be a way of
waterproofing them because in most sporting events ‘the show must go on’ even if there
is a torrential downpour. OB camera electronics must be designed to withstand greater

25
temperature extremes, and their innards guarded more against the vagaries of dust, salt
laden sea air and the like. They should be quick to assemble and dismantle, since they
spend their lives being taken out of, and put back into, their cases. And while on the
comparison with studio cameras, which get pampered with endless hours of technical
lineups, OB cameras need to be reliable and consistent in the pictures they produce, and
quick and easy to line up. There is seldom time for chip charts out in the field.

All this would seem to indicate that the OB camera is not as performance oriented as
other television cameras, but this is not the case. In many aspects they outperform all
others. Take zoom ratios for example. In a studio a 24:1 zoom is more than enough to be
able to frame from a long shot to a big close up. In OB’s 55:1 zooms are often the norm,
with lenses as long as 70:1 being utilised. To allow a sufficient depth of field at such
narrow lens angles, OB lenses employ huge front elements for maximum light transfer.
All this adds up to a lens which can easily weigh in at 20 kilogrammes or more.

The cameras referred to in the foregoing paragraph are those which normally get
mounted on some static mounting, such as a typical tripod. The accompanying
photograph gives an example of such a camera and tripod. There are other cameras
utilized on OB’s, but they will be dealt with later.

Figure 15: A typical OB camera, mounted on a tripod and fitted with a

55:1 zoom lens.

26
Long zoom lenses are a necessity on OB’s, because so much of the action takes place far
from where it is possible to erect the cameras (Zettl, H. 1997: 73). Take cricket, for
example. The nearest a camera can get to the batsmen is probably 100 metres away. To
be able to achieve a medium close up, your lens angle is in the order of ½ °.

Such extremely narrow lens angles have their disadvantages. Camera handling becomes
very difficult, because the smallest shake or judder of the camera is immediately
noticeable as large movements on screen. Many an innocent spectator looking for a
vantage point above the crowd has suffered the wrath of camera operators as they attempt
to find a seat on the camera scaffold. Windy conditions take their toll too. Try being
perched 50 metres above the ground on a cherry picker at a Scottish golfing
championship with the wind howling and the temperature in the minus degrees. Now try
and follow a small white golf ball against grey skies from half a kilometre away without
shaking the shot or losing the ball. OB camera operators are a different breed.
Incidentally, doing the above is probably easier for championship events because, as with
most sports, professional golfers are more predictable when it comes to where the ball
will travel to. Amateurs, on the other hand, only hope to hit the ball where it should go; in
actual fact it could go anywhere. So now try and do all the above when you have no idea
which direction the ball will take.

Ultra narrow lens angles have another disadvantage, and that is the compression of
objects spaced apart which seemed to get squashed closer together (Zettl,H. 1997: 87).
This foreshortening of distances within the scene means that certain well known
relationships take on new proportions. Take the previous example of the cricket match. A
cricket pitch is, wicket to wicket, 22 metres long. When viewed through the narrow OB
lens it appears to be no more than a few paces in length. Such incongruities abound in
sports telecasting, from the
baseball pitcher standing,
apparently, on top of the
batter; to the grand prix cars
traveling at 350 kilometres
per hour but only seemingly
going no faster than your
typical family saloon when
viewed head on (Zettl,H.
1997: 87).

Foreshortening is a necessary
evil which must be lived
with, and the viewing public
quickly adapts to its nuances.
The option of living with a
true perspective of space and
distance by using wider lens
angles is unthinkable, Figure 16: An EFP camera (see page 28).
because the cricket ball

27
would be too small to be seen, and the racing cars minute blobs of colour far in the
distance; to name just two examples. It should be noted that there is a place for wide lens
angles in OB’s, some extremely wide; but these are for specialized applications and will
be discussed later.

The cameras referred to so far form the backbone of OB productions. Operationally they
are little different from their studio cousins, except for one or two minor differences. The
viewfinder hood is generally longer; this allows the operator to place their face right up
against the viewfinder during operation, to exclude any bright sunshine which can easily
wash out the picture displayed on its screen. Communications systems can generally
deliver higher sound levels to earphones, to accommodate extremely loud environments
such as motor racing or
rock concerts. Pan and tilt
dampening on the tripods
usually allows a greater
range of adjustment
compared to studio
pedestals. At the low end
of the scale they can
provide almost
frictionless movement to
satisfy the need for quick,
sharp camera movements;
and at the other end of the
range they can be set to
large amounts of friction
to counteract windy
conditions. Studio
cameras typically also
have a shot box for
presetting focal lengths
and viewing angles
during rehearsal; this is
superfluous to the OB
camera and so is non
existent.

If a camera needs to be
mobile, those spoken
about previously are too
big and cumbersome.
There are basically two
versions of smaller
camera. The first is your Figure 17: A Hand held camera operating on the sidelines at
typical Electronic Field rugby.
Production (EFP) camera,

28
similar in size, shape and weight to a typical Electronic News Gathering (ENG) handheld
camera; and the second are the multitude of purpose built miniature cameras, which we
will deal with later. To decide which type we will use where, we must consider who
exactly will be operating or using it. If the camera is to be operated by someone from the
host broadcaster, then it will normally be the first type. If it is to be placed somewhere
where size and weight is an issue, such as on a racing motorcycle, then it is usually a
miniature version.

The simplest form of moving or roving camera is the hand held camera, where the
operator uses it on their shoulder. They are usually limited to shots which, once the
operator has reached the desired position, are fairly static. Examples of this may be along
the touchline of a soccer match, for shots of throw ins, and the ‘bench’ of managers,
coaches or replacement players. The can also be used for interviews before, during or
after the match. In areas where mobility is limited, and there is no danger attached to
where the camera cables are run they will be connected to the OB van by cable, and a
‘cable basher’ employed to mind the cable. Where these cables do pose a problem the
camera could be
fitted with an omni
directional
microwave link
back to the OB van.
The transmitter for
this link can either
be attached to the
body of the camera,
or held by a camera
assistant. An
example of this
could be in the pits
of a car racing
event, for covering
tyre changes and
refueling. Having
cables in a high
intensity area like
this is courting
disaster. An Figure 18: A hand held camera with a portable microwave link
example of these
cameras and their
concomitant links is shown in Figure18.

Humans are very good at getting a camera from one area of action to the next, but their
downfall is actually holding shots while on the move. Without wanting to downgrade the
efforts of many excellent handheld camera operators, some of whom display immense
skill and expertise in framing and developing shots which track with the action, the
bottom line is that limbs and joints are not designed for smooth, jitter free camera shots.

29
 This has been a realization for many years, and led an American, Garret Brown, to invent
the ‘Steadicam’. This rig attaches to the operators body by means of a torso harness, and
with a system of springs, counterweights and gimbals completely isolates the camera
from the operator (Zettl, H. 1997: 102). When properly set up, the operator can walk, run
or even jump; and the camera ‘floats’ in one position in space, with the lens remaining
pointed in the same direction. Originally developed for the film industry, it is a truly
amazing feat of engineering, and has been widely used in television production, including
OB’s. Much like all vacuum cleaners are given the name Hoover after the original
invention, so too there have been many copies of the Steadicam, which has become the
generic name for all of them.

Figure 19: The Steadicam components. The sled

(shown at right on its assembly stand) attaches to
the sprung loaded arm of the body harness
(shown above) via the post near the operators’
right hand by means of the gimbal (arrowed).

A Steadicam is a complex camera support. It

requires a great deal of setup for every different
camera, and an experienced operator to use it
successfully. Together with the attendant camera, batteries, monitor, link and
counterweights it has quite a fair mass, and this weight hangs off the front of the
operators’ torso. This means that it can be quite tiring to use, especially for extended
periods of time. However, when it comes to moving shots it has no equal. Running down
the touchline a metre away from a soccer or rugby player in control of the ball, tracking
with medalists as the mount the podium or award winners as they walk up stairs onto

30
stage or a thousand other similar situations – there is little to compare with the closeness
and immediacy of the viewing experience provided by the Steadicam.

Obviously a camera operator with a thirty kilogram rig strapped to their body is no match
for the fittest of athletes, so there are times when even the Steadicam has its limitations.
This is where a fairly recent innovation, ‘Railcam’, takes over. As its name suggests,
Railcam is a camera mounting which is operated by remote control along a track or rail,
which is mounted parallel to the action to be covered. Using linear motor technology, it is
able to accelerate from still extremely quickly, and can attain speeds of 180 kilometres
per hour. In athletics it has been placed along the leading edge of the grandstand roof, to
track athletes competing in sprint or hurdles events. The Railcam operator starts the
camera as the starters’ gun is fired, and is able to keep exactly the same speed as the
athletes. This gives a graphic representation of exactly which athlete is ahead, even by the
smallest amount, during the course of the race, because it is abreast of the pack. It has
also been used in the infield, on a shoulder high mounting looking outwards towards the
grandstand, so that the
background of the shot
is the cheering
spectators.

Railcam can be both

fast and slow. At
Formula 1 Grand Prix it
is used along the
grandstand roof,
normally placed just
after a hairpin bend.
Since the cars are
traveling fairly slowly
initially, it can pick
them up as they exit the
hairpin, and accelerate
with them down the
straight until it reaches
its maximum speed
before the cars race off
into the distance. At the
other end of the scale it
provides equally
dramatic but far slower
shots when placed
underwater along the
length of a swimming Figure 20: The remote controlled head of the Jimmy Jib,
pool, to provide with camera attached. (See page 32)
underwater tracking
shots of the swimmers.

31
Another method of tracking action with motion is to use a ‘Jib Arm’, more commonly
referred to in the industry as a ‘Jimmy Jib’, since this is the make which sets the standard
and against which all other models are measured. The Jimmy Jib is similar to a typical
film set crane, with the camera at one end of the (longer) arm and counterweights which
balance the system out at the shorter end. This arm is mounted on a tripod base and is
able to provide a variety of movements both vertically and laterally. Unlike the crane,
however, which has the camera operator sitting at the end of the arm, the Jimmy Jib has a
remote controlled system for the camera; so that the operator of the Jib, who must move
the arm, must also simultaneously pan, tilt, zoom and focus the camera. Although many
uses are found for Jimmy Jibs in sports type events they really come into their own when
used to create camera motion at relatively ‘static’ events such as music concerts, pageants
and conventions.

Figure 21: The Jimmy Jib.

To track athletes or action over long distances, such as a marathon, operators with hand
held cameras are placed as pillion passengers on motorcycles. The camera operator can
either sit or stand on the back of the motorcycle, and face either forwards or backwards.
If their shots are being used in a live transmission, the pictures are relayed via a
microwave link to a helicopter hovering overhead, which in turn relays them to the OB
site. Communications with the OB Director are via radio, to both camera operator and
driver. The motorcycles are heavily modified for use as a tracking vehicle, as are four
wheeler quads which are also sometimes incorporated.

32
The pillion seating and footrests are larger and generally more comfortable, since the
camera operator spends many hours in the saddle. In an effort to prevent asphyxiation of
the lead runners in a marathon, the motors are specially modified with ultra lean
carburetion and catalytic converters to minimize exhaust emissions. In addition the riders
are required to keep a minimum distance in front of the runners. As an aid to this, the
motorcycle is fitted with a small rearward facing camera, connected to a small
monochrome monitor mounted on the triple clamps for the driver to see. The monitor is
marked with two lines which represent the height of a typical runner at the prescribed
distance behind the vehicle. So, if the runner appears larger than the markings the driver
speeds up; and conversely if they are smaller the driver slows down. In essence you want
to be as close to the runners as possible, so that by working on a wide lens angle shakes
and judder from motorcycle are not readily apparent.

Marathons are in many ways easier than the zenith of motorcycle tracking vehicle
coverage, which are cycling events such as the Tour De France. The action you are
covering is much faster than running, spectators and support vehicles crowd every inch of
road space (there are incidentally more spectators at the Tour De France than any other
sporting event in the world), and cyclists constantly jockey for position around you. Try
and imagine what it must be like to peer into a monochromatic viewfinder, standing up,
facing backwards
on a motorcycle as
it careers down
hairpin bends in the
Alps at 100
kilometres per hour.
Don’t forget to hold
the shot steady, and
do it for 8 hours non
stop. By the end of
the day your
balance and
orientation are
completely
befuddled – if you
watch these camera
operators alighting
from their Figure 22: A helicopter fitted with a Gyrocam system.
motorcycle at the
end of the day you
will see they have two helpers who support them for a few minutes until they have
regained their true senses.

Very often the helicopter which is used as the center hop for the microwave link is also
fitted with a camera to give aerial shots. There are two ways of doing this. The first is to
have an operator with the camera on their shoulder, sitting in the doorway of the
helicopter. This is the cheaper alternative, but at the expense of shaky shots unless the

33
pilot flies very low. This is not always acceptable for some events because the downdraft
from a low flying helicopter interferes with competitors’ reading of the terrain. For
example a canoeist trying to interpret water flow in a river will be very upset by the
ripples on the water caused by the downdraft from the helicopter. So the pilot must keep
a certain minimum height to avoid this. Ideally the pilot flies the helicopter just ahead of
the competitor being covered, with it flying sideways and tilted slightly at an angle; so
that the camera operator sits in the doorway with the shot from a comfortable stance.
Easy enough for canoeists but try doing the same with a rally car traveling at over 200
kilometres per hour down a winding forest road.

The pitch, yaw and roll of

a helicopter may seem
imperceptible when you
are flying in it, as does
the constant vibration of
the craft. To a zoomed in
shot from a camera
though, these movements
are often enough to
render the shot unusable.
Thanks to the wizardry of
modern mechanics and
electronics there is a
solution however, a
camera platform known
as ‘Gyrocam’. Now, the
camera is mounted in a
pod externally, just under
the nose of the helicopter.
An operator inside the
craft is able to pan, tilt,
focus and zoom the Figure 23: Closeup of the Gyrocam pod.
camera via remote
control. Crucially though, before the remote pan and tilt signals are interpreted by the
camera platform, there is a complex system of gyroscopes which have ultimate say over
the servo motored pan and tilt mechanisms. The gyroscopes aid the orientation of the
camera, and keep it pointed in one direction, even as the helicopter moves independently.
The result, though costly, is perfectly stable shots from an inherently unstable vehicle
(Van Sittert, L. 2002). See Figures 20 and 21 for the positioning of the camera pod on the
helicopter, and a closeup of the Gyrocam system.

All these camera viewpoints are ‘from the outside looking in’. What does it feel like,
though, to be the rider, the driver, or the batsmen? For a real ‘seat of the pants’
experience for the viewer at home, we turn to the miniature camera.

34
 Figure 24: A forward facing miniature Figure 25: Closeup of the same camera
Racecam (shown arrowed) as fitted to a
factory motorcycle

These small, state of the art cameras have been fitted to almost every conceivable nook
and crannyny of the event being covered. Modern Grand Prix Formula One cars often carry
three of them at any particular moment – one above the engine nacelle facing forwards,
one inside the cockpit (or alternatively in the rearview mirror) facing the driver and one
facing rearwards to pick up the action behind the car. It is a testimony to the power of
television that, on a car where millions of dollars are spent in purpose built wind tunnels
trying to lower the drag coefficient of the vehicles’ design, a camera housing (albeit in
itself designed to have a low drag) is placed at the most aerodynamically sensitive part of
the bodywork, that is, above the engines air intake, simply because of the visuals it is able
to provide. Race teams are obviously not immune to this fact and so, in deference to their
misgivings, all vehicles in the event carry the self same camera housing, even though
only three or four vehicles are actually fitted with cameras in any particular race.

Examples of these miniature cameras (also referred to as ‘lipstick’ cameras because of

their relative size and shape) abound in television, and it is not within the scope of this
text to delve into each and every one. Instead an explanation of some of the more
significant placements will be explained.

35
The cameras usually come in three parts; the
lens and image sensing electronics, the
transmitting system and finally a power source
for both (Pickering, S. 2002). These three
elements are often not combined, but rather
spread over different sections of the vehicle.
As an example on a roadracing motorcycle the
image sensing section in placed alongside the
fuel tank just inside the fairing facing
forwards (and often a second camera is placed
under the back mudguard facing rearwards),
the transmitter is on top of the back mudguard
behind the seat and the power supply, in this
case Lithium Ion batteries, is attached to the
chassis behind the body work. Great care is
taken when installing the system to ensure that
the various components do not interfere in any
way with either the movements or
concentration of the rider or driver of the
Figure 26: The rearwards facing
vehicle, whilst at the same time producing
camera (arrowed) located under the
optimum shots which are relevant to the
fender
production. See Figures 22 to 24 for examples
of the motorcycle onboard cameras, as used in broadcasts of the World Superbike
Championships. In addition the various components should not compromise the
performance of the vehicle in any way. To achieve this the design is such that weight
(only a few hundred grammes in total including batteries) is kept to a minimum, the
power is independent rather than paralleled off the vehicles power systems, the wiring
between the various components in no way enters the wiring harness of the vehicle, and
the transmission frequencies chosen do not encroach on those used by the race team for
communications or vehicle telemetry.

All of this requires lots of planning with, and co-operation from, the race teams’
management. It is highly specialized work, and often out of the realms of the local
television broadcaster. Instead, a team of race cam specialists is dedicated to the task of
liaising with the race teams and event organizers, installing and maintaining the
equipment and delivering the images from each camera to the local broadcaster
(Pickering, S. 2002). The Racecam director selects which of the onboard cameras from
each vehicle is delivering the most exciting or relevant visuals for any particular moment
of the production, and feeds this signal on to the local broadcaster. These specialists are
usually contracted to a particular series, and follow it from one event to the next.
Obviously professionalism and integrity have a high priority, not least because of the
access they have to the pits to install and setup the cameras, and thus the closely guarded
secrets of the various teams.

36
 Figure 27: The Racecam Control area.

Miniature cameras are not only appreciated for their low mass, and thus lack of impact on
the weight of racing machines and subsequent performance; but also obviously for their
small size. So they are able to be placed right in amongst the action, in places it would be
impossible to have a conventional camera and operator.

An example of this is ‘Stumpcam’, a miniature camera placed inside the middle stump at
cricket. Unlike its wooden cousins on either side, however, the cost of a Stumpcam is
many thousands of times more, in the region of $US 40 000, even though its looks almost
identical on the outside (De Waal, L. 2003). The cameras are mounted in a graphite tube,
with the lens facing down the pitch. Modern versions usually have two cameras in each
unit, one with a very wide lens for scenic shots, the other with a narrower lens for a more
limited field of view of the batters leg and feet movements, and the bowler’s approach
and delivery. The wide angle lens, and resultant spreading of perspective, provides
welcome visual relief in a sport dominated by foreshortened perspective from cameras
operating far from the action on very narrow lens angles.

One would think that placing a camera exactly where a bowler is attempting to launch a
hard cricket ball at one hundred and fifty kilometers per hour would be foolishness
indeed, especially considering the cost of the camera, but that is the price television
producers are prepared to pay to stretch the envelope of audience viewing experiences.
Very often the delight of the crowd in seeing middle stump uprooted as a batter is clean
bowled is reversely matched by the horror on the OB engineer’s face as the Stumpcam is
reduced to shards of twisted graphite. To limit the possible damage to the actual camera
units they are surrounded by high density foam, and also placed in parts of the stump
which are least likely (as determined by observation from innumerable cricket matches)
to be hit by the ball (De Waal, L. 2003).

37
That then is a very broad
overview of the kinds of
cameras prevalent in modern
Outside Broadcast. However,
the publics viewing
experience at home is not
only limited to camera shots,
although they are the primary
source of pictures. In most
cases though these pictures
are supplemented by other
video sources, and the next
we will deal with are the
replay devices.

Figure 27: A Stumpcam

shown disassembled (left)
and a closeup of the lens
system (right)

3.1.2 REPLAY.

Recorded video (whether from video tape or hard disc) has one huge advantage over
celluloid film, and that is it is immediately available for replay. This replaying of the
action can take a variety of forms, and in OB’s the one which is most easily recognized
by the public and most used by directors is ‘Slomo’ (the word being derived from ‘Slow
Motion’).

In the late 1970’s the Ampex Corporation released the VPR-2B, a one inch helical scan
video recorder which revolutionized the use of video tape, not only for Outside
Broadcasts but also for studio and editing purposes. Up until then most broadcast quality
video recorders were of the ‘Quadruplex’ design, which though delivering excellent
picture quality, could only replay video at normal speed. The VPR-2B completely
changed that; with its AST (from Auto Scan Tracking) heads which flexed on
polymorphic mountings it was able to provide perfect still frames of video (for the first
time accurate edit in and out points could be found without editing ‘on the fly’ at normal
speed), fast motion, reverse motion, and the greatest boon of them all to the sportscaster,
slow motion. Such was the impact it had on the industry that it was the first machine to
be awarded an Emmy Award for artistic contribution to the television medium (Sanders,
M. 1980: 46). The VPR-2B has long since been superseded by more compact machines
which perform better, but their principles are still based on the original Ampex design.

38
It should be noted that the first slow motion machines were in fact not video tape
recorders at all, but rather analogue disc recorders (unlike the digital discs found in
computers). Although they could replay action slower than it had been recorded, they
suffered from many drawbacks. Delicate mechanisms were not suited to the vagaries of
the OB ‘life on the road’, their highly specialized nature meant that economies of mass
production were unobtainable and they were always very expensive, and, most damning
of all, they were only able to record eight seconds of material – constantly overwriting
anything which had happened more than eight seconds previously. If you didn’t stop and
replay scenes quickly, they were lost forever. Slomo off video tape was a huge advance
over these early devices, and quickly replaced them in the marketplace.

Slomo allowed (mainly sports) directors to analyse the nuances of play which might
otherwise have been lost or not noticed by the viewer. It allowed moments of triumph and
despair to be repeated again and again millisecond by millisecond. It allowed
commentators the time to
describe the passage of
play, time not usually
available because events
happened quickly and often
unpredictably. Most
importantly of all, however,
was the paradigm shift it
initiated in televising sports
events. Before slomo, when
directors would only have
various camera positions
and angles to offer the
home audience, the
overriding aim of the
production was to place the Figure 29: A Slomo Controller
viewer at home in ‘the best
seat in the stadium’ for
wherever the action was happening at that moment in time. Now, for the first time, the
audiences at home were able to experience something that spectators at the event could
not. This new form of television culture continues to evolve in a myriad of ways and
technologies, as we shall see.

Initially slomo replays were limited to the replaying the pictures which had already been
broadcast in real time. On the OB van there were two video recorders, both of these were
essentially recording the vision mixer output or ‘Transmission’ (a term used even if the
broadcast is not going out live on air, but is being recorded for later broadcasting). One of
the video recorders would be used for slomo. As soon as something worth replaying had
occurred, this machine was rewound, and then played back on the appropriate cue. Thus
the audience at home reviewed the same action they had just seen in real time, from the
camera angle which had been recorded at that time.

39
It didn’t take long for more angles of the action to be introduced, by cameras which were
not on air when the incident to be replayed occurred. What was introduced was the
concept of the ‘Iso Camera’ working with a ‘Slaved VTR’. Essentially some, or all, of the
cameras which are available as sources on the vision mixer for the director to choose
from are also paralleled into their own video recorder. This recorder is then (in the
simplest form) also available as a source for the director to choose as a replay. Essentially
any action which has been captured by an Iso-camera can be replayed. In the modern era
this has led to the situation where as many as eight different viewpoints of incidents
which occur on the field of play can be reviewed at home. There is an unwritten protocol
which pervades production around the world though, and that is the first replay to be seen
is still that camera angle which was on air when the incident happened.

Further modifications of this multiple replay of incidents soon followed. Although the
various slaved VTR’s are all recording from different angles, the same ‘Timecode’ is fed
to all of them simultaneously. Timecode is a referencing system which codes each frame
of video information on tape with its own unique number sequence and in this application
essentially gives a fraction of a second by fraction of a second time of day reference to
the recordings. Now, by lining up two (or more) replay machines to a particular timecode
reference, and having them play at the same time and remain in sync, we can essentially
analyse action from different viewpoints. An example of this is a split screen (an effect
achieved by a vision mixer where two different sources are displayed alongside each
other within the frame) showing a cricket bowler running up delivering the ball from both
a frontal and a side view. The actions and movements are perfectly in sync in both views,
simply because all the video recorders were receiving the same timecode whilst
recording.

Slomo’s and replays were such a huge success that they literally became part of the game
itself. Technology’s ability to recall and analyse meant that the people in charge of
monitoring the game and deciding on the application of the rule book, that is the umpires
and referees, were often at a distinct disadvantage. When decisions taken were later
proved to be wrong through video analysis, these referees and umpires earned the wrath
of fans and supporters. Although there was initial resistance to these replays by the
officials (and for that reason they would not be played on the big screens in the stadia)
because they wanted to maintain the ‘purity’ of the sport, it was quickly realized that in
certain instances these video replays could actually benefit the various sporting codes.
Certain codes, such as NFL Football in America, have embraced the technology for all
sorts of decisions on the field. Other codes, such as rugby football (which has a ‘Teleref’)
and Cricket (which has a ‘Third Umpire’) have only introduced this more recently; and
they are only able to rule on particular kinds of incidents when called upon by the on-
field officials.

40
The importance of slomo replays and the impact it has on the viewing experience lead to
the development of new forms of technology. One of these is the ‘Super Slomo’ camera.
One of the disadvantages of the television format is the relatively low frame rate, or in
other words the number of individual ‘still’ images per second; with twenty five frames
per second in some countries and thirty frames per second in others. This means that, if
we have a frame rate of twenty five per second, each individual still image is composed
of exposure to light for one twenty fifth of a second. This is perfectly acceptable for
normal real time viewing, but can lead to blurring of individual frames or images if they
are analysed in freeze frame or very slow replay rates; especially if we are studying a fast
action such as a golfer’s swing. With typical cameras and recorders there is very little we
can do about this, other than introducing a faster shutter speed into the camera’s
electronics. Unlike a
film camera
however, which
when we set faster
shutter speeds also
increases the frame
rate accordingly
(and thus reduces
the blurring of the
image), the
television camera
still has the same
twenty five frames
per second even if
we set higher
shutter speeds. The
result is that
individual still Figure 30: A Super Slo Mo camera with 70:1 zoom lens.
frames appear less
blurred, but once you replay the material at typical slomo or normal speeds the pictures
become stilted and jerky. This is obviously an unacceptable solution.

What we need is a system which has a higher shutter speed matched to a higher frame
rate, like the system used in film cameras. The answer lay in the ‘Super Slomo’ camera
and its attendant recorder. These machines record at a frame rate of fifty frames per
second (in twenty five frame rate countries; and sixty in thirty frames per second
countries). So the image sensing device in the camera is exposed to light for only one
fiftieth of a second, half the amount of time compared to a normal television camera (De
Waal; l. 2003). The picture is thus half as blurred, or thought of in another way, twice as
crisp.

These cameras and recorders are only used for replay; we cannot cut to the camera as a
‘live’ source during actual play, because the frame rate does not match the television
format. We rely on the fact that, when the recorder replays the pictures, it is designed to
do so at twenty five frames per second, which matches the rest of the system.

41
It is not only the cameras’ and recorders’ electronics which have to be designed to
achieve this, but also the cameras’ optics. Since these systems were developed for close
up analysis of fast action, the camera needs to be zoomed in to a very small lens angle.
The science of optics dictates that at these small angles depth of field of the camera is
very small, especially if the aperture is wide open. Now, since the frame rate of the Super
Slomo camera is twice that of a normal camera, and the image sensing device exposed to
light for half the amount of time, this would mean an aperture opening twice as large and
thus a depth of field much less if we used a typical camera’s lens. This would be virtually
unusable, even by experienced operators. So lenses which have very high light capturing
and very good light transmission abilities are designed and built specifically for these
cameras. The net result of all these modifications and the low manufacturing production
runs means that they become costly to purchase; but on the other hand they are
unmatched for their ability to deliver exceptionally clear pictures during slow motion
replays.

Although videotape provided the technological breakthrough needed to establish slomo

as a critical part of the broadcast, it has its disadvantages. Once a replay is decided upon
the recorder must be rewound to the appropriate cue. Sometimes these cue points can be
easily established, such as in a cricket match. Every time the bowler runs into bowl a
button on the controller is pushed just before he releases the ball; this sets an electronic
pulse into the recording. If the delivery results in a wicket falling (or any other interesting
action) we can instruct the machine to rewind to this point (actually just before it, as we
shall see), and then on the appropriate instruction from the director, roll the tape at the
preselected slomo speed. Entering these electronic cue points negates the time needed to
search for the right part of the tape.

The problem is not so much the machines’ ability to reproduce good quality pictures at
slomo speeds, but rather the time it takes for it to be accessible to the director. The
machine takes a few seconds to rewind; but then it takes a few seconds of playing before
it is usable. This ‘preroll’ is necessary on all electromechanical devices, and the more
inertia the mechanics have to control to firstly get up to speed and then perfectly maintain
that, the longer the preroll needed. So, in the days of the VPR-2B, which had (relatively)
massive spools, this preroll was approximately ten seconds. Later recorders, such as the
‘Betacam’ systems which used much smaller spools housed in a cassette got away with as
little as three seconds of preroll. As a director, you were not able to cut to the slomo until
the machine was correctly up to speed, for fear of sync or colour loss.

The time it takes to rewind and preroll is not really a factor if the action allows a natural
break to do so. So, in the cricket match if a wicket falls, or in a soccer match if a goal is
scored, there is a period of relative inactivity of play (while the players are celebrating
and getting ready to restart) which gives the time necessary to cue up and play in the
slomo’s. The problem is when you need to start using slomo’s during active play. To be
relevant to the viewer, they need to be identified, cued up and replayed almost
instantaneously. There is yet another weakness attached to traditional video tape, and that
is while it is replaying, it cannot be recording. So, if something significant happens

42
during a slomo replay, there will be no record of it. This may seem insignificant, but it
does (albeit very infrequently) happen. The stage was set for a new breed of slomo
machine, which didn’t have these inherent limitations.

Figure 31: The Video tape and Slomo area in the OB van.

Digital Disc Recorders (DDR’s) applied computer based digital technology to slomo.
These machines do not suffer the rewinding time needed to cue up a tape based recorder;
they simply skip back tracks in a fraction of the time. Also, because they utilize memory
registers and have error correcting systems, they play immediately without any preroll.
The result is slomo which is available without any waiting period (Zettl,H. 1997: 273).
Also, due to the nature of its design, a DDR can continue to record whilst it is
simultaneously replaying.

DDR’s overcame another weakness of the traditional tape based slomo recorder. As
mentioned previously variable speed capability on a video recorder is only possible if the
(very delicate) video heads are able to flex up and down. This minute flexing happens
approximately four hundred and fifty times each second, in carefully controlled
fluctuations. Not only does this make them expensive to manufacture, but they are also
prone to breakage; so maintenance costs on these machines are very high. Not so with the
computer based DDR, where the speed of replay required simply adjusts how fast digital

43
information is accessed
from the registers, a totally
electronic solution with no
moving mechanical parts.
Modern OB vans rely
almost exclusively on Hard
Disc systems because of the
foregoing.

While slomo has been dealt

with quite extensively here,
it is not exclusively used
for replay; there are times
when normal speed play is
also used. Slomo tends to
distort the public’s
perceptions of the time a
participant in a sport has to
react to a situation. To
emphasise the real reaction
prowess the player needs
(such as a tennis player
receiving a serve), a
director may choose to play
back in real time. If we
move beyond the sports
arena to something like a
gala evening such as the
Oscar’s we find film Figure 32: The Slomo Director’s area in the OB van
(actually videotape) clips
being played back and cut into the programme as the nominations for the various awards
are made and won.

Most large OB units also have some sort of editing facility, generally in the form of a
non-linear edit suite. They are used for assembling ‘highlight’ packages of the game
being televised. Often these packages are replayed during half time or luncheon intervals
in the game, as a recap of the defining moments that occurred; but it is becoming more
common for them to be used during the actual game when there is general inactivity
(such as an injury break). An example of this would be to have a short insert of a
particularly influential player, the moves they have performed and their control of the
game up to that stage.

44
3.1.3 CAPTIONING AND GRAPHICS.

No other segment of the OB production sets the viewer at home at such an advantage
over the spectator in the stadium as does the use of captions and graphics in the
transmission. They have evolved from simplistic scoring systems into a multitude of
forms; so many in fact that it would take several volumes to describe each of them. This
is not within the scope of this handbook, and so we will only take a brief look at the most
significant.

Before we begin it is necessary to define the differences between captions and graphics.
Captioning is the use of lettering and numbers to provide written information for the
viewer to read, often without any additional commentary to explain it. It can be presented
in a wide variety of fonts, sizes and colours; and is usually produced by a Caption
Generator, or CG. Graphics, on the other hand, are images which are made by drawing, in
their simplest form, or compositing (combining) drawings and still frames from the video
signal using a machine called an Electronic Still Store (ESS). If these graphics change or
develop they are known as Animations.

More often than not captions and graphics are combined in the same frame, and now
generically known as graphics. An example might be a composited frame of a
sportsmans’ face (taken from the ESS), with their statistics for that particular sport layed
out alongside.

Graphics serve as both primary and complementary visuals. The simplest form of
complementary graphic is the ubiquitous Station ID or logo which appears in the corner
of frame. It is not meant to be watched continuously, but merely as a reminder of the host
broadcaster. Along the same vein, but with more importance (and in an adjacent corner of
frame) is the typical scorecard for the sport being covered. It is merely a reminder for
those watching the game of its status, or to inform someone who switches to that channel
after the game has already begun (Hickman, 1991: 349). Although it can only be
occupying a small portion of the frame and seem fairly insignificant, it can impart a
tremendous amount of information in this small area. Take the game of rugby for
example (an this is true of virtually all ball sports); this graphic shows the (often
abbreviated) team names, their colours, the score alongside each team, the time played in
the match so far and even if there are any players with a yellow or red card against them.
Graphics such as these are ‘Keyed’ into the live pictures; that is they are overlayed over
the pictures being transmitted. Obviously, if the broadcast is being watched in many parts
of the world it serves no purpose to overlay the local host broadcasters’ station logo in
those countries; and if the graphics have been prepared in English and the transmission is
being relayed to countries which speak a different language it makes no sense to transmit
these. In cases such as this, the OB production utilizes a separate unit for its ‘Unilateral
feed’ to these other countries, and the graphics are only inserted over the local
transmission. Incidentally, this unilateral feed also contains commentary in different
languages as well.

45
Graphics are prepared before the event by Graphics Operators using special software and
computers, with information gathered by Statisticians (Hickman, 1991: 353). They will
usually be guided by the Director of the production, or by the marketing team of the
sponsor’s for that particular event, in which case they will normally incorporate the
sponsor’s logo somewhere within the graphic. In cases where there is a series being
played, such as a Cricket World Cup, there will be a defined ‘look’ and ‘feel’ to all the
graphics which projects the organisers’ approach and maintains consistency amongst the
various broadcast centers. In cases such as this proprietary software is written before the
event and distributed to the various OB units.

When a graphic is keyed over live pictures it is usually only for added information to the
viewer; but when it appears as its own individual frame it normally has some
commentary and explanation with it, because it now becomes the focus for those
moments in time. Sometimes new technologies and tremendous effort is used to produce
these graphics, and they in turn take the viewing experience to a whole new level. It is
beyond the scope of this text to write about all of them, but it is worth investigating one
of them: a system used in cricket broadcasts known by its proprietary name of
‘Hawkeye’.

Hawkeye’s software analyses the images recorded by six dedicated cameras placed
around the perimeter of a cricket field. Using vector based algorithms it computes the
speed, flight, curve (swing) and bounce of the cricket ball, and then displays this in a
graphical format. So, for example, it can juxtapose the deliveries from a particular bowler
over the course of an over, and show where the ball was pitched, how it swung and where
the batsman was forced to play it. This gives a very good representation of the
consistency of the bowler. Equally, it can show the placement of the shots a batsman has
played around the field in his innings, and whether these shots were hit in the air or along
the ground. The software is able to offer images from any point of reference, so that the
operator can pan around the field, or elevate the viewpoint to look directly down on the
field. The images produced by Hawkeye are both highly visual and informative, but it
does not stop there. What really sets Hawkeye apart from previous graphics is its
predictive ability – it is able to show where the ball would have traveled had its path not
been interrupted by the batsman.

The classic example of this is the LBW (Leg Before Wicket) appeal. A bowler delivers
the ball, and it hits the batsman on the body in front of his wickets; naturally the bowler
appeals for the batsman to be given out. The Umpire has to make an assessment of
whether the ball would have continued on to strike the stumps. After he has given his
decision (either for or against the batsman) the director cuts to Hawkeye, and we watch a
graphic representation of the ball in flight, and where it would have continued on had it
not struck the batsman. Woe betides the poor umpire who gives the batsman ‘Not Out’,
and Hawkeye subsequently shows the ball continuing on to hit the stumps…..

It is not always the sole responsibility of the broadcaster to generate and display graphical
information; they are sometimes assisted by the event organisers’ as well. An example of
this is a typical motor car or motorcycle race around a circuit. The broadcaster would be

46
responsible for setting up graphics which provide background information to the race
such as the shape of the circuit, past winners, current lap records, biographies of drivers
and such like. However, during qualifying or the race itself they interface their software
and graphics with information provided by the event organizer, from a centre known as
race control.

Although race controls’ primary aim is to manage and rule on the race itself, to do so they
rely on a vast amount of information they gather themselves from various cameras and
sensors (such as timing gates) around the circuit, as well as telemetry from the race cars.
This information, such as particular cars’ lap times, or the timing splits between cars, is
fed to the broadcaster who then displays it. The information that race control gathers is
vast, so much so that it is possible to give individual performance data on the mechanics
of each car. The result is quite spectacular – as we ‘ride’ in the cockpit of the vehicle
(thanks to the on board camera) we have a graphic overlay which shows us the speed of
the vehicle, the gear it is in, the rise and fall of the rev counter and even the g-forces the
driver is undergoing. It is the stuff of dreams for the poor spectator sitting high up in the
stands watching the various cars whiz by in the distance.

Advertisers too have latched on to the power of television graphics, to the point where we
now have ‘virtual adverts’ superimposed on the playing field. It is easy enough to
spraypaint an advertising logo onto grass, and also easy enough to work out the cameras
perspective so that the logo appears ‘straight on’ to camera when it is actually lying at an
angle on the horizontal field; but how do we get a logo to appear when it is impossible to
paint or erect in the field of view. Take the case of power boating – the boats travel
around buoys which are placed in a body of water (and you obviously can’t paint on the
water).

The solution is a ‘Virtual advert’, a computer generated logo superimposed over the shots
of the boats traveling. Except that this logo is generated in such a way that it seems to be
part of the scene, lying flat on the water. Sensors attached to the cameras’ pan, tilt and
zoom mechanism feed information to the graphics computer. The computer overlays the
logo or banner accordingly; so that as the camera pans across the water it pans across the
logo too, as it zooms in tighter to the action the logo appears bigger too, all the time
retaining the perspective and proportions of the banner in relation to the camera’s shot.

In a world of television production which is increasingly software driven, it is difficult to

predict where graphics will go next, and the possibilities seem almost limitless. Already
experiments are being done on entities such as ‘virtual cameras’, a simulated image
which can replicate a camera placed anywhere at the event. In the race to stretch the
viewing envelope ever further it is likely that graphics will lead the pack.

3.2 THE SOUNDS

If there is one area of OB production which has stagnated, or at least progressed slower
than the other areas, it is in the discipline of sound. By stating this I in no way want to
negate or deemphasize the importance of the sound or audio in a production, because it is

47
both highly contributing and entirely necessary. It is just that the equipment and
techniques applied to OB audio have been defined and implemented in much the same
way for many years.

Capturing sound for outside broadcasts presents as many challenges as does capturing the
pictures. The environment the action happens in cannot be controlled from an audio point
of view (especially if you are outside), the action often happens far from the pickup
devices available, and the difference in levels (for example between a cheering crowd and
onfield activity) is often extreme.

Most of the solutions to the above are solved by the design and use of specialist
microphones for OB’s. The biggest problem encountered from an environmental aspect is
wind noise, which usually manifests itself as a low frequency rumble. To counter this
windshields are placed around the microphone pickup area. These can take the form of a
plastic lattice which breaks up the wind, or sound absorbing material such as a soft foam
or rug like fabric known in the industry as a ‘shaggy dog’. On extremely wet or windy
days there is not much which can be done to protect the microphone, although
conscientious sound engineers have been known to rig umbrellas above the microphones
when possible.

Figure 33: An Audio Assistant holding a Rifle mic (see page 49)

48
Gathering low level sound effects from a distance away, such as the sound of a ball being
kicked in the middle of a soccer pitch, calls for highly directional microphones which
exclude all other noises other than the ones desired. These microphones are called ‘Rifle’
or ‘Shotgun’ mics, because of their looks, as shown in the accompanying photograph.
They exclude all sounds other than those which the microphone is pointed directly at;
because their design includes a series of opposing slots along the body of the
microphone. These slots introduce a phase canceling interference pattern for sounds
entering the microphone at an angle, and they are nullified (Nisbett, A 1993: 55).
Technically these microphones are said to have a hypercardiod pickup pattern, the result
is that unwanted sounds such as crowd noise is excluded, and only sounds at which the
microphone is aimed are picked up. In this context the operative word is ‘aimed’ – the
microphone must be pointed directly at the wanted sound source for it to be effective. In
some sports where the action is fairly static, such as baseball, the rifle microphone can
placed on a stand and locked off pointing at the batters area; but in other sports where the
action moves around substantially such as soccer it must be handheld and directed by an
operator on the sidelines. It normally has a rubber mounted shock absorbing grip which
the operator can hold and then sight along the length of the microphone at the action.

Nothing compares with

being close to the action,
however, and if at all
possible the sound
engineer will attempt to
place their microphones
in the middle of the
action. In cricket it has
been standard practice to
place a microphone
directly behind the
stumps, known
(appropriately) as
‘Stumpmic’. This
obviously requires the
cooperation of the
grounds man to provide a
small furrow in the turf
for cables, but is accepted
as de rigueur for all
modern televised cricket
matches. Very often
Stumpmic is linked to a
graphic facility known as Figure 34: The graphic display of the Snickometer.
‘Snickometer’. One of the
most controversial areas of cricket is the appeal for a ‘caught behind’ catch where the
umpire cannot hear the faint sound of the ball barely nicking the bat; ‘Snickometer’ gives

49
 a visual clue as to whether there was a ‘sharp’ sound, from bat hitting ball, or a ‘flat’
sound from ball or bat hitting pad.

Figure 35: The setup on a rugby referee.

Shown at right is the earpiece and microphone
(with cables still to be taped to the body) and
above the webbing belt for radio receiver and
transmitter, for earpiece and microphone
respectively.

Another common way of getting close to the

action is to mic up the referee. A small
microphone is attached to the referee’s lapel,
and is connected to a radio transmitter which is
attached to a webbing belt around their waist.
This makes for very informative viewing
because good referees usually communicate
quite a bit with players as to why they made
particular decision. At the same time the referee
also has a radio receiver mounted on the same
webbing which is cabled to an earpiece; this
allows them to hear information from the Teleref when they ask for it. This setup is
shown in the accompanying photographs.

Most of the information about a sports OB however comes from commentary on the
event. There are usually two commentators at any moment in time, but they often work in
shifts during long events such as cricket. Commentators provide unique problems for
designers of microphones.

The first problem is the huge discrepancy in levels between the cheering of the crowd and
the voice levels of the commentary team. This is especially so during the times when
commentary is most vital, when the crowd erupts after one or the other team has scored.
The answer may seem simple – place the commentators in a soundproof area to block out

50
the crowd noise. The difficulty with soundproofing though is that not all stadiums can
provide this facility, the commentary team do want to feel ‘connected’ to the game and
thus hear the crowd; and also in soundproofed ‘boxes’ people speaking close by become
obtrusive and the general small size of these booths tends to introduce unwanted
resonances into the audio. The answer is to design a noise canceling microphone
specifically for commentary.

Figure 36: A Lip Mic (above) and

in use by commentator (right). See
page 52

Crowd noise has largely low frequency (i.e. bass) characteristics. So part of the solution
is to use a ribbon microphone which has enhanced bass response. If this microphone is
held close to the mouth the difference in voice and crowd levels is quite large; and by

51
further attenuation of the bass response of the microphone (via equalization) the crowd
noise is even further separated and in effect nullified. The important aspect to maintain is
the voice to microphone distance, which must be consistently close.

The result is the ‘Lip Mic’. It has a guard on the top of the microphone which rests on the
top lip of the commentator, and thus maintains a voice to microphone distance of forty
five millimeters, as shown in the photographs. One problem that arises with microphones
so close to the mouth is ‘popping’ from ‘p’ and ‘b’ sounds. The solution is to place the
yoke of the ribbon magnet between the voice source and the ribbon itself. A further
modification to this type of microphone is a fine mesh screen placed above the capsule;
this acts as a windscreen for breath from the nose which is also in close proximity to the
ribbon (Nisbett, A. 1993: 57).

The commentary team is usually housed in an area high up above the action, which has
glass frontage so that they can be in an air conditioned environment but still see the game
being played. They have a video ‘Transmission monitor’ so that they are aware of what is
on air, and also headphones to listen to the audio being transmitted. They are provided
with a small audio mixer so that they can mix in the different proportions of crowd
effects and fellow
commentator’s
voice to their liking.
The
communications
system allows
Interruptible Fold
Back (IFB) so that
production
personnel (usually
the director) can
break into the
commentator’s
headphone audio
with instructions
when necessary
(Zettl,H. 1997:
524). In addition the
commentators are
provided with
buttons which they Figure 37: The Commentators’ Booth and equipment
can push for various
reasons; the ‘Cough’ button mutes their mic should they need to cough or sneeze, and the
‘Talkback’ button switches their microphone through to the communications system (and
away from transmission) to talk to the director when needed.

52
Crowd effects are gathered by omni-directional microphones slung above the
grandstands, with attention paid to their distance and spread. If they are too close to the
crowd there is the chance that you hear individual spectators close to the microphone, and
if they are not spread evenly around the stadium there is the possibility that you only hear
supporters from one team. Probably the biggest problem faced is the vast difference in
crowd levels between general play, and then the eruption of cheering as a team scores.
Although the human ear can easily cater for this sudden increase in decibels audio
equipment usually cannot, especially when it is unpredicted and the engineer has little
reaction time to adjust their faders. So it becomes standard practice to feed all crowd
effects microphones through a ‘Limiter’ before they are patched into the audio mixer
inputs. Limiters do just that – they limit the signal to a prescribed setting, thus preventing
gross input levels and their concomitant distortion.

Audio playback off disc or

tape is fairly unusual in
sporting outside broadcasts
and is normally limited to
jingles which accompany
the opening of the
broadcast, or the credit
sequence afterwards. For
international events there is
often national anthems
before the game starts, but
this is usually provided by
the stadium or event
organizer. There are also
‘stings’ used which signify
the beginning, or end, of
specialized sequences such
as slo mo replays.

The foregoing descriptions

of audio seemed to have
paid little attention to music
concerts or stage shows;
but within the scope of this
text that is intentional.
Volumes could be written
(and have been) on this
topic alone; and in most
cases is not the
responsibility of the Figure 38: The Audio Mixing area in the OB van.
television audio engineer,
other than to record to tape at the correct settings. The reason for this is that most big
concerts, stage shows or orchestras usually have a separate sound recording, engineering

53
and mixing contractor to provide audio for the shows’ public address system. All that is
required of the television crew is to take a feed from this mixing desk output/s and feed it
into their own. This mixed feed might be supplemented with crowd effects. Precautions
should be taken with earthing and power supplies; if there is a difference in earths
because you are running off different generators or local power you stand a chance of
blowing up the input stages on your mixing desk. To prevent this isolation or ‘Balun’
transformers are used on these feeds, so that the coupling is purely electromagnetic rather
than electrical.

The technologies for audio described above have been around for decades and in some
cases longer than television itself, because radio outside broadcasts were the first to be
transmitted. Although the techniques are more refined, and the equipment in some cases
has undergone a transition from analogue to digital, the principles remain much the same.
This should not detract from the importance of good clean audio and relevant
commentary, because without it the broadcast is simply hollow.

This then, in very general terms, wraps up what facilities are needed to produce an
Outside Broadcast. Now that we know what we have available to use, we can start to plan
the productions.

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 CHAPTER 4

PLANNING AND DIRECTING OUTSIDE BROADCASTS

The process of producing an OB begins with a compiling a plan for the event to be
covered. The ultimate success or failure of the production is inextricably linked to how
well (or how poorly) this plan was strategised and implemented (Zettl, H. 1997: 517 -
519). In most cases you will not only have to decide how you would want the final
programme to ‘flow’, but also make several parallel contingency plans in case events
happen differently to how you foresee them panning out. As mentioned in the first
chapter there is nothing as unpredictable in television as a typical OB (Lewis, P. 1991: 6);
there just is no script for the players on a field.

Once again, it is beyond the scope of this dissertation to give all the possibilities which
can be planned for every type of production. Rather we will consider the most common
ones in general terms, and give examples of current coverage of events. Armed with this
knowledge, it should be possible to extrapolate this information to cover further events.
Before we consider individual events though, we need to have a broad understanding of
the plan.

A Production Plan is a working document which details all the parameters of the
production, in line with the Executive Producers’ or Directors vision for the television
coverage of the event. It is often the culmination of many meetings between event co-
ordinators, sponsors, host broadcasters, engineers, support personnel, the director and as
many other people as is necessary. It covers everything any person involved in the
production would need to know in order to set up the facilities and production; from the
vital aspects, such as camera positions, to the (seemingly) mundane, such as
accommodation bookings. In some cases it may take many months to produce this plan,
such as when the event to be covered is unique or being covered for the first time; at
other times, for example when the event is one of many in a series, it may only be a
reprint of an earlier version, with dates, times and other minor details changed. It may
only be a few pages thick for smaller events, or it may stretch to many volumes like the
production plan for the Olympic Games. Whatever form it comes in though, once printed
it becomes the blueprint for that event, and is only changed at the highest authority.

The point of departure for any production planning to begin is the same as for any
commercial exercise the world over – the budget for the production. No one in the
executive planning team will be prepared to commit themselves to any facilities or
coverage until this has been agreed upon. The scope of the coverage supplied is almost
exclusively budget related. Budgets for OB’s start from a few thousand dollars at the
bottom end of the scale, and run through to many millions for state of the art coverage of
international events with a global audience.

This fact of life presents a unique problem in the context of this book. If we are to look at
various plans for events, it is almost impossible to detail how each would be covered
from a simple to a grand scale, with numerous possibilities in between. My approach

55
instead will be to explain the state of the art setup for that particular event as it is
currently covered. Included in these plans will be different kinds of facilities which
essentially can be divided into two different categories – those which are ‘must haves’
(i.e. the bare minimum) and then the ‘nice to haves’. Essentially if you are planning a
production you could begin with the ‘must haves’, and then add on ‘nice to haves’
depending on the budget and the extra value that particular facility will bring to the
viewing experience. Or you may choose to start with the ultimate plan, and one by one
cut down those facilities which add least value until you reach your budget. Whatever
way you choose it is of the utmost importance that you are constantly considering your
budget, even though it may seem from this point on that this text seems to pay little
attention to it.

Before you have your first meeting with the event organisers you need to have a pretty
clear idea of what you have to work with (i.e. budget and thus facilities) and how you
want to deploy them for your overall vision. This vision is driven largely by the audience
you would probably draw for that particular event, in other words is it a sporting
viewership, a religious grouping, a young (or middle aged or old) music loving audience,
etc. Very seldom does the audience include all strata of the population, but this does
sometimes happen, such as the Royal Wedding between the Prince and (to be) Princess of
Wales (Lewis, P. 1991: 75).

Armed with these thoughts and probably quite a few notes on paper, it is time to meet the
event organiser/s and anyone else who will be in control of some aspect or other. Arrange
a time to meet them, at the venue preferably. The number of times you need to meet is
largely dependent on the scale and relative importance of the event. It is also unusual to
go to this meeting or recce (from reconnaissance) on your own as a director. Unless you
have a very good technical background you would probably ask a Technical Engineer to
accompany you, as well as a production Co-ordinator or secretary to take notes
(www.uclan.ac.uk/facs/destech/tech/general/NickPeake/Assignments/3072/Planning%20
an%20OB.2004.doc). These people should have a good idea of your ‘vision’ for the event
before you go on the recce, so that they are aware of the overall picture as you discuss
individual aspects of the production.

At this meeting be careful not to take overall control, you need to be sympathetic to the
needs of the organisers and sponsors. Very often the event would be a ‘non-starter’
without the television coverage and its allied advertising, but you should not impose your
every whim and expect people to bend over backwards just for you. An amount of give
and take is required, so try to reach happy mediums when discussing contentious points.

The amount of planning necessary will depend to a large extent on whether that particular
type of event has been staged for television before and more especially if it has been
staged in the stadium or auditorium you intend to use. If it has, you can readily adapt that
previous events’ plan to your own. If neither of the foregoing has happened, you are in
for a lot of planning, because you must conceive and execute the planning from the
ground up. On a personal note, I had experience to be involved in the planning of the first
ever live coverage of the Comrades Marathon, an annual ultra marathon between Durban

56
and Pietermaritzburg in (what was then known as) Natal, South Africa. This coverage
involved a mammoth amount of planning, because it had never been attempted before.
Although marathons had been covered world wide, the ‘Comrades’ is unique in many
ways. To begin with it is an Ultra marathon, 87 kilometres in length compared to a
Standard marathon of just over 42 kilometres. It also starts and finishes in different places
which are almost a hundred kilometeres apart, whereas your typical standard marathon
starts and finishes in much the same locale. What drives Comrades is the number of
runners who do it merely to finish, with the drama and trauma that accompany their
efforts, and it was important to capture this. So, although in the first half of the broadcast
the focus was to be on the mens’ and ladies’ front runners and winners, the rest of the
coverage was to be (quite literally in this case) about the ordinary ‘man in the street’.
Since there is an 11 hour cut off for competitors to finish, this meant at least a 12 hour
live broadcast if you include an introduction before the start and a wrap up and prize
giving at the end. Also because it is winter when it is staged, this means a start and finish
which happen in the dark, with the result that you have to light these artificially; no mean
feat when you consider that there are 20 000 participants, and most of these have
supporters which follow them the length of the race. Add to this the vagaries of the route,
which winds and twists through small tree covered roads in very hilly terrain (which
causes huge problems for microwave reception from tracking vehicles), and the
spectators which line both sides of the route over the entire distance, and you have an
extremely daunting task for live television. The planning stretched over several weeks,
with many site meetings along the way, before it was finally acceptable to both Director
and technical staff; even though there were already ‘models’ for how typical marathons
could be covered.

Always think laterally when you are trying to overcome problems. If we take one aspect
of the previous example of Comrades – how do you keep a helicopter (as the middle link
between tracking vehicle and OB van) in the air for 11 hours? You obviously can’t, its
fuel extends to a maximum of 3 to 4 hours. The solution is to ‘leap frog’ 2 helicopters,
whilst one is in the air providing the link, the other is on the ground refuelling. Even
keeping a helicopter hovering at a marathon runner’s speed (essentially a snail’s pace for
a helicopter) causes problems, because it needs to move at higher speeds to effectively
cool its motors; it can only really hover for 10 minutes or more. So, you will have to have
it hover for short periods of time, and then loop out at a faster rate to cool (during which
time you will lose your link) and then return to hover again, over and over throughout the
day. This will obviously affect your coverage of the event, and you may have to adjust
your ‘vision’ of the coverage to accommodate this.

Logistics like this extend to your most valuable asset in the broadcast – the crew. Place
yourself in their shoes, and don’t ask them to do things you wouldn’t be prepared to do
yourself. Can you ask a camera operator to work non stop for 12 hours, such as might be
necessary for Comrades? You obviously can’t, unless you expect shoddy work. Plan to
give them breaks along the way. If these breaks don’t occur naturally (such as the lunch
and tea intervals at a cricket match) you will need to schedule breaks for them, and if
coverage must continue, relief operators for that time. Think of sustenance for them, if
they are expected to be in a remote part of the event (such as the far end of a race circuit)

57
you must provide them with enough food and drink to get them through the day. The old
adage of ‘an army marches on its stomach’ holds true for OB’s (and all forms of
television and film production for that matter); if you feed the crew well they will go the
extra mile for you. Its strange how, even though you may have negotiated an above
average remuneration, the crew always only seems to work as well as the catering that is
provided. Don’t skimp in this area, it is absolutely vital; it probably has the smallest
overall impact on the budget bottom line, yet often the biggest impact on performance.

The part of the coverage which you will probably consider first is the camera coverage
and thus positions. Before we begin to look at specific examples we should bear in mind
the general principles.

First, speak to the organisers and ground staff at the event, and find out essential aspects
from their point of view. Take a cricket match as an example. Your main cameras (as we
shall see later) will need to line up exactly along the length of the pitch. The problem is
that at any cricket stadium there is a ‘square’ in the middle of the field which has the
correct grass and soil for preparing pitches on. The ground staff prepares individual
pitches within this square. You need to find out exactly which area they intend to prepare
for the match you will be covering, often months in advance of the event, so that you can
plan where your camera scaffolding should be placed (if it isn’t already provided).

Know the rules of the game you intend covering, and if you don’t find out from the
referees or umpires involved. Take one aspect of golf for example. There are times in
golf when players are allowed a free ‘drop shot’ should their ball end up in an unplayable
position, and then there are times when they are not and the extra shot is added to their
tally. Find out the nuances of these rules hole by hole, because each hole has different
areas with different rules. You don’t want to be held responsible for someone losing a
major championship worth millions of dollars because you placed a camera scaffolding in
the wrong place and it cost them a shot when their ball landed up adjacent to it in an
unplayable situation.

Consider your resources you have available, which are largely based on your budget. If
you have a large budget, you can allocate cameras to cover specific shots. On a small
budget you may have only one camera which can follow action, give crowd reaction
shots and wide ‘beauty’ shots of the stadium. With more resources you may be able to
allocate 3 cameras to this, with each only concentrating on one particular aspect. This
obviously gives you more leeway when calling the shots and cutting between them for
various reasons, and on the flip side with only one camera covering all 3 makes
camerawork (and directing as we shall see later) much more demanding. Once again,
think laterally. If you can’t afford a helicopter with gyrocam for a high shot perhaps you
can find a tall pylon or building roof where you can place a camera (obviously without
the same impact as a moving helicopter, but a ‘birds eye view’ nonetheless).

Think carefully about where you want to place the OB van and attendant vehicles, which
can be fairly numerous when you factor in tenders, generators, crew vehicles and private
cars for senior personnel. It should be large enough to do this, and preferably level; with a

58
concrete or tarmac base so that if it rains the surrounding area will not turn to mud (which
will invariably find its way into the pristine innards of the OB van). This area should be
both out of the way of the general public, but also close enough to the ‘centre’ of the rig
for camera and other cables. Most important of all, make sure it is accessible for the van.
Don’t assume that because you can drive your private car there that the van will get there
too; have someone who knows the width, height and turning circle of the van walk the
route beforehand. Many a tree has lost its low branches on the first day of rigging
because they were overlooked by the planning crew. Tree branches can be easily cut
(albeit after considerable negotiating with proud ground staff), but overhead power cables
and concrete arches, to give just two examples, cannot; and this will have a major impact
on the rest of the rig.

Figure 39: The OB Compound.

If you are going out live on air you will also have to plan where you intend to place the
microwave link transmitter, or, if you are using satellite, the SNG vehicle. If the OB van
is placed out in the open, you will probably find you can place this link fairly close by. If,
on the other hand it is in amongst trees, or under an overhanging stadium grandstand it
will in all likelihood have to be further away. Don’t compromise on placement;
microwave links in particular are very susceptible to moving trees when the wind comes
up, so make sure you have a clear line of sight to the receiving dish or tower. The
receiver also is important if you are using microwave; send an engineer to recce the

59
receivers’ placement if it hasn’t been used before, to ensure that it is possible to rig there
come the day of the event.

Some stadiums, especially those which have been built or undergone major renovation
since the rise of television sportscasting, will have been built areas for OB van parking,
camera positions and commentary areas. These were sited after consultation between the
architects and television engineers. These are fairly easy to plan coverage for, because the
job has already been half done. For the purposes of this text however, we will assume that
they don’t exist, so that we can get some idea of where exactly to place them. Obviously
the world isn’t ideal, and you may find that due to design of the (especially older or less
‘endowed’) stadium you may have to compromise placement.

As far as camera treatment for the event goes, there are a few overriding principles to
bear in mind, no matter what you are covering. Probably the single most important of
these is ‘Stageline’ (also known as the ‘Action Axis’), and the rule of thumb is never to
‘cross’ this stageline while in general play. The stageline is an imaginary line which runs
perpendicular to the camera’s viewpoint; and we begin from the most important camera
and place all others with reference to that (Whannel, 1992: 32). If, for example, we are
covering a football match then the most important camera (also known as the Master
shot) would be located at the side of the field directly in line with the halfway line. This
camera establishes the stageline, which in this instance runs the length of the field from
end to end (i.e. perpendicular to the camera from left to right). Now, all the cameras
which we will use in general play (this excludes those used for replays, injuries, etc) must
be on the near side of this stageline, pointing generally in the same direction as the master
shot (Hickman, 1991: 347).

Why, you may ask, is this so important? The reason is the direction of play for the two
competing teams. If Manchester United is playing Arsenal, and United is playing from
right to left, then this relationship must remain the same throughout (in the first half
obviously, and then change over in the second half). So the master shot establishes this
right to left play on the TV screen. If, however, we cut to a camera which is beyond the
stage line, in other words on the far side of the field facing towards the master shot
camera; then the action on the screen will suddenly be reversed, and United will seem to
be playing from left to right. This would be extremely confusing to the viewer at home,
and is thus never done.

If play stops, for some reason such as an injury, a yellow card, or a goal which has been
scored and we are showing replays, we can cut to cameras which may be beyond
stageline but which provides a better viewpoint of the incident. At times such as these the
drama is more important than the stageline, especially if the shot is a closeup and the
general setting is not seen. If we cut to views beyond stageline for replays of goals or
other important action in wider shots where the setting is evident, this replay is usually
accompanied by a ‘Reverse Angle’ graphic in the corner of screen to inform the viewer.

It may seem a simple enough matter to plan so that you avoid crossing stageline, and
generally this is true for events which are played in one direction up and down a pitch

60
(even though events like cricket swop ends over by over). The problem gets worse,
however, when you have events that go round in a loop, such as motor racing; and each
bend and curve of the track magnifies the stageline problems you will face. In theory it
would be nice to have the cars go in one screen direction (such as left to right) all the
time, as you cut from one camera to the next, but this is very difficult and sometimes
almost impossible, especially on older tracks which traverse through the streets of a city
such as Monaco – there just isn’t the place to put the cameras. In situations such as these
we revert to a ‘going away from you’ to a ‘coming towards you’ cut between successive
cameras. This is less disruptive than to have cars suddenly reverse screen direction
between two cuts. It does, however, involve careful planning and subsequent production
techniques which are ‘on the button’ literally as we cut from one camera to the next,
especially when you consider the race cars can be travelling at speeds of 300 kilometres
per hour. The ideal situation is to have a camera track a car coming towards it, and follow
until it is almost level with the camera, and then we cut to the next camera down the track
which has the car coming towards it, and so on and so on round the entire circuit; but this
is not always feasible. This holds true for all sports which occur round a circuit, not just
motor racing, but horseracing, athletics and such like.

So what determines the master shot, and thus the (initial at least) stageline for the event?
In most case it is the position of the sun at the time of day when the event will be
televised. Obviously this is irrelevant if it is an indoor event such as gymnastics, or a
night time event with artificial lighting. The reason we consider sun position because of
the first lesson anyone who buys a camera learns – pictures (generally) look better when
they are front lit, in other words the sun is coming from behind the camera, over the
operator’s shoulder, to illuminate the subject. If we capture shots looking into the sun the
subjects are backlit, and tend to end up as silhouettes.

Traditionally most sporting events are staged in the afternoon, unless it is cricket which
continues throughout the day. This means that the sun will be in the west, so our cameras
should face east. You will usually find that the grandstand in a stadium also faces the
east, since that is where the most expensive tickets are sold as so those patrons should
have the best view. However, this is not always the case; in tennis, for example, the best
seats in the house are those looking along the length of the court, while the sun comes
across the court (i.e. in the same plane as the net), or close to it.

Realise though, that the sun changes its position during the seasons of the year. In the
Southern Hemisphere it traverses an arc almost directly overhead during the day in
summer; whilst in winter this arc moves towards the North and much lower over the
horizon; and similarly in the Northern Hemisphere except that the arc of the sun is
towards the South in winter. Be aware of this, especially if you are planning the OB
months in advance of the transmission date.

So we have established the direction of our master shot, but where exactly must the
camera be placed? Since the master shot provides us with an ‘overall view’ of the action,
we need it to provide some sort of ‘three dimensionality’ to the picture, and this is best
achieved by being elevated above the action. In sports where the action happens in a

61
single plane, such as Fencing which moves back and forth across a piste (the ‘mat’ which
the contestants move along), this is not that important; but in sports which move towards
and away from camera as well as laterally it is best to get up higher than the playing field.

Just how high up is correct? There is no rule of thumb which is applicable to all sports,
but if we consider a few different examples we can get the general idea.

In tennis we learn the first general principle, and that is to consider the aspect ratio of the
television frame. Aspect ratio is a proportionate size between the horizontal and vertical
frame sides, and in most countries in the world is 4:3, although with the advent of newer
digital forms of television transmission this is mooted to change to 16:9 (which is more in
line with cinema aspect ratios). What we aim to achieve with the master shot for a tennis
broadcast is that the extremities of the tennis court fit comfortably within the television
frame.

Since the master shot is framed from the end of the court in tennis, this means that when
the sides of the court align with the sides of the frame (and they obviously can’t
throughout, because perspective will tend to make them narrow in the distance), then the
far and near baselines of the court should align with the top and bottom of frame
respectively. This is not strictly true, as we shall soon see, but it provides a guide for what
we are trying to demonstrate and achieve.

If we keep the sides/tramlines of the court fitting edge to edge of the screen, and change
the height of the camera, it affects how the near and far ends/baselines of the court fit the
screen. Take the camera higher, and they will extend beyond the top and bottom of
screen; take it lower and they compress into the screen, until we reach the stage where the
camera is level with the court surface and they become a single line in the middle of the
frame (theoretically).

We want to avoid having the camera too high, because as the ball traverses back and
forth the camera operator will have to tilt their camera up and down to keep the ball in
shot. This ‘nodding’ would become irritating in the extreme to the viewer at home. We
also have to consider where the players fit into the screen, the player at the far end will
have their head above the limit of the base line, and the player on the near side will
usually be playing closer than their baseline, and we need to include their feet. So, the
optimum height for this camera is where there is space at the top and bottom of the screen
between the baselines, with the far baseline falling about a quarter of the way down the
screen, and the near baseline about an eighth of the way up from the bottom of screen. In
this way the master shot should always include both players, and the ball, no matter
where it is played within the court. In reality, as we shall see later, there are two master
shots employed for tennis. One, between the left hand tramlines and the centre of court is
used when the service is to the left hand court, and the other between the right hand
tramlines and the centre of court is used when the service is to the right hand side of the
court. It should be noted that there will be a slight left to right panning movement as the
ball moves across the court; even though it would still stay in frame if the shot was held
steady aesthetically it is better to keep it in the centre two thirds of the screen. This side

62
to side panning is acceptable to the viewer, as long as it is not too quick or extreme;
whereas the up/down tilting associated with a too high camera position is definitely not.

(a) COURT FITS ASPECT RATIO (b) CAMERA TOO HIGH / STEEP

(c) CAMERA TOO LOW / SHALLOW (d) CORRECT FRAMING TO INCLUDE

PLAYERS

Figure 40 (a – d): Determining the Master Shot height for tennis.

Other sports which are shot along the length of the play such as badminton will have
similar principles of setup, but adjusted slightly because of the height of the net and the
fact that the players tend to remain within the confines of the court markings. Many other
sports, such as boxing or karate or wrestling use the 4:3 aspect ratio of the television
screen as their guide for placement of the master shot. A sport such as cricket also uses it
as an initial guide, although obviously the sides of the pitch in this case will not be at the
screen edges because it is relatively narrow. Cricket however modifies the approach
slightly, because of one factor, and that is the difficulty the super slomo camera operator
has in following the ball.

In a one day International match there are minimally 100 overs bowled, 50 from each
end. This equates to 300 deliveries (excluding no balls, wides etc) which each of the

63
super slomo operators (there are two of them, one from each end) are responsible for. The
super slomo camera is required to follow every ball bowled in a very tight (i.e. zoomed in
narrow angle) shot. This is an extremely daunting task to achieve once, let alone 300
times in the day. So, if in any way we can make their job easier by camera placement, so
much the better.

This is done by minimising the amount they have to move their camera to follow the ball,
which will essentially be a tilt up if the ball is delivered straight down the wicket, with a
small sideways pan if it deviates. If this camera is placed very high, the pitch will appear
quite long in frame, and there will be a considerable tilting of the camera with each ball.
If on the other hand the camera is placed lower down, the pitch will appear flatter and
there will be less tilting involved. However, if we place the camera too low down then the
umpire and bowler will obscure the ball as it is bowled along the length of the pitch.

The best height for the camera is to take an imaginary line between the batsman’s’ feet
and the hand of the outstretched arm of the bowler as they deliver the ball. This
imaginary line will extend upwards at an angle to the height where the super slomo
camera will be placed. In reality we place the camera just slightly, very slightly, above
this point, so that a little area of the pitch is revealed. Once we have the position of the
super slomo camera, we place the master shot camera (which has a wider shot which
includes pitch, bowler, batsman and wicketkeeper) right next to the super slomo camera,
so that there is shot continuity between them.

Figure 41: The Master shot height for Cricket.

64
The next general principle which governs the height of the camera is the viewpoint it
provides for the different parts of the field which it has to cover. If we think of a sport
such as football, our master shot will have to pan back and forth, and tilt up and down
over the entire field. We cannot leave it so wide that it includes the whole field like we do
for tennis, because the action and players on the field would appear very small, to the
extent that the audience at home would soon become irritated and switch channels or turn
the television off. The shot has to be tighter (although not our tightest shot, it will still
show the action and players around the ball who are involved in or may influence the
play) for it to be at all useable.

In sports like football the master shot camera is placed at the side of the field, rather than
at the end like tennis, directly opposite the halfway line. This means that its movement to
left or right is much the same, and gives the viewer at home an immediate feeling for
which team is attacking or defending based purely on which way the camera has panned.
Still, we have to work out the correct height for the camera. If it is placed low down, then
when play is occurring on the far side of the field we will find that players moving
around close to camera will obscure those who are actually on the ball. So we need to
keep it high enough to make sure that we can see action on the far side of the field
clearly. On the other hand, if we set the camera too high, then when play moves to the
near touchline we will find that the camera has to tilt down at a steep angle to cover it, so
much so that we end up looking down at the tops of the players’ heads. This gives an
uneasy feeling of vertigo to the viewer at home. It is quite common to see this in matches
played by smaller clubs such as those in the English Second and Third Divisions, who
have grandstands built very close to the playing field; especially when these stands were
built before the advent of television broadcasts. Since the stands were not constructed to
accommodate television cameras, these cameras are often placed in positions which are
compromised, such as the grandstand roof. The result – an almost vertical look down at
play happening on the near side of the pitch.

The objective is to reach a happy medium between the two, in other words not so low that
play on the far side of the field is obscured, and not so high that play on the near side is
viewed vertically. There is no golden rule as to how high off the ground the camera
should be, because a lot depends on how far back from the pitch the cameras can be
placed – the further back you move them the higher off the ground they will be. A
general rule is to take a line from the centre of the pitch back towards the grandstand at
roughly 25 degrees angle to the horizontal, and where this intersects the grandstand place
your master shot there.

The master shot is not always elevated as much as described in the previous examples. If,
for instance, you are covering a music concert or beauty pageant on stage then the master
shot will be just slightly higher than the participants. This is so that the camera is not too
dominant (from being high) but rather is almost neutral, so that it is roughly at the same
height as the eyeline of the band members or contestants.

In essence your master shot becomes a ‘safety shot’ (besides setting up the stageline for
the rest of the production). Because it is normally fairly wide and covering the action no

65
 matter where it is happening, it is the shot you would immediately cut to if you were to
lose the action in another shot (Hickman, 1991: 351). If, for example, you are covering a
football match, then the master shot would always include the ball in it, except,
obviously, if it goes out the sidelines or is kicked extremely high into the air. At such
times the master shot would predict where the ball would come back into play, and pan to
that area of the pitch. Although the framing is consistent, the camera operator still has to
zoom in sports like rugby or football; so that as play comes towards the camera they
zoom out, and as it moves to the far side of the field they zoom in. In sports such as
tennis however, the same lens angle is employed throughout.

Not all sports have a master shot, especially those where one camera cannot see the
whole event. Motor racing is an example (Hickman, 1991: 348), as are marathons. Since
the master shot does not exist, it cannot determine the stageline. Instead the camera being
broadcast at any moment in time determines stageline for the next shot.

TOO
STEEP

CORRECT
HEIGHT

GRANDSTAND TOO CENTER

SHALLOW OF FIELD

NEAR SIDE APPROX 25 DEGREES FAR SIDE

OF FIELD OF FIELD

Figure 42: Determining the Master Shot height for stadium sports such as Football or Rugby.

Once you have determined the master shot and its position, you need work out the camera
positions for the other cameras you will utilise. These cameras will both complement and

66
supplement your master shot. The complementary cameras are those which are
considered the bare necessity to provide a bona fide viewing experience, and in all
likelihood there will be at least two more of these ‘must have’ cameras (aside from the
master shot), and the supplementary cameras are those which can be considered as ‘nice
to have’, to provide visual variety to the production.

The first complementary camera angle is more often than not situated right next to the
master shot. It provides a closer (i.e. narrower lens angle) shot of the action compared to
the relatively wide master shot. If the master shot at a soccer match includes the player
on the ball and seven to eight other players close to this action, then this first
complementary camera will have the player on the ball and perhaps one other player who
is attacking his possession. Since its location is right next to the master shot camera there
is a seamless viewing experience as we cut between these two cameras, and we could
(and did in the early days of television sports coverage) quite conceivably watch all the
action on the field for the duration of the match without frustration.

We would still want to see other action which might be happening off the field though,
such as coaches benches, crowd cheering and such like; so a third complementary camera
would be necessary, usually placed on the sidelines at ground level. This camera could
provide a variety of shots besides these – throw ins, action happening along the side lines
and interviews with players before and after the match to give just a few examples. The
first OB van I ever worked on only had three cameras, and we covered a lot of different
events quite successfully with only these cameras (and one slomo recorder, so all in all
we had four available sources).

Obviously some sports such as soccer, rugby, boxing and show jumping lend themselves
to coverage with so few cameras; but there are sports such as motor racing where you
will need extra complementary cameras simply because three or four cannot see all the
extremities of the action. However even they have a certain minimum without which it
would be an unsatisfactory viewing experience. In the beginning of this chapter we spoke
of budget; and if you do not have the budget to at least employ this minimum number of
cameras you simply cannot produce the event.

After you have established all the absolutely necessary cameras, you can now start
planning those which supplement these. How many you use and where you put them
depends entirely on budget. The positions and number are impossible to detail here, but
when we look at individual sports shortly we shall see the present contemporary setups
used. It should be noted though that very often, if we wish to have a particular
complementary shot for a certain part of the action; we will need not one but two extra
cameras. If we go back to the soccer example – perhaps we want to introduce a shot
which will be used slightly above ground level to show ‘off sides’ during the match, then
we will need one camera on the left of the halfway line for the teams playing from right
to left offside infringements, and another placed to the right of the halfway line for the
other teams infringements. This is true of all events which are played in an area which is
‘mirrored’ to the left and right of the centre line. This principle often extends beyond the
field of play; if for example we want to have a fixed miniature camera in Team A’s

67
change room to see preparations before the match then protocol dictates that we place
another in Team B’s change room as well.

Sometimes though the extra supplementary cameras we need are not really to do with the
competitiveness of the sport, but are simply to provide extra grandeur to the event. An
example of this is the ubiquitous ‘beauty’ shots of the stadium and its setting. We may
place a wide angle fixed camera high up on a lighting pylon, or even on a nearby hill or
mountain, or in an airship hovering overhead; simply to give an ‘overall view’ of the
stadium without attempting in any way to show the actual action on the field. Obviously
we now only need to have a single camera and viewpoint for this, there is no need to have
a mirrored camera on the other side of the field.

Figure 43: An example of the ‘Beauty Shot’, in this case at Cricket

As a Director it is up to you to decide the number and location of the supplementary

cameras. Your experience of similar broadcasts, your knowledge of what the sponsor and
host broadcaster want to achieve, your vision and insight into what works and what
doesn’t, your progressiveness to imagine and assess the success the impact of a camera
angle never attempted before, and last but by no means least your ability to weigh up a
shots contribution to the production compared to how much its deployment will impact
on budget; will all contribute to these decisions. It is no easy choice. Certainly there are

68
stock approaches which have shown to have benefits over the course of time; but equally
so television is a creative environment and there is always room for innovation and
improvement no matter what your budget.

Bear in mind the fact that those supplementary cameras which are placed beyond the
stage line cannot be used (other than in exceptional circumstances) during general play;
their principle use is for replays of pertinent action. So during your planning you will
need to slave slomo recorders to them so that they operate as ‘iso cameras’ (Hickman,
1991: 353). While you are doing this decide which other cameras will have recorders
slaved to them as well.

When you have determined the placement of all your cameras you need to provide them
with some sort of platform, if this isn’t already provided for in the design and
construction of the stadium. More often than not you will need to construct some sort of
scaffolding for this purpose; more precisely you will need to get an outside contractor
who specialises in scaffolding to do this. Be warned – the scaffold for a camera position
is an extremely critical part of the production, and unless you regularly use the contractor
you will have to describe and detail exactly what you expect of them. It’s no good simply
instructing them to ‘rig a 4 metre high scaffold here and another 3 metre high one over
there’; in all likelihood they will be unusable as a camera platform.

The problem is that any contractor who doesn’t work in television really has little idea of
what it’s like to be a camera operator. They usually build scaffolds for painters or
construction workers, and about the only requirement is that it doesn’t fall down while
they are on it. Television cameras, especially those zoomed in on a very narrow angle
such as at cricket, need only a small vibration of the platform to translate into big jitters
and shakes in the picture. So instruct the scaffolder to brace the scaffold in both planes,
both two dimensionally across the faces and three dimensionally through the structure as
well. (See Figure 44). Each camera position needs a platform at least 3 metres by 3
metres, so if you have 2 cameras side by side then you will have to double the length of
the platform. If you place the cameras too close together you run the risk of each camera
intruding on the others’ shot as they pan to the extremities of the action, such as the near
corners of a soccer field. The platform will also need a roof to protect the operator from
the elements. In sunny climes this could be shadecloth only, but if you expect to be
broadcasting in rain or wind then a solid roof, back and sides to the platform are
necessary. Although the roof should cover the entire surface area of the platform, make
sure that the contractor understands not to support the front of the roof from the front
corners of the platform, because these supporting poles will intrude into shot as you pan
side to side. Rather the roof should be supported from the rear and behind the camera
position.

The platform should also be provided with a guardrail around the top, once again not so
high as to intrude into shot when the camera tilts down. Make sure the surface of the
platform is reasonably even, if they are using scaffold planks for this ask for them to be
the same thickness throughout. A camera operator has their eyes glued to the viewfinder,
and having to trip over uneven planks as you move around is very irritating and not

69
conducive to stable shots. While on
the subject of safety it is generally
accepted that all scaffolds should be
provided with a lightning conductor; LIGHTNING
this is especially true for sports CONDUCTOR
which take place come rain or shine,
such as rugby. Instruct the contractor
to also provide a ladder as access for
the operator, and a simple block and
tackle hoist to get the equipment up
and down. Last, but by no means SHADECLOTH HOIST
least, check the surface the scaffold
will be rigged on. If it’s open ground
then the base is not too critical, but I
have had occasion to rig scaffolds on
gleaming tongue and groove wooden
flooring – if the floor is damaged the
owner will come looking for you, CAMERA
rather than the scaffolding contractor PLATFORM

who has long since left the scene.

Make sure you place some sort of
protection such as carpeting
underneath the metal feet of the ACCESS
scaffold first. LADDER

You may want to include a guardrail

or perimeter around the base of the
camera scaffold as well, to stop
spectators from getting near it and
using it as a vantage point.
Television scaffolds make excellent
places to see the action from, and
nothing is more annoying than
camera shake induced by spectators
2 DIMENSIONAL
climbing up and down and vibrating BRACING
the platform. This has proven to be a 3 DIMENSIONAL
problem since the beginning of BRACING

(television broadcasting) time. It is

impossible for a camera operator to
NT
O
FR

leave their post to constantly chase

away spectators, rather just make the
scaffold inaccessible to them in the Figure 44: A typical Camera Scaffold.
first place.

Spectators can also quite easily intrude into shot if you aren’t careful with your planning.
When you do the recce try and visualize where they will be, and more importantly, what

70
they might do, especially at critical moments of the game. Don’t, for example, set the
height of the cameras at just above the heads of the spectators when they are sitting down
in the grandstand, because when one of the teams is about to score they invariably jump
up to cheer. Many an important try in a rugby match or goal in a soccer tournament has
been masked by a bank of spectators close to the camera jumping up and waving their
arms in the air just before the scoring happens. So, plan to have your cameras just that
little bit higher.

The next thing to consider regarding camera positions (and mics and other equipment
too) is how you intend to interconnect the cameras and the OB van. The route the cables
will take is critical. They should be as easy as possible to rig (and derig afterwards)
without ever being in the publics’ or participants way. Make sure you think carefully
about what will happen on the day of the event, because when you are doing the planning
recce the stadium is usually empty and quiet, but on the day of the event there can be tens
of thousands of people walking all over the place. Usually if you have to rig cables where
there will be non television people it is better to raise them up above their heads. Make
sure they are raised high enough, if the cables cross over a road rig them higher than the
tallest truck. Truck drivers are not known for their caring attitude, and its no skin off their
back if they are watching the road (and not the sky where your cable loom goes) and they
happen to bring down all of your principal camera cables……..

Figure 45: Cables flighted above vehicle access.

If there is simply no other way to route your cables other than where the public will be
then make sure they can’t be tripped over. Use gaffer tape to tape them down, or dig them
into the ground if it is soft enough. If the cables must pass over a passageway from one
side to the next then plan to place ‘Duckboards’ over them, so that shoes can’t damage

71
them. This is especially true where players exit from the changerooms through the
stadium tunnel onto the field, because the various types of cleats, spikes or studs on their
shoes and boots will do untold damage to your soft camera cables, especially if they are
worn by a 150 kilogramme prop forward.

DUC
KBO
A RD

CABLES

Figure 46: Run cables under Duckboards in vulnerable areas.

What follows are some examples of camera placements for various sporting codes, as
well as the shots you can expect from each. Note that there is no ‘Golden Rule’ regarding
where and how you place the cameras; these are merely examples from recent events
which reflect current approaches to the broadcast. Remember too that audio effects,
commentary and graphics play a vital role in the broadcast; these are not evident from the
diagrams which merely reflect camera placement. It has also been difficult to represent
scale and camera height in these diagrams, so what may look like two cameras positioned
close to each other may in fact be separated by some distance and elevation difference.

4.2 TREATMENT AND CAMERA PLACEMENT EXAMPLES

4.2.1 ATHLETICS – TRACK EVENTS (Refer to Figure 47)

Analysis: In any race, and especially sports such as athletics where the finishes may
only be separated by milliseconds, the shot which shows the Finish line becomes the
master shot. This camera must be positioned exactly in line with the finish line, so that
even small differences between the runners are distinguishable. Complementary cameras
will cover other aspects of the race itself, such as starts, bends, the home straight and the
far side of the track. Supplementary cameras will give you the line up of the athletes
before the race and afterwards, the spectators, wide shots of the arena and other shots
such as track officials.

Camera 1: The Master shot, positioned in the grandstand directly in line with the
finish. Picks up runners approximately two thirds of the way down the finish straight
(usually before they are level with Camera 4), and follows them to the finish line. Holds

72
 ATHLETICS - TRACK EVENTS
(Example from 1992 Barcelona Olympics) 17
7

3 10
19

12
11

1 13 FINISH LINE

16 15

20
9
5 14 6
18

KEY CAMERA REFERENCE

1. FINISH WIDE 11. TRACKING VEHICLE
2. FINISH CLOSE 12. RAILCAM GRANDSTAND
TYPICAL OB CAMERA 3. START 100m 13. FINISH SUPER SLO MO
4. HOME STRAIGHT 14. HEAD - ON SUPER SLOMO
5. HEAD - ON 15. FINISHERS
6. START 400m 16. FINISHERS REACTIONS
HAND HELD CAMERA 7. START 200m 17. BEAUTY SHOT
8. PRESENTATION 100m 18. BEAUTY SHOT
9. PRESENTATION 400m 19. BEAUTY SHOT - OLYMPIC FLAME
SPECIALISED CAMERA 10. PRESENTATION 200m 20. WARM UP AREA

Figure 47: Camera Layout for Athletics – Track Events.

73
on the finish line to show backmarkers coming through (i.e. it does not pan through the
finish with the leaders). It is a wide shot, able to include all the lanes of the track.

Camera 2: Positioned alongside Camera 1, with much the same purpose except that it
follows in a tighter lens angle, with only three or four lanes in shot, usually the leaders of
the race. It is primarily an Iso camera, used for replays.

Camera 3: Positioned near the start of the 100m starting area, also in the grandstand.
Shows the athletes preparing (in close up) and then the actual start of the race in a wider
shot which includes all the lanes. Also has a slaved recorder for replays of the start, or
false starts. It pans with the athletes until they are picked up by Camera 4 or 12, which
occurs soon after the start.

Camera 4: Positioned in the grandstand at the same height as Cameras 1, 2, and 3.

Follows the runners from the start, but is only used (cut to) after the first 15 metres or so.
Follows in a wide shot which reveals all the lanes.

Camera 5: Positioned at the end of the home straight, at just above ground level.
Follows the entrants head on in a wide shot which reveals all the lanes, until they break
the tape. Slaved to a recorder, and typically only used for replays. This camera can also
be used for events which lap several times round the track, and leads into camera 6.

Camera 6: At much the same elevation as the master shot, this camera is used for the
start of the 400m races, and similar events which start in the same area. It can also be
used for long events to cover the bend after the home straight. This camera is usually
cleared (i.e. cut away from) before the runners draw level with it.

Camera 7: At the same height as camera 6, and covering the same sort of shots except
now it is showing the start of the 200 metre races, and the bend after the back straight.

Camera 8: Positioned at ground level this camera covers the presentation of the
athletes for the start of the 100 metre and 110 metre races. The camera pans from one
athlete to the next in a full shot, as they are individually announced by the commentator.
It is also used for tighter shots of the athletes crouching and getting set just before the
starters’ gun. An additional shot is the water jump during the steeplechase event.

Camera 9: The same as camera 8, but in this case for the start of the 400 metre races.
It is also mounted at a higher elevation than camera 8.

Camera 10: The same as camera 8 and 9, but in this case for the start of the 200 metre
races. Positioned at the same height as camera 9.

Camera 11: Mounted on a tracking vehicle (in this case an electric buggy) just off the
track at the same height as the athletes. Follows the athletes down the back straight,
usually from just ahead of them so that they are framed in a ¾ view. Picks up the shot

74
from camera 6 whilst the runners are exiting the bend, and then tracks with them until
cleared before the beginning of the next bend.

Camera 12: A Railcam moving along the leading edge of the grandstand roof. Tracks
with the runners down the home straight, keeping exactly abreast of the leader/s. This
camera provides an excellent view of who is leading, or catching up or being caught from
behind because it can maintain this side on view perpendicular to the direction of athlete
movement; something none of the other cameras positioned along the main straight can
do because they are in fixed positions and the athletes are always moving towards or
away from them. So there is an error of parallax. This camera picks up the action soon
after the start in the 100 metre and 110 metre races; or as the athletes exit the bend in
longer races, and then follows them through to the finish line. It is only used for replays,
and is thus slaved to a recorder.

Camera 13: Super Slo Mo camera directly opposite the finish line, used for replays of
the athletes cutting the finish tape. Follows the leader/s in a full shot, so that only the top
2 or 3 runners are in shot. If the leaders are grouped in lanes close together, this shot will
be fairly tight, but if they are in lanes at the extremities the shot by necessity is wider.
Slightly lower in the grandstand than Cameras 1 and 2.

Camera 14: Also Super Slo Mo, performing the same function as camera 13, but this
time from a head on perspective. Positioned at ground level.

Camera 15: A hand held camera (on Steadicam brace) positioned on or near the track.
Follows the winner as they cut the tape and slow down their run, stays with them while
they are congratulated by other runners.

Camera 16: Performs a similar function to camera 15, but this time follows the
winners as they react with the crowd, their coaching staff and other athletes and officials.
Is usually an RF camera (once again on a Steadicam brace) so that it has the capability to
move with the athlete as they sometimes perform a ‘lap of honour’.

Camera 17: Camera mounted in a fixed position high up on the top of the stands,
typically with a wide angle lens. Provides a ‘beauty shot’, or overall picture of the
stadium and its’ setting. Used for establishing the scene, as well as background visuals
for graphical overlays such as presentation of the runners and their lanes, finishing
positions, etc.

Camera 18: Same as camera 17, but at the opposite end of the stadium.

Camera 19: A camera in a fixed position providing a shot of the Olympic flame. This
has historical significance since athletics is the sport which began the Olympic movement
in ancient Greece.

Camera 20: A hand held camera operating in the adjoining warm up area, providing
shots of the athletes preparing for their events.

75
Please note that the shot descriptions given above are not all encompassing, you would
need them to provide you with other visuals (such as crowd shots) during the course of
the event. What has been described is merely their main function.

It is also important to note that many other events (the ‘Field’ events – Shot Put, Javelin,
Discuss, Long Jump, Triple Jump, High Jump, Pole Vault and Hammer Throw) all take
place in the same arena. Each of these needs coverage with 3 to 4 cameras, albeit not at
the same time since they are scheduled for different days. In addition you will need
coverage of the podium and medal awarding ceremonies. None of this is covered in the
above description of the Track events.

4.2.2 BOXING: (Refer to Figure 48)

Analysis: A contact sport between two opponents, Boxing is an event where the
action during 3 minute (for professional bouts, and 2 minute for amateurs) rounds are
punctuated by 1 minute interludes between rounds when the individual boxers receive
advice and attention from their respective trainers. The length of the bout cannot be
anticipated beforehand (unlike most other sports) since the contest may go the full length,
or there may be a resolution to the bout, most likely via a knockout, within the first few
seconds of the bout.

Although the essential component of the match is the blows which each boxer delivers
and lands and as a director you may well dwell on a shot which only reveals the upper
torsos of the contestants, the master shot for the event is actually wider and reveals the
full length (i.e. it includes their feet) of the boxers. Shots which are side on to the boxers
are best at revealing the blows which they trade, if they turn to have their backs to camera
viewpoint the perceived action is suppressed for the viewer. For this reason there is a
camera placed perpendicularly to the master shot, which can be used should the above
happen. Cameras placed close to the ring also provide exciting viewing angles, especially
when one or the other of the boxers is (literally) ‘on the ropes’ of the ring. In between the
rounds it is necessary to have cameras close to each of the contestants’ corners to show
the interaction between boxer and training staff.

The critical aspect of the bout is the culmination of it by knockout. Since you want to
dwell on this for analysis after the bout has finished (and because you can only transmit
one viewpoint during the bout at any moment in time) the sport requires replays and
slomo’s from various angles, so virtually every camera you employ will be slaved to a
recorder.

Camera 1: The Master shot. As described previously it provides a shot which

includes both boxers from head to toe, with a little room above and below each
respectively. It can also provide shots of the ring announcer, or a shot which shows the
entire ring for introductions to the bout. It is slaved to a recorder for replays. It is

76
 BOXING OB CAMERA PLAN
(Example from Barcelona Olympics)

7 5

2 8

KEY CAMERA REFERENCE

1. MASTER SHOT
2. FULL SHOT
TYPICAL OB CAMERA 3. FULL SHOT / SIDE VIEW
4. ARENA / BEAUTY SHOT
5. HAND HELD
6. HAND HELD
HAND HELD CAMERA 7. OVERHEAD
8. SCOREBOARD / TIMING

SPECIALISED CAMERA

Figure 48: Camera layout for Boxing.

77
positioned high up in the grandstand, such that the ring fits the 4X3 aspect ratio of the
television set.

Camera 2: Positioned on the same axis to the ring as camera 1, but slightly lower.
Provides shots which include both boxers, but from the torso up only. Much of the
broadcast is entrusted to this camera. For replays it too is slaved to a recorder.

Camera 3: The same positioning height wise and the same shot size as camera 2, but
with a side view to camera 1 and 2. Once again slaved to a recorder.

Camera 4: High up in the stands, and set well back, it is able to provide a wide vista
of the entire stadium, as well as closer shots of the ring. Used for setting the scene of the
action, as well as background visuals for the overlays of graphics and captioning.

Camera 5: Hand held camera which operates along the skirts of the ring (i.e. that
region of the platform which is level with the ring surface, but outside the ropes) close to
the ‘Red’ corner. During the rounds it provides shots of the bout, and in between rounds
provides close-ups of the boxer being treated and advice from the trainer. Before and
after the bout it can enter the ring for pictures of the boxers entering the ring, the referee,
the introduction of the bout and rules, and interviews afterwards. Slaved to a recorder for
replays.

Camera 6: The same as camera 5, but this time operating in the region of the ‘Blue’
corner.

Camera 7: A miniature camera slung over the ring, providing a ‘birds’ eye view’ of
the action. The camera is immobile, and rigged to give a shot which includes the entire
ring. A complementary camera, it is useful for showing the boxers footwork and
movement around the ring. Once again, slaved to a recorder.

Camera 8: In this example taken from the Olympics this camera is used to show the
scoreboard (which is updated round by round in amateur boxing) and the timing of each
round. In professional boxing the scores are only tallied at the end of the bout by the
judges, and the timing is done using electronic graphics. If this camera were to be utilised
for a professional bout it would more than likely be only for Super Slo Mo replays.

There are many sports which are between two participants in an area such as the boxing
ring (even though they may have no ropes around this area) such as wrestling, judo, and
karate. The treatment would be similar for each, but often the cameras are taken down to
ground level, especially if the combatants are involved in prone positions on the floor.

4.2.3 CRICKET (Refer to Figure 49)

Analysis: In the world of sport cricket is a very unique game. Although there are
various versions of the game which last for shorter periods of time the Test matches can
last up to 5 days. However if you were to analyse it very little of this time is actual action

78
CRICKET CAMERA LAYOUT
(Example from ICC Cricket World Cup 2003 - 4 3 13
Preliminary Rounds)
NORTH
17

7 9

14
20 18

P ITCH
5 23

21

19
15

11

8 6

16

24 S OUTH 22 10
2 1 12

KEY CAMERA REFERENCE

TYPICAL OB CAMERA
HAND HELD CAMERA
SPECIALISED CAMERA
1. WICKET TO WICKET 14. STUMP CAMERA
2. FOLLOW 15. STUMP CAMERA
3. WICKET TO WICKET 16. LBW MATT CAMERA
4. FOLLOW 17. LBW MATT CAMERA
5. SQUARE LEG 18. LINE / RUN OUT CAMERA
6. SLIPS 19. LINE / RUN OUT CAMERA
7. SLIPS 20. LINE / RUN OUT CAMERA
8. REVERSE SLIPS 21. LINE / RUN OUT CAMERA
9. REVERSE SLIPS 22. COMMENTATORS SPY CAMERA
10. BEAUTY CAMERA 23. REVERSE MID WICKET -
11. RF / GROUND CAMERA SUPER SLO MO
12. SUPER SLO MO 24. FISH EYE BEAUTY
13. SUPER SLO MO

Figure 49: Camera layout for Cricket.

79
(i.e. the delivery of the ball, the batter hitting it and the fielder retrieving it). Large
amounts of time are spent whilst the bowler has the ball returned to them, and they begin
their next run up. There are other aspects which are important, such as the batter
preparing for the delivery and the captain placing his team, but these too are limited in
the time they consume.

So cricket coverage has to find ways of filling up the enormous amounts of ‘dead time’
while there is no real action on the field. This is done by having (to a large extent)
multiple replays from various angles of the short periods of action, shots of the crowd and
dressing rooms, and even shots of the commentary team. Also, more than any other sport,
cricket relies on the use of graphics in the form of players, teams, history and match
statistics to entertain and enlighten the viewer during the numerous visually slow periods
of action on the field.

Since cricket is played from both ends of the field over by over, the camera placement
from one end will have to be mirrored by cameras for those overs from the other end. For
the purposes of this explanation these will be referred to as the North (N) and South (S)
ends, but his is not always the case, and the actual orientation of the pitch for a particular
field is the defining parameter.

Camera 1: Is positioned above the S sightscreen, at a height as determined by the

pitch, position of the bowlers arm at delivery and position of the batter; as described
previously in the text on planning. This camera is perfectly in line with the wicket, as are
the 2 cameras alongside it (even though this may not seem apparent from the diagram;
but if you take scale into account and the fact that the 3 cameras are very close to each
other then they are all essentially in line with the pitch). This camera is the Master shot
for deliveries bowled from the S end. It is used from when the bowler is near the end of
their delivery run up, zooms in as the bowler approaches the delivery crease and
continues on with the shot as the ball is bowled; all the while zooming in and tilting up. If
the batter leaves the ball the shot continues on until the ball is gathered by the wicket
keeper, at which stage the shot is cleared. If the batter just nicks the ball the camera
operator attempts to hold the ball in frame until it is caught by the wicket keeper. If the
ball hits the batters pads it holds on this shot, for comparison with camera 16 should there
be an LBW appeal or decision. However if the batter hits the ball the shot is cleared
immediately. This process is repeated ball by ball, over by over, throughout the course of
the day.

For deliveries from the N end of the pitch the shot is held as a wicket to wicket shot,
which includes the entire length of the pitch. If the batters take a run then the shot will
include their progress up and down the pitch. This camera is slaved to a recorder for
replays.

Camera 2: Positioned right alongside camera 1, its purpose for deliveries from the S
end is to follow the ball in a closer shot; no matter whether it is left, nicked or struck by
the batter. The shot of the ball is held even after it is hit, so that there is an immediate and
natural cut from camera 1 to camera 2 should the ball be hit. The shot will continue on

80
with the ball until it is gathered by the wicketkeeper or any other fielder. For deliveries
from the N end it does much the same thing, except that now it is only used for replays,
and so it too is slaved to a recorder. If there is an LBW appeal from the N end it
immediately gets a mid shot of the umpire at that end, to see his decision.

Camera 3: The position and use of this camera is mirrored to camera 1, except this
time as a Master shot for deliveries from the N end of the field ans as a supplementary
camera for replays from the S end of the field. Naturally it too must be slaved to a
recorder.

Camera 4: Just as camera 3 mirrors camera 1, so too does this camera’s position and
use mirror that of camera 2; and once again it is slaved to a recorder.

Camera 5: Positioned just above ground level perpendicularly (i.e. at ‘square leg’)
this camera has several different purposes. For deliveries from either end it will follow
the bowler during their run up and delivery, and then the ball as it travels along the pitch
until it is hit by the batter. If the ball is hit in the air or anywhere in the region of square
leg it will follow the ball until it is fielded, and then follow the return throw back towards
the pitch. The shot is provides can be used in a variety of ways. If a ‘no ball’ is called by
the umpire it can be used to show the bowler overstepping the crease. If a stumping is
attempted by the wicket keeper it can be used to show if the batter was in or out of their
crease. If a run out is attempted it can be used to show if the batter made their ground at
either end. If the ball was hit in the mid wicket area, either in the air or along the ground
it can be used to show the fielding, especially if it travels close to the boundary rope in
that area. It can also be used for cutaways showing the captain conversing with his team,
the bowler returning to his run up position, etc. Often used for replays, it is slaved to a
recorder.

Camera 6: Also at slightly above ground level, it is positioned roughly where ‘3rd
man’ would be fielding for a right handed batter facing deliveries from the N end. It is
used for catches or fielding in the slips, gully or 3rd man sector of the field for right
handed batters. For left handed batters facing deliveries from the N end it would get a
shot of the bowler during his run up, and hold on this shot (typically a mid shot) for the
bowlers reaction to what the batter attempts or achieves. This camera can also be used for
fielding which takes place in its’ sector of the field, or crowd shots. Once again it is
slaved to a recorder.

Camera 7: Its position and use mirrors that of camera 6, with the ends of the field
reversed. It must also therefore be slaved to a recorder.

Camera 8: Positioned much like camera 6, but in this case where 3rd man would be
fielding for a left handed batter facing deliveries from the N end. Used for catches or
fielding in the gully, slips or 3rd man region of the field for left handed batters, or to
capture the bowler in their run up or reaction after delivery for right handed batters. Also
used should the ball be hit at any time in that sector of the field for the fielder gathering
and returning it. Typically slaved to a recorder for replays.

81
Camera 9: Positioned and used as a mirror to camera 8’s position and use; and also
slaved to a recorder.

Camera 10: Positioned high up above the field, typically on one of the lighting towers.
Used to give a wide overall shot of the field; either to show fielding placements or as a
background for graphical overlays. It is normally fixed in position, although it can also
have an operator to give a variety of closer shots.

Camera 11: A hand held camera operating at ground level. Used primarily to show
batters entering or leaving the filed during the course of play, it can also be used for pitch
reports and the coin toss before the match, and crowd shots during the match. Since it is
an RF camera it can move freely around the field.

Camera 12: A Super Slo Mo camera positioned alongside cameras 1 and 2. The shot it
provides is a close up of the ball as it leaves the bowlers hand (from either end of the
field) during the delivery, moves the length of the pitch and either passes by or is hit by
the batter. The shot then continues, theoretically still a close up of the ball but this is very
difficult to achieve if it is hit so the operator often zooms out to a wider shot by necessity,
and follows the ball until it is fielded. The shot is used primarily for slow motion replays
of the ball – the position of the seam as it leaves the bowlers hand, the bounce off the
pitch, the shot the batter plays, if the ball is nicked the change in angle or seam rotation,
and the catch should it be taken. Obviously, by definition, it must work in conjunction
with its own Super Slo Mo VTR.

Camera 13: As with camera 12 but positioned instead alongside cameras 3 and 4.

Camera 14: A ‘Stumpcam’ at the N end of the pitch, slaved to a recorder for replays
but can also be used during general play for backgrounds to graphical overlays.

Camera 15: Another ‘Stumpcam’, used like camera 14 but at the S end of the pitch.

Camera 16: The ‘LBW Matt’ camera at the S end of the filed, working in conjunction
with camera 1. This camera is lined up perfectly with the wickets before the match, and a
shot recorded from it. This shot then has a ‘Matt’ (i.e. a coloured overlay as wide as the 3
wickets) recorded over it, and saved on a computer hard drive like this. Should there be
an LBW appeal or decision the shot from camera 1 is half mixed with the ‘LBW Matt’.
The result is a superposition of ball (with either pitching on line or not as can be seen
from the matt, and then frozen when the ball strikes the pads), batter and pads,wickets
and matt; and allows graphical evidence of whether the batter should stay in or be given
out. This system is used for the viewer at home only, and not by the umpire.

Camera 17: The same as camera 16, but this time at the N end of the field and working
in conjunction with camera 3.

82
Camera 18: A Line / Run out
camera. This camera is fixed in
position about 3 metres above the
ground and exactly in line with the
crease at the N end of the field. It
is used primarily for replays, and
so is slaved to a recorder. For
deliveries from the N end of the
field it is able to show whether the
bowler overstepped the crease in
the case of a ‘no ball’ decision by
the umpire. For deliveries from the
S end of the field it is used by both
television crew and umpire (in this
case the ‘3rd Umpire’ sitting
watching a monitor) should there
be an appeal for a stumping; so see
whether the batter was in or out of
their crease. Finally it is used, once
again by both television and 3rd
Umpire, to decide on ‘Run out’s’
at the N end of the pitch. There are
3 other Line / Run out cameras Figure 50: The Line/Run out Camera.
(Cameras 19, 20 and 21) all
fulfilling the same role as this camera, but positioned opposite it and at the S end of the
pitch.

Camera 22: The commentary booth camera, a miniature camera fixed in the corner of
the booth to give a shot of the commentary team. Used mainly during quiet periods of
play for interaction between the commentators, and also to give a ‘face to the voice’.

Camera 23: A Super Slo Mo camera positioned and fulfilling a mirrored role to that of
camera 5. Obviously slaved to its’ own specialised VTR.

Camera 24: Another Beauty shot camera positioned high up like camera 10, but with a
much wider (‘Fish Eye’) lens so that the entire stadium, stands, surrounding areas and
even the distant horizon are included. Used mainly to set the scene, or as background for
graphical overlays.

4.2.4 FOOTBALL (SOCCER) (Refer to Figure 51)

Analysis: A game played from one side to the other along the length of the field
between 2 sides, with the object being to score goals against the opponents. Obviously
the goals are vital aspects to cover (from many different angles), but there are typically
very few of these scored in any match (and often none at all). So the secondary aim has to

83
FOOTBALL CAMERA LAYOUT
(Example fr om World Cup 2002 - Pool Matches)

10

8 15

20

4 13

11

2 18

5 17

3 12

19

7 14

16 6

KEY CAMERA REFERENCE

TYPICAL OB CAMERA
HAND HELD CAMERA
SPECIALISED CAMERA
1. FOLLOW WIDE 11. SUPER SLO MO
2. FOLLOW CLOSE 12. REVERSE SUPER SLO MO
3. OFFSIDE RIGHT 13. REVERSE SUPER SLO MO
4. OFFSIDE LEFT 14. REVERSE CORNER
5. TOUCHLINE 15. REVERSE CORNER
6. BEAUTY 16. JIMMY JIB CROWD
7. CORNER RIGHT 17. ON FIELD ANTHEMS
8. CORNER LEFT 18. TUNNEL
9. JIMMY JIB GOAL 19. CHANGEROOM
10. JIMMY JIB GOAL 20. CHANGEROOM

Figure 51: Camera layout for Football (Soccer).

84
be the ‘parry and riposte’ attack and defence by each team during the match. In football
there is very little ‘dead time’ on the field (unlike sporting codes such as rugby), the play
is almost continuous except for interruptions like injuries, bookings, throw in’s and
corner kicks (Hickman, 1991: 341).

The critical moments in any game to show are individual player’s skills while on the ball,
team skills on attack or defence, and decisions (such as ‘Off sides’) which the match
officials make, and obviously any goals which are scored. Secondary considerations
include the decisions and gesticulations of the coaching staff at the side of the field, and
the fans in the stands.

Camera 1: Is the Master shot. The camera is positioned high up in the stands
(according to criteria mentioned previously in the text) with an overall view of the entire
playing field. It follows the action in a wide shot, not so wide that the viewer feels remote
from the action, but not so close that the ball leaves the frame at any time. This is the
critical aspect of this shot, it always includes the ball (unless it is kicked out of play). The
shot not only shows attack and defence options and developments but also gives a sense
of anticipation to the viewer because as the camera pans from left to right (and vice
versa) the amount of movement and the position of play on the field give the viewer a
sense on anticipation as to just when a shot on goal might take place.

Camera 2: Positioned alongside camera 1, it supplements the master shot. It too

follows the play throughout, but in a tighter shot, revealing the player in control of the
ball and those very close to him. This shot is used as a player dribbles the ball, and is able
to show their individual skills (as opposed to camera 1 which essentially shows team
skills). When the ball is passed to another player, this camera is cleared, and is quickly
reframed to include the new player on the ball, at which stage it is cut to again. At times
it may include several players, especially when they are bunched close together, such as
when players crowd the goalmouth area when a corner kick is taken.

Camera 3: Positioned midway between the right hand goal and the centre line, this
camera is still elevated above the field but lower than cameras 1 and 2. It has a shot size
much like camera 1, and is used when the team playing from left to right is attacking the
right hand goal. In football the ‘off side’ rule is often used by the defending team to
render an attack null and void and the attacking team attempts to foil this. The last line of
defence is often in the region of this camera, and it is able to provide a clear view of
whether a player was offside or not when the ball was passed to them. Since it is often
used for replays, this camera is slaved to its’ own recorder.

Camera 4: Used much the same as camera 3, but instead positioned in the left half of
the field for teams attacking from right to left; an also with its’ own recorder for replays.

Camera 5: A hand held camera operating on the sidelines, often mounted on a

steadicam brace. This camera can provide shots of on field action, such as throw ins or
when players move with the ball close to the touchline. It can also be used for off field
action, such as gestures or feelings of the coaching staff, and at times when substitutes

85
take the field. During
International events
when the players line
up on the field for
national anthems it can
provide shots of them,
as well as the
handshaking and
exchange of
memorabilia which
takes place between the
opposing captains. It is
a wonderful shot for
getting the viewer at
home right amongst the
action because of its
closeness and intimacy
with the play.

Camera 6: A wide
angle beauty shot
typically mounted high
up in the stands or
lighting towers, which
gives an overall view of
the stadium and playing Figure 52: A Steadicam operating on the sidelines at
surface. football.

Camera 7: A camera mounted at ground level at the near right hand corner, used
when a corner kick is taken from there. Provides a very good view of the flight and arc of
the ball as it is kicked towards the goalmouth area. It is only used momentarily as the ball
is place, and then kicked, and is cleared as soon as the ball has travelled into the
goalmouth area.

Camera 8: Positioned and used much the same as camera 7, but instead at the near
left hand corner.

Camera 9: A camera mounted on a Jimmy Jib behind the right hand goals. It is
mainly used for replays (and thus has its’ own recorder) of balls which are flighted in and
around the right hand goalmouth area. The objective with this shot is to start at an
elevated position with the camera above the goals, and as the ball is struck towards goal
to depress the camera position so that the goal netting comes into view. This provides a
‘goal keepers’ view of the strike, and hopefully save. If the goalkeeper doesn’t save the
shot and a goal is scored the shot takes on an exciting ‘in your face’ element for the
viewer as the ball punches the back of the net right in front of the camera. It is seldom

86
used during general play, except perhaps when there is a free kick or penalty kick taken
at goal, and the shot is used to ‘set the scene’ slightly above the top bar of the goals.

Camera 10: As with camera 9, but positioned instead behind the left hand goals, with
its’ own slaved recorder.

Camera 11: A Super Slo Mo camera positioned alongside camera 1 and 2 in the
grandstand. Follows the action in a tight shot similar to that of camera 2, and is primarily
used for replays of good ball control, good tackles and dispossessions, or fouls.

Camera 12: A Super Slo Mo camera positioned at the same height and in the same area
as camera 3, but on the opposite side of the field (and thus across the stageline). One of
the problems with a 2 dimensional medium such as television is that it is difficult to make
out the exact direction of a pass or kick unless the camera is directly behind where the
kick was taken. So, if all your cameras are only on one side of the field then a lot of the
kicks coming in the direction of camera could be misinterpreted by the viewer, who
would then find it difficult to discern a poor pass from a good or excellent one. By
placing reverse angle cameras beyond the stageline the director is able to show just how a
particular attack developed (obviously only in replay after it has happened) by using
these shots which are positioned behind the kicker. Camera 12 is used mainly for this
purpose.

Figure 53: Master Shot, Follow Close up and Super Slomo (from left to right)
positioned in the grandstand.

Camera 13: Positioned in the same way as camera 12 on the far side of the field, but
opposite camera 4. Used for the same reasons as camera 12.

Camera 14: Used as a mirror shot to camera 7 for corners taken from the far right hand
corner, or any free kicks from the same area. Since it is reversed angle it can only be used
for replays and is thus slaved to a recorder.

Camera 15: The same as camera 14, but behind the far left hand corner of the field.

87
Camera 16: Another Jimmy Jib mounted camera, but this time for use almost
exclusively over the crowd. Typically crowd shots which are ‘up close and personal’
from a hand held camera can reveal at most fans in the front one or two rows. The jib arm
allows the camera to stretch several rows back; and also can provide sweeping shots just
above the crowds’ heads which is terrifically dynamic and really sets the viewer at home
in the same mood as the stadium fan. Typically used only when play is interrupted for
injuries, or immediately after a goal has been scored or a penalty awarded, to show the
fans excitement.

Camera 17: Another hand held camera used on field to supplement camera 5 during
the singing of the anthems, and also for post match euphoria amongst the winning team
who typically do a lap of honour around the field. This is an RF camera which has the
freedom to roam with them.

Camera 18: A miniature camera mounted in the passage leading from the change room
of one of the teams, to show them leaving the change room before the match.

Camera 19: The same type and positioning as camera 18, but in the other teams change
room passageway.

Camera 20: A hand held camera operating in the tunnel under the grandstand which
shows the teams and officials gathering, lining up and doing last minute preparations
before the match begins, and then entering onto the field.

4.2.5 GOLF (Refer to Figure 54)

Analysis: Another game played over a series of days, golf is as much a challenge
between an individual player and their own form as it is a contest between all the players
in the field. The essence of golf is how well players can place their shots around the
course, and so from a television coverage point of view it is imperative that each metre of
the course, which incidentally covers many kilometres in total, can be captured and
broadcast. It would be impossible to achieve this with fixed camera positions only, and it
becomes necessary to have cameras which rove around the course with the players.
Long distances however mean long lenses as well, and hand held roving cameras are by
their nature unstable when zoomed in to narrow lens angles. Far better to have cameras
which are mounted on stable platforms so that when they are fully zoomed in they do not
suffer from shaky shots.

So we will need to combine the two forms of camera in our treatment of golf. Some
cameras in fixed positions to cover those shots which require distance (such as when a
player drives off the tee); and hand held roving cameras to provide us with the ‘up close
and personal’ aspects of an individuals’ play.

88
 8
6 GOLF OB PLAN
STAND
(Example from Nedbank
Challenge 2003, Sun City,

D
N
ST

A
AN 18th Hole)

ST
7 D
A GREEN

D
A 5

S TAN
A
A
A
A 9

A
A

A
A
A

A LAKE A

KEY A A

4
TYPICAL OB CAMERA A A

3
HAND HELD CAMERA A AY A

SPECIALISED CAMERA A A
I RW

2
FA

A
A
A

A
A

CAMERA REFERENCE
A
1. RF CAMERA AT TEE
2. FAIRWAY, CRANE
3. RF CAMERA, FAIRWAY
4. RF CAMERA, FAIRWAY
5. RF CAMERA AT GREEN
6. APPROACH, PUTTING
7. APPROACH, PUTTING
8. BEAUTY WIDE
9. JIMMY JIB
TEE

Figure 54: Golf camera layout.

89
The example shown is only one hole of an 18 hole course, and is the setup used on the
last day of the championship. Treatment and coverage may differ from hole to hole,
depending on the nuances of that hole; and also on individual holes from day to day
(because, for example, on the last two days of a four day competition there are 2 golfers
on any one hole at a time, whereas on the first two days there are three or perhaps even
four).

Also please note that in this example the cameras are numbered from 1 through 9 (for
simplicity’s sake) but in actual fact there are in the region of 40 cameras covering the
entire event. And the actual cameras which appear on this hole may have non sequential
numbers, because the hand held cameras ‘leap frog’ around the course; they are not
assigned to one hole only (Verna, 1987: 94). In fact planning where individual cameras
will be throughout the day is a major exercise in itself, which we will not delve into here.

As with most sports which show a ball travelling through space on a two dimensional
screen the viewers’ interpretation of the accuracy and excellence of the shot is greatly
enhanced if the camera is lined up with the shot’s direction. So we will attempt wherever
possible to line up the camera angle with where the golfer attempts to strike the ball
(Hickman, 1991: 348). If the ball then veers off course it is immediately perceptible to
the viewer. Wherever the ball lands, we have to get pictures of the next shot, even if this
happens to be ‘in the rough’ (or bush to the uninitiated).

The example shown (the 18th hole at Sun City in South Africa) is a par 4, which means
that a good player will take 4 shots from tee off to sinking the ball in the cup (hole). The
first shot, a long drive onto the fairway, is followed by another long shot onto the front of
the green. The third shot is a putt along the green; with the hopes of this finishing close to
the cup, so that the fourth shot means an easy putt to hole out.

Top professional golfers will attempt to finish the hole in 3 shots (and thus score a
‘birdie’ or ‘one under par’ for the hole). The accepted way on this hole is to drive the first
shot as far as possible up the fairway, getting it close to the lake or water hazard. This
means that the second shot can be made more accurately, because it is shorter, and thus
hopefully get it close to the hole (the equivalent therefore of the normal third shot) to
allow an easy putt into the hole; and birdie. So our camera treatment should show when a
golfer is in a position to get their birdie.

Camera 1: A hand held camera positioned at the tee, transmitting it’s pictures and
sound back to the OB van via RF microwave link. The camera will line up behind the
player who is about to drive their ball, with the player and club in the foreground and the
fairway in the distance. The shot will be held after the ball has been struck, until there is a
reaction from the player or crowd in the area (usually clapping if it is a good drive, or
polite groans if it is poor), at which stage it will be cleared.

Camera 2: Equipped with a long lens, this camera is mounted on a crane 22 metres
above the ground. It is positioned at a point next to the area of the fairway which
constitutes a good drive. This means that viewers can judge the quality of the drive, if the

90
ball stops short of this camera position we know the shot was not very good; on the other
hand if the ball travels beyond this camera’s position we know the shot was excellent.
The camera is mounted high up so that it is easier to follow the ball (both from a camera
operational aspect as well as for the viewer at home). If the camera is mounted at ground
level the ball travels into the sky, and because it is white is difficult to see against the sky.
By mounting the camera high it ‘looks down’ on the ball travelling through the air, so
that it is framed against a dark green background and thus easier to pick out.

The director will cut to this camera from camera 1, and it will hold the ball in shot until it
comes to rest. Depending on where the ball comes to rest it may zoom out to reveal the
lay of the ball, but if another camera can provide a better view of this then the director
will cut to that shot.

Camera 3: Another RF hand held camera, which follows the players around the
course (very often with the aid of a golf buggy). This camera will show one of the players
as they drive their second shot. It will line up behind the player much the same as camera
1, and hold the player in view until after they have played their shot and have some sort
of reaction. It can also track with the player and their caddie as they walk up the fairway
to where their ball has landed, and gets pictures of them discussing the approach they will
make, their club selection and the practice strokes before the actual striking of the ball is
made.

Camera 4: Identical in the

type of camera and its
deployment to camera 3, the
only difference being that it
follows the other player
involved in the pairing.

Camera 5: Another RF
hand held camera, this time
operating around the green.
This camera will also attempt
to line up the shot direction
with the direction the ball
will be hit; but instead of
being behind the player the
camera will be in front of
them, with the hole in the
foreground and the player
making the putt in the
Figure 55: A major scaffold rigged at Sun City to house
background. Most putts don’t
Commentary teams, Cameras, on site Interview Studios
travel in a straight line, they
(with lighting) and Microwave links.
curve or arc according to the
slant of the green and the cut

91
of the grass. By being directly in line with the hole we can see exactly what this curve of
the balls’ travel is like.

Camera 6: Mounted high up at the rear of the grandstand this camera is able to give
us a variety of shots; from wide vistas of the entire 18th green, spectators and fairway in
the distance, to close ups of just a player’s expressions, or a tight shot of the ball
disappearing into the cup. The director will use this camera at their discretion. Being high
up not only provides us with wide scenic shots, but also allows the camera to see into
depressions in the terrain, such as when a ball has landed in the bottom of a bunker.

Camera 7: Another camera mounted in a fixed position with a long lens, but this time
at ground level between two grandstands. Being low has the advantage of being able to
see the ‘lie of the land’. When we move a camera up high it tends to flatten out the
undulations of the course, by keeping it low we can see the various mounds and hollows
which make up the course and make the game of golf so difficult. This camera also
provides a nice shot of the players walking up to the green from the fairway; when it’s
lens is zoomed in depth of field is narrowed, and with a foreshortening of perspective
gives an out of focus course framing in focus players. It can also be used for a host of
different shots in and around the green, much like camera 6.

Camera 8: A camera mounted high up in the stands to provide the ubiquitous wide
angled beauty shot.

Camera 9: A camera mounted on a Jimmy Jib, to give sweeping shots of areas around
the green, from low angled to high up, to shots which track across the crowd. A fairly
unique camera because it can combine elements from both camera 7 and 8 – it can get
high up to see into depressions, and then once the ball is struck can arc down to follow its
progress across the green. Obviously it cannot make any movements before the ball is
played (this goes for all cameras and operators in and around the green area) because
golfers are notoriously finicky when it comes to everything being still whilst they
concentrate on their shot.

4.2.6 MARATHON (Refer to Figure 56)

Analysis: The standard Olympic marathon distance is 42.2 kilometres. This means it
is impractical to cover the event with fixed cameras spread out along the route, with one
camera handing over to the next sequentially for the entire race. Instead the Director must
make choices as to where they will position these fixed cameras, and employ tracking
vehicles in the areas in between where there is no coverage. The decisions as to where the
fixed cameras would be located is determined (aside from budget and thus the number of
cameras which are available) by the route, the strategy of the competitors and the critical
aspects of the terrain they would be covering.

Important aspects of the route include the start, the halfway point and obviously the
finish. From a competitors’ point of view the race strategy (generally speaking) really

92
 MARATHON OB CAMERA PLAN START
(Example from Barcelona Olympics) Mataro

6
7
8
9
2

5
FINISH
Barcelona

KEY CAMERA REFERENCE

1. START - 5 CAMERA OB VAN
2. MIDWAY - 5 CAMERA OB VAN
TYPICAL OB CAMERA 3. 35 Km - 6 CAMERA OB VAN
4. 40 Km - 8 CAMERA OB VAN
5. FINISH - 10 CAMERA OB VAN
6. TRACKING VEHICLE 1
HAND HELD CAMERA
7. TRACKING VEHICLE 2
8. TRACKING VEHICLE 3
9. GYROCAM - HELICOPTER
SPECIALISED CAMERA

Figure 56: Marathon coverage

93
begins to take place from the halfway point onwards. Up until then the major contenders
tend to track each other and run in bunches, so that they pace themselves against their
competitors. Very seldom does one runner go out on their own at the start of the race, and
hold that lead all the way to the finish. From the half way point contenders tend to make
attacks at the lead, and see what their competition can counter with. There will often be a
single individual at the head of the race, but more often than not they are reeled in by the
eventual winner. As far as the terrain goes, the director will travel the route beforehand,
and decide which parts of it are likely to provide times when either attacks on the lead are
made, or might equally prove difficult to negotiate (such as a long tiring climb up a steep
hill) where a competitors’ spirit and fortitude could be broken. They will also be on the
lookout for scenic vistas which can provide an interesting backdrop to the competition as
it passes through that area.

In the following description there is not really any benefit in discussing the placement of
each individual camera; instead we will initially see how groups of cameras (attached to
OB vans positioned along the route) are deployed, and then see the treatment used for the
tracking vehicles.

OB Van 1: A 5 camera (3 fixed and 2 hand held) van positioned at the start of the
race. The first camera is mounted on a ‘cherry picker’ (tall crane) high above the start, to
set the scene and show the entire body of runners, and the area they are in. It is also a
good indication of weather conditions, often a deciding factor in races of this sort. A
second camera is on a scaffold lower down, positioned in front of the starting tape and
with a wide shot of the entire field. It will be used before the race as the competitors are
lining up, and as the race starts, to show the field sprinting away. A third camera will be
on a scaffold just above the heads of the spectators who line the road, about 500 metres
from the start. It will be cut to just after the start, and show the mass of runners beginning
the race. Then 2 hand held cameras will be deployed around the starting area, giving
shots of individual runners who the director sees as being potential winners of the event;
as a prelude to the race. Just before the start one of these cameras will get a shot of the
starter and starting gun, while the other will line up along the length of the starting tape as
the runners prepare for the ‘off’.

OB Van 2: A 5 camera OB van positioned at the strategically important half way

(21.1 km) mark. The cameras are all mounted on scaffolds, with 3 being before the half
way point, one at half way and one just after this. Essentially the director will just cut
sequentially from one to the next, as an individual or group of runners’ progress to and
through the half way mark. The cameras are spread out over a distance of 1.6 km, with
each camera being in sight of the previous one.

OB Van 3: A 6 camera van with a similar deployment as that of the previous unit, but
now around the 35 km mark, over a distance of approximately 2 km. This is often the
time of the race when competitors who are in with a chance of winning make their move,
and attacks and counterattacks are common. The 6 cameras are once again mounted on
scaffolds slightly above the spectators’ heads, and close to the course. As with the
previous setup, the director will cut sequentially from one camera to the next, and each is

94
in sight of the previous shot. If there is a long straight in the area, the director will
position 1 camera with a long lens at the end of the straight, and this zoomed in
foreshortening of the picture tends to narrow perspective and thus the distance between
competitors. This adds visual excitement, because even though runners may be separated
by some distance on the road, they will seem close together in this narrow angle scene.

OB Van 4: An 8 camera vehicle positioned at the 40 km mark. Essentially from this

point onwards the race can be covered entirely with fixed cameras, although the director
will still use the tracking vehicles for as long as possible. Spread out along the course just
like the previous OB vans, and mounted on scaffolds in the same way, the director will
utilise them in mush the same manner. The cameras from this van are spread out over a
distance of more than 3 km. The last of these fixed cameras takes the runners right up to
the finish stadium surrounds, and hands over to the final OB van in the tunnel leading
into the stadium.

OB Van 5: Positioned at the finish stadium, 5 of the cameras from this 10 camera van
are spread out in fixed positions from the tunnel and around the lap of the athletics track
which the runners must complete. A sixth fixed camera is located high up to give an
overall view, and wide shot of any runner which may be chasing those in front. Then 4
hand held cameras are deployed around the area where the runners complete the course,
to show their fatigue, excitement, and in the case of the winner, their triumph. The
marathon is recognised as the definitive Olympic sport, and the winner takes great pride
in their achievement.

Tracking Vehicles (6, 7 and 8): One tracking vehicle is positioned just ahead of the
starting tape, and when the race begins moves off with the runners. It will stay with the
leader/s throughout the race. The second and third tracking vehicles join the race at about
the 5 km mark. Their task is to stay with significant runners who have the potential to win
overall, and track their progress through the field. If anything unforeseen happens to the
lead tracking vehicle, then the one which is least significant takes over as a backup. The
director will continue to use these vehicles wherever they can for the duration of the
event, since the shots which they provide are much more inclusive as a viewing
experience than from cameras in fixed positions at the side of the road. The tracking
vehicles will operate and provide shots as described in the first chapter of this text.

Helicopter with Gyrocam (9): This airborne camera platform (also described in the
first chapter) is used to provide the overall setting for each stage of the race. Too high up
to get shots of individuals, it is best used for showing the gaps between consecutive
runners. It is also useful to provide the audience with wide scenic shots as an interlude
during what is a very long event. Lastly it is able to provide back up pictures should there
be a loss of signal from the tracking vehicles (caused by bridges, underpasses or trees)
and there are no fixed cameras in that vicinity.

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4.2.7 MOTOR RACING (Refer to Figure 57)

Analysis: Motor racing is an event where speed and danger are the essential
elements, and the television coverage of the event should portray these to the viewer at
home. Neither of them is easy to achieve. The long distances involved between cameras
means that we need to use long telephoto lenses, and (as described in a previous chapter)
the resultant foreshortening of perspective has the effect of making the racing vehicles
seem slower, especially when travelling towards or away from camera. This is especially
the case when viewed on (in relative terms) a small television screen. To overcome this
you will need to have a variety of cameras such as wide angled miniature cameras
mounted on the vehicles to complement the long lensed shots which are unavoidable.
Although the danger element is always present the riders and drivers are professionals,
and it is not their intention to crash. Crashes, when they happen, are few and far between
(except, for instance, if it were to suddenly start raining in the middle of a race), and
when they occur they are not necessarily between the competitors you are tracking at the
time. To overcome this you will need to have slaved recorders at each part of the circuit
where a crash is most likely to occur, and your camera operators briefed to provide you
not only with shots for live transmission, but also of incidents which are worthy of
replay.

The example is the MotoGP (motorcycle) race from Phakisa in South Africa. Motorcycle
racing is treated very much like motor car (for example Formula 1) racing, except for a
few subtle differences. Firstly the motorcycles do not refuel or change tyres as part of
their racing strategy, whereas with F1 it plays a big part. A Formula 1 car race can often
be won or lost in the pit strategy. Secondly in MotoGP there is a lot more overtaking
between competitors than there is between cars. In a motorcycle race it is not uncommon
to see several passes and repasses in a single lap; with cars you are lucky if you see a few
in the entire race, and most of those will happen within the initial part of the first lap.
Essentially when covering motorcycle racing you tend to ignore whatever happens in the
pits, because if a competitor has to come in to the pit area they are basically out of the
race, and concentrate on the race on track; whereas with cars coverage of the pit lane and
what occurs there is of major concern.

There is one other subtle difference which sets motorcycle coverage apart from motor car
coverage, and in fact from coverage of any other sporting event or television event – to
the point that it is almost unique. Virtually every time a camera is rigged (for both film
and television) it is levelled for use. Motorcycles lean over, and the cameras on board
lean with them. It is the only time when you intentionally use a camera in a non -
horizontal position, and the sight of the horizon leaning (almost vertically) one way and
the next is one of the great sights in television. This shot really lends emphasis to the
viewing experience, and (unfortunately to some extent) makes other forms of motorsport
look tame by comparison.

The treatment of motor racing is that essentially there is no ‘Master shot’. Instead the
cameras are placed around the circuit so that no one area is ignored; the camera closest to

96
 MOTOR RACING OB PLAN 6
(Example from MotoGP, Phakisa
Raceway, Welkom, 2004) 5

12
13

15

17
SH
IN I
/F

11
T

14
AR
ST

24 8
22
18 19 20 21

25
23 P IT
S
1
2

3 9
16

10

KEY CAMERA REFERENCE

TYPICAL OB CAMERA
HAND HELD CAMERA
SPECIALISED CAMERA
1. START / FINISH 14. CORNER & STRAIGHT
2. START / FINISH 15. GYROCAM - HELICOPTER
3. HOME STRAIGHT 16. KERBCAM
4. CORNER & STRAIGHT 17. KERBCAM
5. S BENDS 18. RF CAMERA - GRID & PITS
6. CORNER & STRAIGHT 19. RF CAMERA - GRID & PITS
7. CORNER & STARIGHT 20. RF CAMERA - GRID & PITS
8. CORNER & STRAIGHT 21. RF CAMERA - GRID & PITS
9. STRAIGHT 22. BIKECAM
10. CORNER 23. BIKECAM
11. MAIN STRAIGHT 24. BIKECAM
12. CORNER 25. BIKECAM
13. JIMMY JIB - CORNER

Figure 57: Motor Racing camera layout.

97
where the most pertinent action is taking place is used, and then other cameras
sequentially pick up the action from the preceding one. It is important to note that the
camera numbers (and thus also the inputs on the vision mixer) are sequential. This has a
twofold aim. Firstly it makes life easier for the director to call the shots from one camera
to the next, and for the vision mixer to switch these in as called. More importantly
though, it makes life easier for the camera operators to predict when they will be used.
With motor racing we do not dwell only on the leader of the race (as we shall see in the
next chapter) because they may be ‘out on their own’ and make for boring viewing
compared to action happening further down the field. So the director would want cameras
to give shots of, for example, the racing happening in fifth and sixth place. With cars or
motorcycles lapping each other it is difficult for the camera operators to know where
exactly on the track fifth and sixth places are. Add to this the fact that the camera
viewfinders are monochromatic, and you find you can’t say ‘look for the red and yellow
bikes and follow those’; and you also can’t denote the vehicles by their numbers you
want to follow because they are usually very small when you first pick them up in your
viewfinder from a very long distance away. Far easier to identify a particular bike or race
within a race on a camera, and then switch sequentially to the next. So camera 4 knows
that you are coming to them next, because they hear you calling the shot on camera 3.

Motor racing is largely about the passing manoeuvres which take place, and more often
than not this happens under braking at the end of a straight and entering the corner.
Camera placement is decided against this fact, whilst avoiding crossing the stageline
from one camera to the next. Generally speaking then, those cameras which are used to
follow the passage of the vehicles around the circuit are placed at the ends of
straightaways, and their shot is cut to when the vehicles exit the preceding corner, and is
held along the straight leading up to the camera position. The camera holds the shot until
the vehicles enter the corner (and hopefully any overtaking or incident which may occur)
and up until the apex of the corner, at which stage the camera is cleared and the next one
used. These cameras will be supplemented by on board cameras, helicopter mounted
cameras and other which provide interesting angles such as ‘kerbcams’ and Jimmy jibs (a
camera ‘crane’ with remote control of pan, tilt, focus and zoom). The treatment for the
event should also include shots of preliminary proceedings before the race, as well as
presentation of trophies and interviews after the race.

Camera 1: Positioned at a height of approximately 3 metres, directly alongside the

track. Before the race starts this camera is used for shots of the bikes, riders and
mechanics on the starting grid. During the race it picks up the racers as they exit the final
bend, and follows them onto the home straight. The shot is cleared to camera 3 before the
riders are abreast of camera 1. After the race it is used for the presentation of trophies on
the podium, which is situated above the pits directly opposite camera 1 and 2.

Camera 2: Positioned next to camera 1, and has much the same function as camera 1,
except that it will get wide shots of the grid before the race whist camera 1 gets the close
ups. During the race both these cameras can also provide shots of the mechanics on the
pit wll directly opposite as the give pit board signals to their riders.

98
Camera 3: Positioned at a height of around 5 metres, this camera picks up the
competitors as they pass camera 1 and 2, follows them down the length of the home
straight; and continues with them as they enter the corner, at which point it is cleared to
camera 4. Depending on the action this could be a widish shot which includes several
bikes or a close up of just one bike.

Camera 4: Also at a height of 5 metres, this camera picks up the riders as they exit
the corner where camera 3 is situated, and holds them as they race towards it. It is cleared
to camera 5 before the bikes are adjacent to the camera.

Camera 5: At a similar height to camera 4, this camera’s shot begins just before
camera 4’s position, and holds the competitors through the ‘s bends’; and then pans
through with the bikes as they enter the corner. The shot is cleared before the riders exit
the corner.

Camera 6: Mounted too at a height of around 5 metres, this camera is used as the
bikes exit the corner near camera 5, and follows them down the straight. It is cleared at
the point where they finish their braking, as they enter the corner.

Camera 7: Positioned slightly lower than camera 6, this camera picks up the bikes
entering the corner near camera 6, and follows them around the corner and onto the short
straight; and then pans with them around the right hand bend next to the camera. The shot
is cleared as they exit the bend.

Camera 8: Picks up the riders as they exit the corner near camera 7, and follows them
down the straight. This shot is cleared to camera 9 before the riders reach camera 8’s
position, as they are going through the right handed kink. It is positioned at a height of
approximately 5 metres.

Camera 9: Picks up where camera 8 was cleared, and carries the riders up to and
entering the corner in front of the camera. One of the most critical shots around the track,
because this is a favourite overtaking area; and is at a height of around 5 metres.

Camera 10: Follows the riders around the long sweeping right handed bend, and is
cleared to camera 11 before they pass its position.

Camera 11: This camera is cut to as the riders exit the sweep alongside camera 10, and
follows them down the main straightaway. Another favourite overtaking area, the shot is
cleared as the bikes pass camera 11. It is positioned quite high, at 8 metres above the
ground, because of the length of the straight.

Camera 12: Tracks with the competitors from camera 11’s position, around the right
hand bend and along the short straight leading up to the camera. It is cleared as the riders
enter the corner in front of the camera position. It is positioned lower than most cameras,
at around 3 metres off the ground.

99
 Figure 58: Jimmy Jib covering slow corner

Camera 13: A camera mounted on a Jimmy Jib, which arcs around the bend at the
same speed as the motorcycle. It usually holds only one particular rider in shot. Generally
speaking when a jib arm is employed in motor racing it is placed at a slow corner, such as
a hairpin bend; so that it is able to keep up with the vehicle traversing the corner. This
camera would not be cut to every lap; instead the director would usually cut straight from
camera 12 to camera 14.

Camera 14: Mounted at a height of approximately 3 metres, this camera picks up the
riders as they pass camera 12’s position, pans with them around the corner there and then
follows them down the short straight leading into the final bend. It would be cleared as
the bikes move past its position.

Camera 15: A ‘Gyrocam’ mounted on a helicopter which follows the action at a height
of 400 metres. This camera is one of the few true viewpoints of the track, because of its
birds eye view. Most other cameras with their long lenses and thus foreshortened sense of
perception distort the shape of the various corners, length of the straights, speeds of the
motorcycles and most importantly distance between competing riders. There is no
particular point or area where it is cut to or employed, but rather just used at the directors’
discretion.

Camera 16: A ‘Kerbcam’ mounted at ground level just inside and alongside the track
on the corner leading onto the main straight. Equipped with a wide angle lens, it is only
used for brief moments as a group of riders pass through. Since it is positioned at the

100
point where the bikes are at the extreme inside of the corner, they almost appear to pass
over this camera, providing viewers with a very dynamic shot.

Figure 59: A Kerbcam mounted right next to the racing line of the corner.

Camera 17: Another Kerbcam, employed much the same as camera 16 but this time
positioned on the corner at the end of the main straight.

Cameras 18, 19, 20, and 21: Four hand held cameras transmitting signals back to the OB
van via RF microwave links. They are employed in a variety of ways. Before the race
they move amongst the riders and bikes on the grid, giving individual shots of riders,
mechanics and other team personnel. During the race they are used to give shots of any
activities in the pits (such as riders pulling off through mechanical failure, or pit crew
reactions as they watch their rider’s progress on monitors in the garages) or pit signals
along the pit wall which separates the pit lane from the racetrack. After the race one of
these cameras is deployed to the parc ferme area to see victorious riders arriving back
and getting off their motorcycles. Another is deployed up to the podium area for the
national anthem, presentation of trophies and celebratory champagne opening. The last
two are used in an interview area behind the podium, for interviews with the first 3 riders.

Cameras 22, 23, 24 and 25: These are the onboard ‘Bikecams’. Although there are only
4 cameras listed (because only 4 bikes are fitted with onboard facilities) in actual fact
there are 2 cameras on each bike, making a total of 8. They are positioned on individual
bikes in a variety of ways. The traditional way is just behind the fork yoke facing
forwards through the windscreen. Some bikes though will have other viewpoints, such as
behind the seat facing forwards (which provides an interesting shot because it shows the
body english of the rider as they move from side to side in the saddle), or low down on
the side of the motor facing the riders foot and gear changing, or on top of the petrol tank

101
looking up at the rider’s torso and helmet, or finally inside the rear fender facing
backwards. The director will usually use these shots at their discretion, especially those
which only show one rider’s actions. If there is close racing between bikes, one of which
is rigged with an onboard system, the director may choose to dwell on this through
several sections of the track. Unfortunately the onboard shots suffer from perspective
distortion as well, but this time in reverse to the cameras in fixed positions around the
track. Since the onboard cameras are equipped with very wide angle lenses, they tend to
spread out the distances between subjects in view. So if two bikes are very close together,
they tend to make them look some distance away from each other, a pity because the
viewer really is placed in the heat of the action, but unavoidable due to the nature of the
shot you need from these cameras. As mentioned earlier, the shots from these cameras are
fairly unique in the television world because they are intentionally non horizontal.

Replay: We have not mentioned in the text which cameras are rigged to slaved
recorders, for no other reason than it would be tedious to both describe and read.
Virtually every camera has its own recorder, except for the kerbcams and hand held
cameras; so that any accidents or other incidents which happen are available to the
director.

4.2.8 RUGBY (UNION) (Refer to Figure 60)

Analysis: As with football, rugby is played between two opposing teams up and
down a field which is coincidentally much the same size for both. So the basic television
treatment is essentially the same, a wide Master shot from the centre line which reveals
the broad aspects of the action, a closer shot alongside the master shot and some sort of
sideline viewpoint.

The comparison ends there though. Whereas in football the action tends to be continuous
and flowing for long periods of play, in rugby the periods of action are shorter, more
intense and punctuated by lulls in the play as teams set up the next strategy. Also, with
football the goals are scored in the centre of the field ends, but in rugby points can be
scored anywhere along the length of the goal line, and more often than not at the
extremities in the corner. There are also more points scoring opportunities in rugby, and a
variety of ways in which these can be scored, unlike football which only has one kind –
the goal. Another important difference is the laws of the game, there are far more in
rugby than football, and so infringements of the law tend to be more common.
In some ways the treatment for rugby can be likened to that for cricket, which also has
multiple lulls in play and makes extensive use of replays to in these times to bridge them.
There is also a reliance on other technical effects, such as the referees’ microphone, to
explain the numerous infringement situations. Also, since the advent of the professional
era in rugby, a ‘Television Match Official’ (TMO) has been instituted to decide on
scoring opportunities which the on field referee could not clearly see. This means that the
television broadcaster is obliged to provide as many viewpoints of these scoring
opportunities (more often than not ‘tries’) as possible.

102
 RUGBY OB CAMERA PLAN
(Example from Rugby World Cup 2003 - Pool Matches)

17 6
7 9

15
11
21

19

13
18
2 14

3
23

20

12 16
22

8 5 10

KEY CAMERA REFERENCE

1. FOLLOW WIDE 13. SUPER SLO MO
2. FOLLOW CLOSE 14. REVERSE SUPER SLO MO
TYPICAL OB CAMERA 3. TOUCHLINE STEADICAM 15. REVERSE IN GOAL
4. TOUCHLINE STEADICAM 16. REVERSE IN GOAL
5. POSTS 17. FISH EYE BEAUTY
6. POSTS 18. TUNNEL
HAND HELD CAMERA 7. TOUCHLINE 19. CHANGEROOM
8. TOUCHLINE 20. CHANGEROOM
9. TOUCHLINE 21. JIMMY JIB CROWD
10. TOUCHLINE 22. JIMMY JIB CROWD
SPECIALISED CAMERA
11. IN GOAL 23. ON FIELD ANTHEMS
12. IN GOAL

Figure 60: Camera layout for Rugby (Union).

103
 Figure 61: Rugby Master shot.

Camera 1: The Master shot of the game; it is positioned in the grandstand directly in
line with the halfway line, and at a height as explained in the text earlier. It follows the
action in a wide shot, which includes the player in possession of the ball, other players
from his team who are supporting him, and also those players from the opposing team
who are attacking him. During lulls in the game (for example when a scrum or lineout is
being set) this camera will show the formation of the attacking teams players, so that their
strategy can be predicted or explained by the commentators. This camera always keeps
the ball in shot (except if it is kicked up very high or into the stands), and becomes a
‘safety shot’ for the director, who knows that if any of the other cameras which are on
tighter shots lose the action on the ball he can cut to camera 1. This camera will not be
used for long periods of time, because the director will attempt to bring the action closer
to the viewing audience at home. Its purpose is largely to show team strategy and skill,
rather than individual players skills. For replay purposes it will be slaved to a recorder.

Camera 2: Positioned alongside camera 1, this camera follows the action in a tighter
shot, which includes the player in possession of the ball and others which are very close
to it. As the ball is passed from player to player it will pan with it, except if the ball is
kicked or thrown a long way; in these situations this camera will be cleared so that it can
whip pan to the expected receiver of the ball. At times it may be used for a substantial (by

104
modern television standards) period of time, and at other times only for brief interludes; it
all depends on the kind of play. It too is slaved to a recorder for replays.

Camera 3: A hand held camera (often mounted on a steadicam brace) which operates
along the sidelines of the pitch. Whereas in soccer the players normally attempt to keep
the ball in play, in rugby it is quite common for them to intentionally kick it out as part of
the game strategy. So this camera is used far more in rugby than in football, mainly for
the throw ins at lineouts. It is also used when play enters the zones close to the touchline,
and also for substitute players entering the field, and coaching staff on the sidelines.
Before and after the match, and during half time, it is used for on field interview of
analysts, coaches and players. This camera can be supplemented by camera 23, and both
of them are also responsible for recording the anthems before the game begins. Slaved to
a recorder, its images are available for replays.

Camera 4: A reverse angle hand held camera operating on the far touchline, it is
mainly used for replays of action on the field, so it is slaved to a recorder as well.
However, during lulls in play it can be used for any incidents which are close to the far
touchline. If used as a replay visual, it would be accompanied by a ‘Reverse angle’
graphic since it crosses the stageline from the master shot.

Figure 62: A hand held camera used for on field interviews.

105
Camera 5: Positioned high up in the grandstand directly behind the goalposts, this
camera is used for when action is moving towards the right hand side of the field (from
the master shot point of view). Its main function is to show whether kicks directed at the
goalposts are successful or not, especially when the kick is taken from somewhere in the
centre of the field. Also needed by the TMO, it would be slaved to a recorder. It follows
the action in a tight shot, with only the player on the ball and those supporting him close
by in shot.

Camera 6: This camera operates in a similar fashion to camera 5, but is positioned at

the other end of the field.

Camera 7: A lot of emphasis is placed on the four corners of the field in rugby,
because so many tries are scored there. This is the first of eight cameras which are
employed to cover the corners. When the director anticipates a scoring opportunity in the
corner, they can cut to this camera as part of the action, since it does not cross stageline.
It usually follows the action in a tight shot, with the player on the ball and those in the
immediate vicinity in frame. Also needed by the TMO, it will be slaved to a VTR. It is
positioned at ground level, just behind the dead ball line.

Figure 57: Hand held camera used for Interviews on sidelines at rugby.

Figure 63: The Corner camera at Rugby.

Cameras 8, 9 and 10: Have the same positioning and functionality of camera 7, but at the
other corners of the field.

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Camera 11, 12, 15 and 16: These cameras are also positioned near the corners of the
field, but at a higher elevation than the other corner cameras. It may seem superfluous to
incorporate 2 cameras at each corner, but each of them performs a different role. Whereas
cameras 7, 8, 9 and 10 are positioned on the corner to look down the length of the field at
try scoring situations, cameras 11, 12, 15, and 16 look across the field, down the length of
the goal line. The first set of cameras are specifically employed to detect any player (or
part of them) which may stray into touch or hit the corner flag in their endeavour to score
a try, whilst the second set of corner cameras has a better view of the actual grounding of
the ball. Cameras 11 and 12 can be used in general play as a source, but 15 and 16 are
only used for replays because they are beyond the stageline. All of them are slaved to
recorders.

Camera 13: A super slo mo camera positioned alongside the master shot, its purpose is
to follow the action in a tight shot and is used exclusively for replay.

Camera 14: Another super slo mo camera positioned directly across the field (and at
the same height) as camera 13 and with the same function, but now as a reverse angle.

Camera 17: A beauty shot camera, located on one of the lighting pylons, giving a
picture of the entire stadium and field.

Camera 18: A miniature camera mounted in the tunnel which leads from the change
rooms onto the field, its purpose is to show the teams lining up before they enter the
playing field, and also leaving for the dressing rooms at half time.

Camera 19 and 20: More so than soccer, rugby is a game where team bonding and
collective psyche is all important. These cameras provide a ‘behind the scene’s’ look at
the preparation in the change rooms before the match. The director must obviously use
their discretion to ensure that no tactics are divulged by the use of these cameras, so they
are only incorporated in the few minutes before the players leave the change rooms, as
they gather together.

Camera 21and 22: These cameras are placed on jimmy jibs to provide sweeping shots
of the crowds enthusiasm when the team they are supporting scores; or alternatively their
anxiety when they are scored against.

Camera 23: Another hand held camera operating on the field during the anthems
before the match, and any other traditional displays (such as the New Zealand All Black
Haka); supporting and complementing camera 3.

4.2.9 SHOW JUMPING (Refer to Figure 64)

Analysis: Show jumping is a fairly unique sport in that only one competitor (and
their mount) is present in the arena at any moment in time. So the emphasis from a
television perspective is how well they are competing and progressing against other riders

107
 SHOW JUMPING
CAMERA LAYOUT
(Example from Barcelona Olympics) 1
7
3

5 8
6

KEY CAMERA REFERENCE

TYPICAL OB CAMERA
HAND HELD CAMERA
SPECIALISED CAMERA
1. WIDE @ END
2. WIDE @ SIDE
3. ENTERING / LEAVING
4. CLOSE UPS
5. HAND HELD CLOSE UPS
6. CLOSE UPS
7. COLLECTING RING / BEAUTY SHOTS
8. MINIATURE ON JUMP
9. MINIATURE ON JUMP

Figure 64: Showjumping camera layout.

108
who have already been in the arena. Essentially we will position cameras around the
arena and course to show the best viewpoint of whatever jump the combination is
attempting. At times it will be best to show this head on, at other times from the side.
This means our main viewpoints will be perpendicular to each other.

These cameras will be supplemented by other beauty shots, miniature cameras mounted
at strategic and visually interesting parts of the course; and obviously pictures which
show the riders and horses entering the course and leaving afterwards.

Show jumping throws up a particular example of something which the inexperienced

director is wont to do, but in actual fact is incorrect treatment. There is a temptation,
because the focus is so much on a single entity, which is the rider and horse, to zoom in
very tightly in an attempt to bring the action up really close. Although there are times to
do this, it should not be the general approach; and the reason lies in how the television
frame isolates the viewer at home from what is really happening on the field. A brief
explanation is necessary.

The major feat of rider and horse in show jumping is the fences which must be cleared so
that penalties are not incurred. These fences are arranged at varying heights (and spreads)
and distances (strides) apart, and both are designed to be challenging. If the camera
operators are instructed to frame horse and rider in a shot where they fill the frame, then
by necessity they must tilt up and down as the horse and rider traverse the jumps. The
impact of the height of the jumps is lost on the viewer at home, since because the
television frame isolates the action, it almost seems as if the horse is travelling over level
ground, or very low jumps. Far better to have the action in a wider shot, so that horse and
rider jump up and down within the frame, with no tilting necessary on behalf of the
camera operator. This gives emphasis to the height they are clearing. There will be times
when close-ups are the order of the day, such as when the rider clears the last hurdle and
has a look of exultation on their face (provided of course that they incurred no penalties)
(Verna, 1987: 99).

Camera 1: Technically camera 2 in this example is the Master shot, since it

establishes the lie of the arena and the placement of the jumps. However most of the
action will be covered by camera 1, especially when combinations of jumps (doubles and
triples) are attempted. This camera follows the action as described in the text above. The
camera is positioned fairly low down (but still above ground level and spectators heads)
to lend emphasis to the height of the jumps. If it is too high this emphasis is lost. This
camera will be slaved to a recorder for replays.

Camera 2: The Master shot, it also covers the action in a wide shot. Positioned higher
than camera 1, it is used mainly on single jumps, transitions between jumps and when the
rider reverses direction to line up a new set of jumps. This camera establishes stageline,
and so needs to be used for these direction changes so that the viewer at home does not
become disorientated. When deciding on which side of the field to place this camera (and
thus by definition all the other cameras) one should take into account the position of the

109
sun so that it generally behind the camera (unless, of course, it is an indoor arena). This
camera too is slaved to a recorder for replays.

Camera 3: This camera is placed in the area where the riders enter and leave the
arena. It is used predominantly at these times, so show their preparation for their attempt,
and their reactions once they have finished. Shots can vary from extreme close-ups to full
frame shots of the horse rider combination.

Camera 4: Used primarily for replay, this camera follows the action throughout in a
close up; and is slaved to its own recorder. It provides an interesting aside as to exactly
how a jump was knocked by a hoof, for example, once the riders’ round is finished. It is
placed in the corner of the field so that is neutral to both camera 1 and 2.

Camera 5: A hand held camera operating on the field, but not while there jumping is
actually happening. This is because thoroughbreds are notoriously skittish and any
unusual distractions can agitate them. So the camera operator will take up a position out
of sight whilst the jumping is happening, and only venture onto the field to show jumps
which are knocked down being replaced. It is also useful before proceedings begin to
show riders walking and pacing out the course as they decide on their tactics; and after
the competition to show the awarding of the rosettes.

Camera 6: Another camera used primarily for replays in close up, slaved to its own
recorder. It is placed close to the water jump, the only jump which incurs penalties
without actually having a pole knocked off; and thus might be missed by the viewer
because tit is not so obvious.

Camera 7: A hand held camera operating in the collecting ring to show riders
preparations, such as adjusting riding tackle. It can also be used as a wide beauty shot of
the venue and surroundings.

Camera 8: A miniature camera with a wide lens placed at ground level next to the
exit of the water jump, framed in such a way that it includes enough space above the top
bar of the jump to see the horse and rider, with the bottom of frame including the near
edge of the water. An interesting viewpoint right in amongst the action; with rider
traversing across the sky above the camera.

Camera 9: Another miniature camera with a wide angle lens, but this time gripped to
the upright of the third jump in a triple jump series, just above the highest pole. The
cameras viewpoint is looking back and across the pole. Since the third jump of the series
is the most difficult to clear, this is the critical pole which has most likelihood of being
knocked off, so the camera is placed there; and for replays is slaved to a recorder.

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4.2.10 SWIMMING (Refer to Figure 65)

Analysis: Much like athletics the leaders in a swimming event can be separated by
only milliseconds. In athletics however it is quite easy to see this difference visually,
because the runners are travelling at a fair pace. With swimming, which is much slower
than running, defining the visual difference between the athletes is much more difficult. It
is much to predict easier a winner if we can watch the progression of the front swimmers
throughout the race. To do so we need cameras which track perpendicularly with the
swimmers during the race, much like the railcam on the athletics grandstand roof was
implemented, but in that case it was only used for replays purposes. In swimming we will
actually use a tracking camera during live coverage.

Since swimming is fairly slow, it is not necessary to deploy a motorised system, instead
we can have the cameras mounted on dollys and tracks, and moved by production
personnel. There are normally two systems like this, one has a wide shot showing all the
lanes, the other is closer and only showing the front runners. Typically the leaders in a
race are those which qualified the fastest in heats, and they are in the centre lanes of the
pool, so this tracking dolly concentrates on those lanes.

Interestingly enough there is a railcam system used in swimming, but this is more due to
positioning than because of its speed. It is placed underwater in one of the centre lanes,
and tracks back and forth viewing the swimmer from below. Railcam is used because it
would be impractical to have a crew pushing a dolly back and forth underwater.

The ends of the pool are also places of importance in swimming, whether for the start or
when tumble turns are made, so our cameras in fixed positions will concentrate on these.
Obviously the finish is all important, and so there will be a preponderance of cameras
towards this end. In the example shown the cameras are positioned for longer races
upwards of 50 metres; in short course swimming which can be as little as 25 metres the
finish cameras would by necessity be at the other end.

Camera 1: This is the master shot, and it establishes stageline because it is used for
the start. It is positioned high up in the grandstand, and gives a shot wide enough to
include all the lanes of the pool. The shot is used from the time the swimmers get ready
to enter the pool, and is held until they come up from their dive in, at which point it is
cleared to camera 2.

Camera 2: Positioned at the same level as camera 1, this camera is mounted on a

dolly and tracks. It tracks with the swimmers along the length of the pool, at the same
pace as them and remaining abreast of the leaders. The movement of the dolly is started
as the swimmers dive off their starting blocks; so that it is up to speed when the shot is
cut to as they come up from their entry dives. Likewise at the end of the pool the shot is
cleared before the swimmers reach the end and turn; this gives the grips time to slow the
dolly down, and accelerate it in the reverse direction by the time the swimmers are on
their return length, at which stage it is cut to again. The director may choose to dwell on

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 14
SWIMMING 8
(Example from 1992 Barcelona Olympics)
9

4 3

12

11

10

13

7 6

KEY
TYPICAL OB CAMERA
HAND HELD CAMERA
SPECIALISED CAMERA
CAMERA REFERENCE
1. MASTER SHOT 8. LEADERS 50m
2. TRACKING DOLLOY 9. WINNERS AFTER RACE
3. STARTS / WINNERS 10. FIXED UNDERWATER
4. FINISH SUPER SLO MO 11. RAILCAM UNDERWATER
5. TRACKING DOLLY 12. FIXED OVERHEAD
6. LEADERS 13. TUMBLE TURNS
7. LEADERS 14. BEAUTY SHOT

Figure 65: Swimming camera treatment.

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this shot more than any other, especially as the last few lengths of a particular race are
completed. For replay purposes it is slaved to a recorder.

Camera 3: A camera placed lower than cameras 1 and 2, just slightly in from the end
of the pool. For the start of the race it provides an interesting composition of all the
swimmers on their starting blocks, but its main purpose is to record the finish or the race.
Technically speaking it should be directly in line with the end of the pool, but the pool
coping tends to intrude too much into shot. This cameras’ shot will include all the lanes
across the pool, especially in shorter races which tend to have closer finishes. In longer
races, or where the leader is far ahead it may go to a tighter shot, but as soon as the leader
touches the end the camera will be cleared to another shot to allow the operator to
reframe to a wider shot in time for the second and lower placings to be captured once it is
cut to again. Typically it too is slaved to a recorder for replays.

Camera 4: A super slo mo camera placed in line with camera 3, but at a higher
elevation. It focuses on the leaders of the race only, and is used to separate out close
finishers for the viewers at home. The shot would only be 3 or 4 lanes wide, unless
competitors in the outside lanes are close to winning (this is unusual because of pre
qualifying times) in which case it would go wider.

Camera 5: Another camera on a tracking dolly, but used now to show the leading
group of swimmers only. It is mounted low down next to the pool surround, and far
enough back not to intrude into camera 2’s shot.

Camera 6: A camera placed at the end of the pool, about 3 metres above the water
surface. The director will utilise this camera as the leader approaches the end of the pool,
whilst they execute their turn, and then push away from the wall. The shot is generally a
tight shot of only one competitor; or perhaps two if they happen to be in adjacent lanes
and closely competing with one another.

Camera 7: Placed and utilised similarly to camera 6, but focussing on a different

competitor.

Camera 8: Placed behind the swimmers at the start/finish end of the pool, and
positioned slightly higher than their heads when they are on the starting blocks, this
camera gives an interesting ‘competitors eye view’ of the pool just before they dive.
Normally wide enough to see the entire field across all lanes, it can nonetheless be used
to show just an individual and their lane. Once the race has begun it cannot be used
further until it is over, because officials intrude into shot to check on the competitors as
they turn or finish. It can, however, be deployed to crowd shots during these times.

Camera 9: A hand held camera operating at start, for the presentation of the
swimmers individually before the race begins. They are usually introduced from lane 8 at
the far side to lane 1 at the near side; this camera will track from one to the next as they
step forward when their name is announced.

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Camera 10: A miniature underwater camera placed at the far end of the pool to capture
the swimmers performing tumble turns. An interesting perspective, it is directed to cover
the first few lanes of the pool. It cannot cover all the lanes because light transmission
drops off rapidly in water, and thus lanes far from the camera are murky.

Camera 11: The railcam placed underwater, with a shot which looks almost directly
upwards. Able to track at the same sped as the swimmers, it also provides a unique view
of them and their technique. The shot is only wide enough 2 or 3 swimmers in the centre
lanes, but usually the leaders and eventual winners are in these lanes. This camera is used
more on longer races, in the opening and middle lengths before the climax of the race;
which would be covered on the tracking cameras. The director would pick up this camera
as a swimmer nears the starting end of the pool, hold on the shot while the swimmer
turns, and then track back down the length of the pool with this competitor swimming
overhead.

Camera 12: Another miniature camera, but in this case fixed overhead looking down
on the centre few lanes to show competitors finishing the race. Used exclusively for
replays of the winner, it is slaved to a recorder.

Camera 13: A camera placed st the same elevation as cameras 1 and 2, it is used to
record the turns of the competitors at the far end of the pool. The director could typically
cut from camera 2 to this camera just before the swimmers turn, hold on the shot while
they turn, and then cut back to camera 2 soon after this.

Camera 14: A beauty shot camera located high up in the roofing girders of the arena,
to provide an overall shot of the venue.

4.2.11 TENNIS (Refer to Figure 66)

Analysis: Most games played with racquets, such as tennis, squash or badminton,
result in very quick ball movements (or in the case of badminton, shuttlecock
movements), because of the slingshot effect of the racquet. If you were to attempt to
cover these from the side of the court the camera movement back and forth following the
ball would soon render the viewing audience giddy; unless of course you covered it with
a very wide locked off type of shot, but this would mean that the action is so small in
screen that the viewer would instead lose interest.. So these sports are covered from the
end of the court, with the play happening up and down the screen. This is not true for all
‘net’ type sports – for example volleyball, where there is no racquet and consequently
less speed on the ball, is covered very successfully from the side of the court with the
play happening left to right.

The critical part of tennis as a sport is the lines on the court which demarcate the
extremities of the balls bounce in various play situations. It is absolutely imperative that
these lines remain is shot as the ball is hit from end to end. This sounds easy enough, but
even when following the action in a wide shot the ball moves so quickly that it is quite

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 TENNIS OB CAMERA PLAN
(Example from Barcelona Olympics)

5
PLAYER 1

UMPIRE

4
PLAYER 2

KEY

TYPICAL OB CAMERA

HAND HELD CAMERA

SPECIALISED CAMERA

6
CAMERA REFERENCE 10
1. MASTER SHOT #1 3
2. MASTER SHOT #2
3. FULL SHOT - LOW
4. CLOSE UP - LEFT
5. CLOSE UP - RIGHT
6. FULL SHOT - SUPER SLO MO
7. FULL SHOT - SUPER SLO MO 8
8. ARENA / BEAUTY SHOT
9. PLAYERS ENTRANCE 1 2
10. HAND HELD - AWARDS

Figure 66: Camera layout for Tennis.

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easy to get ‘left behind’. However the wider you are the easier it is (but obviously not so
wide that the play is ‘distant’), so we will follow live play in this wide angled shot, and
leave close-ups of the ball in play to replays.

Generally then from the time the ball is served, until the point is won, we will dwell on
one wide shot. In between (and there is quite a bit of ‘dead’ time in tennis) (Hickman,
1991: 342) we will use cutaways, closer shots of the players, and replays of the point just
played.

The example given below is for a singles match, but you will find that for a doubles
match the treatment can be very similar, the only major difference being that you will
tend to include more cutaways of the players in a team strategising before points, and
their collective emotions after each point is either won or lost.

Camera 1: There could just be one Master shot in tennis, but it is found to be
aesthetically more pleasing to have two, one for services to the left hand side of the court
and one for services to the right hand side. This camera is the master shot for services to
the left hand near court when the ball is travelling towards camera (i.e. the person serving
is on the far court right hand side facing camera), and for services to the far right hand
court when the ball is travelling away from camera (i.e. the server is near left hand court
with their back to camera). The camera is positioned roughly midway between the
longitudinal centre line and the left hand tramline, at a height as described in the text
previously.

The shot is framed up with the players in the top right and bottom left corners of frame. If
the service is from the far side of the court, then enough room should be left between the
server and frame top to allow for the ball to be thrown up for the service without it going
out of shot. The director will typically cut to this camera as the ball is thrown up to be
served, and then hold on the camera until the point is over. After the ball is served the
camera operator might reframe by zooming in slightly; this is because the initial framing
is a bit ‘loose’ from allowing space at the top for server, and the receiver also typically
stands behind the near baseline to receive the service, and then moves more into court.
During play there should be no need for any tilting of the camera, all that would be
necessary is a subtle panning movement as the ball traverses the court (Verna, 1987: 92).

When this camera is not being utilised as the master shot it can be deployed to provide
close-ups and cutaways, for example the player on the far side of the court, the umpire, or
line judges after they make a call.

Camera 2: This camera is the second Master shot, for services from the far left hand
court to the near right hand court, and vice versa. It is positioned to the right hand side of
the longitudinal centre line, at the same height as camera 1. It fulfils the same function as
camera 1 does, and is utilised in the same way.

Camera 3: This camera is positioned in line with the centre line, at a much lower
elevation than cameras 1 and 2 – just slightly above head height of the player closest to

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camera. Its purpose is to provide a ‘players eye view’ of the action, but it is seldom used
in general play. Instead it is primarily for replay purposes of the action, which it will
follow in a full shot of the player nearest camera. It can also be deployed to other
cutaways between the points.

Camera 4: A camera placed at courtside at a very low elevation. Its purpose is to give
frontal shots of players whose backs are otherwise turned to cameras 1, 2 and 3. These
can be used either as the player is preparing to serve or receive, in which case it will be
cut to live, or otherwise to follow the player while the point is being contested, in which
case it is used as a replay. The shot is composed as a full shot while the point is being
played, and then narrowed to a close up to show elation or anguish (or, in the case of
some famous tennis players absolutely no emotion whatsoever) as the point is decided.
In between games when the players rest before changing ends this camera will provide a
shot of the player #2 taking refreshments.

Camera 5: Utilised in much the same way as camera 4, except that it will be covering
the player at the far side of the court during general play, and player #1 taking
refreshments.

Camera 6: A super slomo camera placed on the near right hand corner of the court,
slightly elevated. It follows the play inn such a way that the player nearest camera is
framed in a full shot. Although this player may actually disappear out of shot because the
ball is being followed and the player is out of position, this framing would be held as if
the player were there. Used exclusively for replays.

Camera 7: Another super slo mo camera, utilised in much the same way as camera 6,
but now placed at the far right hand corner to cover the player at the far end of the court.

Camera 8: A beauty shot camera placed high up in the grandstands, to give images of
the overall stadium; but it can also zoom in to give a ‘birds eye view’ of one or the other
players as they prepare to play a point.

Camera 9: A miniature camera placed in the tunnel which leads from the change
rooms onto the court, to capture the players as they enter and leave the arena.

Camera 10: A hand held camera operating on the court after the match to show
dignitaries awarding, and players receiving, the prizes and medals.

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 CHAPTER 5

PRODUCING AND DIRECTING OUTSIDE BROADCASTS

5.1 THE RIG

The production of an OB always involves a rig before the event can take place, and a
derig afterwards. The rig may happen on the same day as the production, especially if it
has either been done in the same venue previously, or it is a small scale production, or if
it is being recorded live to tape rather than live to air. If it is a large scale production
being fed live to an international audience then in all likelihood the rig will take place
several days before the production, with technical checks done two or so days before the
broadcast, and finally a rehearsal at least a day before the broadcast. Each of these stages
is important, and even the smallest production should include rig, test and rehearse.

Before you leave for the production, pack some appropriate clothing; because you will be
subject to the vagaries of the weather. Even if it looks like it should be good weather, and
the forecast predicts it, there is no harm in taking a warm, weatherproof jacket at least.
Many an afternoon thunderstorm or chilly breeze has sprung up when least expected; and
there is one thing you can be sure of with OB’s - the show must go on even if the clouds
have opened. Conversely, prepare for warm, sunny weather by taking a cap or hat and
some sunblock. There’s nothing worse than getting sunburnt (which can quite easily
happen if you are fair skinned and rigging outdoors all day) and then having to
concentrate on the job at hand the following day. While you are about it pack yourself a
pair of gloves – the gardening variety are fine- because they will be invaluable when
carrying heavy boxes, or handling and rolling cables, especially if they are wet and dirty.
While on the subject of clothing remember that very often you will be given shirts to
wear which are the event sponsor’s corporate look. More often than not you will only
need to wear these on actual production days, and not for rigging, but check with your
supervisor first. At the same time don’t forget your accreditation, typically a laminated
card which fits on a lanyard around your neck, to gain access to the venue.

If you arrive early at the venue, before the OB van does (and therefore you can’t start
rigging immediately) take a few minutes to familiarise yourself with the surroundings and
venue. If it’s the first time you’ve been there find out where the major facilities are.
Where does the van park? Where does power come from? Where are the camera
scaffolds positioned? Where is the commentary area? Where will the satellite uplink be?
etc. If you are a new junior member of the crew take some time to meet everyone present,
get to know who they are, the hierarchy, where you fit in and your immediate superior
who you will be answerable to. If you are a senior member of the crew find some time to
greet each person, and spend a little time putting the new juniors at ease. OB’s are a
pretty stressful environment – nothing is more intense than being live on air to millions of
people - and you don’t want a jittery crew before you even start the day.

Then take some time to find out exactly how the area you are assigned to will be
deployed. Don’t at this stage worry about the ‘big picture’; very few people on a major

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OB aside from perhaps the Senior Technical Engineer will know how the entire
production will fit together and pan out. At this stage concern yourself with your area of
employment, and how you integrate with those around you. Which is not to say that you
shouldn’t help out in other areas; in fact it is almost the opposite in outside broadcasts.

The OB crew is almost like a ‘family’. Unlike other forms of television production, such
as working in a studio environment where you arrive for work, do your shift and then go
home; in OB’s you often spend days on the road together; you eat, sleep and drink
together, very often thousands of miles away from home. This means that your days work
is not done until everyone’s work is done. If you have finished rigging and checking your
particular section, then lend a hand to someone who is still busy with theirs (just make
sure you understand what needs to be done). This is difficult for someone from the rest of
the industry to understand, especially if they are the ‘union’ type, but it is a very
prevalent ethos amongst the OB community, young and old, senior and junior.

Figure 67: Unpacking to start the Rig.

Another concept to institutionalise is that of getting the job done, in this case the rig put
in and tested, as soon as possible. When the going is good, make the most of it. Don’t
think that because there are two days assigned to rigging that you can do half today and
half tomorrow. If you can get more done today do it – tomorrow might be cold and

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windy, and you’ll wish you had put in the extra few hours the day before. More
importantly you may find technical problems which crop up; and the sooner you can
identify these (normally only once the rig is completed) the more time you have to work
on them and get them right. ‘Make hay while the sun shines’ certainly holds true in the
OB world.

Which is not to say you should rush the job of rigging and cabling; quite the contrary in
fact. Although the OB can in some ways be regarded as a ‘temporary’ installation, it
needs to have as much attention to detail as any permanent system would, because when
you are ‘on air’ there are no second chances to put something right which may have been
carelessly overlooked during the rigging stage. Be meticulous and methodical in your
work; consider all possibilities when deciding how to put things in place. Don’t choose
the ‘easy’ option; choose the one which is most efficient and proven under all
circumstances. When in doubt consult with those who are more experienced or your
senior, and remember their advice for future operations.

Don’t only consider the problem in the light of the rig or the production, but also what
consequences it may have when you derig and leave the venue. I know of a case where a
live broadcast was planned for a visiting state dignitary. The broadcast was to take place
from a late 19th century estate. The walls inside the lodge were veneered teak panels,
French polished over the last 100 years to a mirror like finish. The crew preparing the
shoot had to find a way to keep cables out of the way of the dignitaries as they moved
from one floor to the next, so they gaffer taped them to the walls; simply because it was
the quickest and easiest solution. All good and well, until the time came to derig; and
when the tape was pulled off the wall along with it came the French polish, and in some
cases, patches of teak veneer. The owner of the lodge was understandably furious, and
even though the production team had insurance and the damage was put right it was the
end of any production company ever wishing to use that location again.

When you rig it is best to work as a team to get various tasks completed. This is
especially true when you are laying out the cables to their destinations. Have one person
take the end connector, and place other crew members at strategic intervals such as
corners, ledges, fences and places which are high traffic areas; and a final person at the
supply drum to ensure that it doesn’t overwind as the cable is unwound. Each crew
member feeds the cable out at their predetermined spot; making sure that it doesn’t kink,
chafe or become stretched too tightly, which may lead to it shearing internally. When it is
at the destination, pull a little extra (to allow, for example, the panning and tilting of the
camera movement) and then while working back from the end, lay the cable in such a
way that it won’t be interfered with by members of the public, all the while taking any
extra you may need for this purpose from the reel end. There are far too many ‘do’s’ and
‘don’ts’ of cable laying to go into here, but most of them are common sense if you spend
a little time thinking about it. Generally corners (of walls, stairs, etc) are better than out in
the open, and up above people’s heads is better than on the ground. The best, obviously,
is to place them where members of the public are excluded from going, or are unlikely to
be in (Zettl,H. 1997: 521). Some stadiums have specially designed conduits for television
cabling, with holes through concrete floors at strategic points, use these wherever

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possible. Place yourself in the head of a slightly inebriated spectator carrying a coolerbox
of refreshments and not watching where they are going to decide if the cable run you
have chosen is acceptable.

If you are raising cables up out of the way then make sure your suspension points are not
too widely spaced. Electronic cables are actually pretty fragile things, and are not
designed to have high tensions along them. If there are many cables running through the
same suspension, then tape or tie (with zip ties) them together so that they form a loom,
and collectively cope with the tension. If there will still be too much tension, then place a
support (such as scaffolding) midway, or alternatively erect a high tensile steel cable first,
and support the television cables from this. It may seem insignificant, but even how you
attach the cables to their various rigging points is important. If you use string to tie up the
cables, use knots which are easy to untie during the derig. This is the time when
everybody wants to pack up and get home after a long ‘day at the office’. Nothing is
more irritating than struggling with some Boy Scout knot which is impossible to get
loose, especially if it has rained since the knot was tied and the twine has expanded and
tightened even more. Tie knots which are like you would tie laces – make sure they are
obviously secure but easy to get loose by pulling the right end.

While you are rigging (and derigging after the show) always have safety uppermost in
your mind. There are a myriad of situations you will be in which can be detrimental to
your health. OB’s are physical, you will be climbing tall masts to rig microwave links,
clambering around on small concrete ledges behind grandstands, working backstage in
completely dark conditions, handling electricity; the list goes on and on. Don’t take
shortcuts or chances; wear safety harnesses when necessary, have someone help you to
lift or carry heavy items, constantly think safety. Get to know your limits, and if you
think you aren’t up to a particular task get someone to replace or advise you. No
production, even if it is going live to billions of viewers, is worth losing a life over.

When you have finished rigging it is time to test the installation. You may even decide to
test parts of it at strategic intervals whilst the rig goes on elsewhere. Test everything
pertaining to your aspect of the production. There are a myriad of possibilities to
mention, and far beyond the scope of this text to expound. They range from the
seemingly mundane, such as will one of the tripod legs get in the way as I pan the camera
from side to side, to the critical, such as is my cameras’ signal getting through to the OB
van? Test for things which might happen; for instance if you are operating a rifle
microphone on the field and running up and down with it, wiggle the cable where it
comes out of the connector – it might be almost ready to break loose inside the solder
joint; and its better to find out now rather than as the teams run out onto the field. If you
put a rig in one day and then leave it overnight, test it again first thing in the morning. I
have spent many an hour with a hairdryer drying out dew which collected inside
connectors from the night before. Don’t leave anything to chance, as mentioned earlier
OB’s are probably the harshest environment for television equipment to operate in; and
live television the worst time to find out that something is not quite up to scratch.

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5.2 THE REHEARSAL

Not all OB’s will have a full ‘dress rehearsal’ in the true sense of the term; this depends
largely on the scale, scope and budget of the production, and also whether the crew tackle
that type of production often. If, for example, you are covering a rugby match and the
crew does rugby week in and week out, and you (as a director) have directed them
previously and are happy with their performance; then there is little point in having a
dress rehearsal before the match. In cases such as these a briefing before the match is
sufficient, and any changes to the treatment of the coverage explained and sorted out. To
subject the crew to a rehearsal in circumstances such as these is not only tedious for
them, but unnecessary from a time and cost perspective.

If, however, the event is fairly unique (it may happen only annually, for example), or it is
considered to be a major event (such that the coverage will be seen by an international
audience), then in all likelihood a rehearsal will be the norm.

It helps if there is some sort of similar action to the event you are covering which is
available to rehearse on, but unfortunately this is often the exception rather than the
norm. Motor racing, for example, has ‘Free practice’ sessions before the Qualifying time
(which is probably the first part of the event to be televised). If you are a camera
operator, these practice sessions give you an opportunity to check your shot sizes, focal
points and camera movement speed from one transition point to the next. It also provides
an idea of when the director will cut to and away from you, as well as giving you some
idea of the ‘look’ of some of the competitors and their machines. Generally, you are able
to get a ‘feel’ for the event and your contribution to it before it begins. You may even
find that you become aware of other shot possibilities which the director had not realised
– now is a good time to suggest them.

The same cannot be said of events such as cricket – there simply are no ‘warm up’
matches beforehand; you go into the event ‘cold’ and are expected to perform from the
time the first ball is bowled. Some sports, like rugby for instance, have ‘curtain raiser’
matches before the main match which will give you a bit of an idea as to what will be
expected of you; but often these are ‘schoolboy’ matches and the main match is much
quicker and harder to follow. Nonetheless the are better than going into the match
completely cold.

Sometimes a director will deem a rehearsal absolutely essential, and will actually
organise an event similar to that which will be broadcast to take place. I can remember
during the early days of live Comrades Marathon coverage that just such a scenario was
requested by the director, and justified to such an extent that the powers that be loosened
the production purse strings enough for it to happen. So, the day before the real marathon
a ‘ghost marathon’ was run, with runners paid to do this at the pace of the theoretical
winning time for the event. Obviously one runner couldn’t do the entire rehearsal at this
pace (otherwise they would be eligible to win the real event the following day) so teams
of runners were used to leapfrog each other down the course at race winning pace. The
entire production crew was in place, and the director talked each camera position, and

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every other production person, through their task for the next day. This was no mean feat,
I might add, and I speak from experience. Our OB van was assigned to cover the start of
the race, and then once the runners had departed, to derig and travel to an area close to
the finish, where we would rerig in preparation for the first runners coming through. The
race starts at 6:00am, and this meant a 4:00am call time. So, we were up at 4:00 in the
morning, covered the ‘rehearsal start’, derigged, moved to near the finish, covered the
‘rehearsal finish’, derigged, travelled back to the start and rerigged for the event proper
the following morning; which started at 4:00 am again at which stage we did the whole
cycle again. I might add that it was not only the Comrades runners who were pleased that
the race only happened once a year! Nowadays, with trimmed budgets and crew
experienced from years of doing the race this ‘full dress’ rehearsal doesn’t happen any
more.

Figure 68: The Director briefing the crew.

Which is not to say that there is no rehearsal, quite the contrary in fact. The good director
will always give a verbal briefing of some sort, whether this be face to face for an event
which the crew has covered often, or via the communications system before the event
begins; where they will talk each crew member individually through what is expected of
them. This will not only be the straightforward ‘I want you to cover the player with the
ball in a mid shot…’ (for example) but will also the include the ‘If This Then That’
strategies the director wants to use.

You may well ask what a ‘If this then that’ strategy is, and I will explain after a bit of
background information. A director has lots to both think and talk (i.e. direct) about

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during the transmission. The majority of this is taken up with the ‘mundane’ aspects of
the game, when there is general play. These aspects are easy to predict and brief crew
about. OB’s though, are mostly unpredictable, even though you may have a major
rehearsal before the event begins, in actual fact the action happening in front of the
cameras is totally unrehearsed. There are exceptions to this, such as when you are
covering an orchestra, where each bar of music and each solo can be predicted and
rehearsed beforehand; but, especially in the world of sport, this is not the case. On top of
this, the most critical times are those when unpredictable things, if you can call
unpredictable the times when ‘general play’ breaks down, happen; such as a goal being
scored in football, or a try in rugby. It is at these times when the director needs certain
scenarios ‘at their fingertips’ as it were, because things happen so fast that it is impossible
to direct them totally and effectively. This is where the ‘If this then that’ strategies come
in.

Take a rugby match as an example, and a try being scored. The director would brief the
camera operators beforehand like this:
‘If a try is scored then I want Camera A to follow the try scorer in a tight shot,
Camera B will give me the referee in a full shot, Camera C will give me crowd
reactions, Camera D will give me a wider shot of the player which scored with his
team mates around him, Camera E will give a shot of the opposing team gathering
behind the goal line, etc, etc’,
How much detail they go into will depend on how many cameras are deployed on the
day, their positions around the field, which team scored (this will affect which section of
the crowd to get reaction shots of), which end of the field the try was scored at compared
to camera positions, how the try was scored (is a TMO involved, for example) and even
what replay systems are in place. The director will detail all these scenarios, not only for
tries but also for other facets of play which are ‘out of the ordinary’ such as substitutions,
injuries, sideline reports, yellow cards, etc. By doing this the director minimises the
amount of talking and directing they have to do at these critical times, and it frees them
up to concentrate on finer details; whilst cutting between readily available shots. It also
prevents camera operators from providing you with what they think is an apt shot
(because there is no time to direct them), and you end up with several shots covering the
same individual or piece of the action, and no cameras covering other shots.

By the end of the briefing or rehearsal you should have a pretty good idea of what is
expected of you, but you will still find things which crop up and which modify this brief
when the action begins. Such is the nature of OB’s. It is time to take a deep breath, relax
and get ready for the actual shoot.

5.3 THE EVENT

You would expect the minutes leading up to the start of transmission to be a hive of
frenetic activity, but in actual fact this is not the case. If the planning has been done
thoroughly, and the rehearsal clearly explained and executed; then you will find that a
strange lull seems to settle in during these last few minutes (http://www.hall-
eg.freeserve.co.uk/diana.htm: 6). Individuals on the crew are doing their last minute

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checks, and getting their minds attuned to the task at hand. Each of them knows that their
contribution is important, and that for the show as a whole to be successful each
individual must perform at their best. Everyone is aware of the countdown clock, which
is showing how much time is left before the broadcast begins. There will be the
occasional check over comms from the director as to the status of various crew members,
but on the whole what you will hear are messages of confidence from the director rather
than instructions.

No one can describe the feeling of what it is like to suddenly be ‘live on air’. Even
seasoned OB personnel still feel a quiver as the off air monitor shows the pictures from
your venue suddenly appear. To the uninitiated newcomer, the feeling can be enough to
render you almost incapacitated. Television is all about audience, and to know that
millions, and perhaps even billions, of people are watching your every move, and that
there is no room for error which in other forms of production could be fixed in the edit
suite, is truly daunting. Many of the students I have trained over the years have gone on
to work in OB’s after they have graduated, and all of them have told me the same thing
when I have spoken to them years later: ‘Our course prepared us very well for everything
we encountered, but nothing could prepare us for what it is like to be live’. Luckily this
feeling soon passes, because you become so engrossed in the task at hand, and things
begin to move so quickly, that you have little time to concentrate on anything else.

Concentration is the single most important factor as you go about your job, to the point
that you can easily lose sight of the ‘bigger picture’ because you are so focussed on what
you do. Take the example of a slomo operator doing the wicket to wicket shot at cricket.
Each time the bowler delivers the ball there is the possibility that the batter may be
bowled, or lose their wicket in some other way, such as an LBW. If this happens, you
need to be able to make the replay available to the director as soon as possible. So, as the
bowler runs in to bowl, you ready yourself; and then as their bowling arm reaches its
azimuth, just before the ball is released, you enter a reference point on your recorder.
This reference point allows you to quickly return to that time on the recording
automatically, should it be needed. You sit watching your monitor and entering these ‘in’
points ball by ball, over by over, throughout the days play; occasionally returning to them
and replaying the necessary portions as asked for by the director. This requires a high
level of concentration, which must be maintained for the entire match. By the end of the
day you may be aware of which side won the match, but in all likelihood you will not
know how many runs each batter scored, who and when catches were made, and other
finer details of the match. This is not to say that these aspects were not covered by the
broadcast, because other crew members were all contributing in their own niche areas, so
that as a whole the broadcast fully reflects the days’ proceedings.

There is no substitute for knowledge of the event you are covering (Hickman, 1991: 345),
no matter what position you hold in the production crew. Obviously the host broadcaster
will appoint a director who is knowledgeable and experienced in the type of event; so that
you don’t have someone who normally directs live music events suddenly having to
direct a soccer match; but it also helps if each crew member knows as well. This means
that, if for example you are covering a sporting event, the crew know the rules, points

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scoring systems and general strategies of the game. It assists them in being able to be
predictive about what might happen next, as well as alerting the director to any
contraventions of the game which might have been missed by the referees; such as a
punch being thrown at the bottom of a loose scrum in rugby, or tampering of the ball in
cricket. The director can then choose to include these as replays, or exclude them once
they have previewed the incident.

As an operator of equipment you are really only concerned with short term goals, that of
capturing the immediate action and reacting in a justified way to it. The director, on the
other hand, has short, medium and long term goals in mind, in the context of the overall
OB.

The short term goals of the director are to make sure that whatever is going out on
transmission is both reflective of the event at hand, as well as remaining interesting and
entertaining to the viewer at home. To achieve this you must be constantly scanning your
source (such as camera) monitors, and calling shots depending on what is happening on
the field of play (Zettl,H. 1997: 520). You need to be both reactive to the play, so that the
viewer at home has the best angle of the action; as well as predictive of what might
happen next, so that you can prepare your cameras for those shots. All the while you must
remain aware of what is being transmitted – although there is a transmission monitor for
you to see this it should not be something you constantly watch, it is rather like a rear
view mirror in a car, your eyes briefly scan it every now and then, but your chief concern
is the source monitors, what they are providing you with, how you can use the shots, or
how you might modify them to provide enhanced coverage (Verna, 1987: 94,95). It is not
an easy task, and being able to rely on experienced operators makes life much easier,
because you know that the camera operators will have the shots you require, so you can
quickly cut to them without actually talking them into the shots you require. Make sure
your cuts are motivated, that is the new shot is worth cutting to because it provides a
better viewpoint or more information to the viewer than the previous one (Zettl,H. 1997:
520). Don’t just cut to a new shot simply for the sake of cutting – the previous shot may
be evolving in such a way that it is worth staying with for a while longer (Hickman,
1991: 344).

The previous paragraph mentions how having experienced camera operators can make
your life easier as a director, because you can count on them to provide you with properly
framed and focussed shots. On the other hand, working with inexperienced operators
makes your life a lot more difficult, because as a director you have to cue up each shot
before you can cut to it; and then if it is a developing shot (for example a tilt up, or a
zoom out) you need to talk the operator through the shot, all the while cueing up your
next camera operator. Why I mention this might seem strange, because you would only
expect to hire experienced operators, and if you had to talk them through each shot you
wouldn’t hire them again. This has relevance though, when you are training people, as we
do in our department, and the operators are students. Often I direct productions which are
done for the community, such as school sporting events or dramatic productions, and
since there is no budget we use students which are in training. Why I mention this is
because the tape I have submitted for marking was compiled using a student crew, and

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you will hear me talking people through their shots on the communications. This would
be unusual with a totally professional crew.

The medium term goals are those which essentially ‘add value’ to the broadcast, things
like graphics, or highlight packages of a particular player you have singled out for
attention. These bits of information are usually inserted during relative lulls in the action
(Hickman, 1991: 343). For instance, you may be covering a motor racing event, and spent
a few minutes covering the race amongst the leaders. As long as there is nothing major
happening with the leaders, you may choose to follow some tight racing amongst others
further down the field, as a medium term goal – and while you are concentrating on those
racers they become your short term goal. All the while though you remain very aware of
what is happening at the front of the race, and should something evolve there which the
viewers should be informed of, you would immediately return to that; at which point it
becomes your new short term goal. You should not lose sight of your short term goals
whilst you consider how to set up the medium term ones; something which is easier said
than done because your mind needs to be in two places at once. It is very easy to
overlook what is happening on transmission, and let it stagnate there because you are
concerned about setting up a replay, or highlight, or similar. The short term goals are
constantly evolving, throughout the event. There are endless possibilities as to what
determines your focus and refocus during the event – there may, for example, be a crash
amongst the back markers while you are following the leaders during some exciting
racing; in most cases the crash becomes your focus and immediate short term goal
(except, of course, if it happened right before the end of the race, in which case you
would choose to stay with the leaders).

Your long term goal is the overall ‘look’ you want to achieve for the production in its
entirety. Essentially all your medium term goals should collectively make up the long
term goal for the production. Obviously, since most unrehearsed coverage is not
predictable and always evolving, you may not have achieved all your medium term goals
during the course of the production. This is not a problem, because as long as you were
able to evolve with the action and modify your coverage of the event you should still be
satisfied once it is all over. The best directors in the OB environment are those which can
stay on top of things and be ‘one jump ahead’ of the action, all the while reacting to the
passage and changes in play. It is not a skill which can be taught, but one which comes
mainly from experience, and also from maintaining a cool head under pressure.

Remaining calm and collected is an essential attribute to directing OB’s (Zettl,H. 1997:
520). Make no mistake; things simply will not go according to all your plans, that is the
nature of the job; and the result of working with unrehearsed action in a pressurised
environment. When things do go differently to how you planned them find ways to work
around them, think laterally and trust your crew to pull off what is now being asked of
them. If you get hot under the collar it is immediately sensed by the crew, and you
suddenly start putting more pressure on them. If you show them that you can remain calm
it rubs off on them, and they remain calm and in control too. No matter what the
situation, remember to commend your crew throughout the production for a job well
done, a simple ‘we’re doing well chaps, it’s looking good’ goes a long way towards

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increasing confidence; which in turn eases nerves (remember the ‘live on air’ bit) and
generally contributes to a better broadcast.

When you are working out your goals before the production, you should be aware of
requirements made by the host broadcaster, and make sure you stick to those no matter
what the situation. Take the previous motorcycling race as an example. The International
television rights are owned by a company who sub contract local broadcasters around the
world to cover the event for them at each venue in various countries. There are a number
of racers who travel on the international circuit earning points towards the world
championship. Also, at each venue around the world, there are a small number of ‘wild
card’ entries, local riders who do well on a national level, and are allowed to compete by
the world governing body at the international event in their country to gain experience.
More often than not these local riders do not have the skill or experience to compete with
the international riders, and so do not really feature in the race.

There is, however, a strong temptation for the inexperienced director to focus on the local
riders, at least for part of the event; simply because of ‘home town’ favouritism
(Hickman, 1991: 347). This is palpably wrong, because the race is being watched by an
international audience. One or two shots of the local rider on the starting grid and during
the course of the race, as well as a mention by the commentary team, is all that is
necessary; the remainder of the race remains the focus of the international riders.

These journalistic ‘ethics’ abound in television, and care should be exercised when
calling the shots (Zettl,H. 1997: 521). Two examples spring to mind, the first being the
‘streaker’ at a match. No shot should be included on air of this person; you should rather
dwell on shots of the players or referees until they have been removed from the pitch. To
include pictures of the streaker not only infringes on local broadcasting laws regarding
nudity, but also encourages similar deviant behaviour in local viewers. The second
example seems illogical, because in this case it is a legitimate part of the show, and that is
the scantily clad women who hold up boards at boxing matches in between rounds to
show the progression of the match. Once again there is a strong impulse to include shots
of these ladies, but they should be avoided; the real sporting action is the boxers being
treated by their trainers in the corner.

It is easy as a director to lose sight of the ‘big picture’ – the long term goals of the
production, because you become engrossed in the finer details and calling the shots for
the immediate short term goals. To this end it is valuable to have someone who you have
briefed beforehand remind you of what stage you are at in the production, because you
will find that time seems to slip by extraordinarily fast. This person would in all
likelihood be the production secretary, who can give you input as to how long since you
put up a particular graphic, how long to go until half time, etc. Also, give your crew the
confidence to approach you with things they have picked up which you may have missed
– there is a substitution about to take place, the coach is shouting from the sidelines, and
such like. On the other hand don’t encourage idle chatter, keep communication lines open
and clear for your directing.

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When your concentration levels are so high you will find that time goes by very quickly,
and in no time at all the event will be over. Don’t forget to thank your crew for a job well
done, individually as well as collectively (Zettl,H. 1997: 521). Then it is time for the
derig.

5.4 THE DERIG

There is a temptation once the shoot is over to ‘take a break’ before you begin derigging.
Most people are tired after a long day, and a hard earned break would be welcomed. I
have yet to meet an OB crew who do this. All of them realise that the days’ work is only
done when the derig has been finished, and so begin with it straight away. The good news
is, if tackled in an enthusiastic and methodical way, the derig is far quicker than the rig
was.

First, pack away all the equipment such as cameras, tripods, microphones, etc. If you are
finished packing away equipment you are responsible for, assist those still busy to, for
instance, get cameras down off scaffolds and carried back to the OB van; and any other
equipment which is still to be packed. Leave the rolling of cables until last.

Take great care when derigging and rolling up the cables; because anything which goes
wrong with them now only gets discovered at the next OB, when it might be too late to
repair them. Work in teams to get the cables in, and be methodical in your approach. This
is the time when the saying ‘more haste less speed’ is very true. If you just start rolling up
any cable without thinking about it and without assistance, you can very easily end up
with a huge tangle which your colleagues will take a long time to undo, and definitely not
thank you for.

Don’t just pull on the cables, have someone feed them to you. Don’t drag connectors
along the ground; they get damaged and collect dirt. If you have to derig a cable from a
height, don’t feed the whole cable down and then drop the connector at the end, because
it stands to get damaged. Rather keep a loop of cable with you, let the connector down
and when it is safely on the ground drop the loop down. If it is very high use a rope to let
the cable down.

Work in teams to bring the cables in, in much the same way as you rigged them. Start
with the shortest cables first, and work your way up to the longest; all the time avoiding
tangles and knots. Don’t coil cables, because each successive coil introduces a twist into
the cable. Rather ‘Figure 8’ the cables; this avoids the twists and also feeds the cable
easily when it comes time to wind it onto the drum. Have someone feed the cable to the
person winding it onto the drum, at the same speed as the drum is winding and without
any jerks on the cable, so that the wind is uniform. While you are feeding the cable wipe
off any dirt and mud, and remove any gaffer tape which may be stuck to the cable; and
also remove any kinks and twists in the cable before it gets to the drum roller.

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Keep at it until the last cable is in, the last bit of equipment packed, and the last door of
the OB van or tender is closed. Now, your day is finally finished, and you can relax and
reminisce on a job well done.

CONNECTOR

TO CABLE DRUM

Figure 69: ‘Figure 8’ing’ a cable.

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 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

Although television OB’s influence millions of people around the world every day, they
are taken much for granted. We expect to see our favourite rugby match, complete with
statistics, replays and wonderful camera angles, delivered to our living room week in and
week out. Little thought is given by the armchair sportsman as to what it takes to get
those pictures and sounds into our homes.

No one cares that the planning is a carefully thought out exercise, with much time
involvement. No one cares that the equipment and techniques used are cutting edge, or
that the equipment is subjected to rigours far greater than in any other form of production.
Few know the expertise of the various crew members which are apparent with every shot,
every replay and every roar of the crowd. We expect the production to happen, no matter
what time of day, or whether it be weekday, weekend or public holiday. We wonder why
sportsmen and women are paid such exorbitant salaries, endorsements and prize monies,
not realising that we, as the audience, and the power of the television medium, drive
those amounts up; and that it is the OB which is responsible for that.

This dissertation attempts to show what is behind the making of your Saturday afternoon
rugby match, or whatever sport holds your interest. It shows the type of equipment you
will find on a typical OB, and how it is utilised. It tries to explain the crews which are
employed, and how they work together. It gives an insight into how productions are
planned and executed.

As I have found through many years of teaching in the classroom, some things are
explained quite easily in print, and others are more difficult. Explaining equipment on
paper is a fairly routine exercise, and I think a lot can be gathered from these sections of
the dissertation. Explaining techniques used in directing, or aesthetics of shots, or
creativity, is a lot more difficult. This is when there is no substitute for hands on
experience, and the reason students need both theoretical and practical application. My
hope is that this dissertation has gone far enough for people to gain enough of an insight
into how OB’s work, for them to be productive in the field.

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