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Abstract. The complex of citrus diseases caused by Phytophthora spp. is reviewed, with reference to the
damages caused by Phytophtora root rot, gummosis and brown rot of fruits. Some aspects of the biology
and ecology of P. citrophthora and P. nicotianae are revised, like the inoculum dissemination, the fungus
reproduction and epidemiology. The symptomatic diagnosis of main diseases like foot rot or gummosis,
fibrous root rot, brown fruit rot and dieback of twigs and leaves, are reviewed. Biological and
instrumental diagnosis as well as routine laboratory tests are revised, for inoculum monitoring, sampling
and population dynamics procedures. Disease management methods based on interventions on the host-
plant, rootstock resistance, grafting, as well as nurseries sanitary practices are illustrated, together with
pruning, surgery, and cultural practices like soil preparation, fertilization, irrigation and soil management,
and weeds control. Chemical control methods are also reviewed, with reference to the use of systemic
fungicides for control of trunk gummosis, root rot and brown rot of fruits.
1. INTRODUCTION
Citrus are among the ten most important crops in terms of total fruit yield worldwide
(Table 1) and rank first in international fruit trade in terms of value. The term
“citrus” indicates a complex of species belonging to the sub-family Aurantioideae
(family Rutaceae) including the following genera: Citrus, Eremocitrus, Fortunella,
Microcitrus and Poncirus. More than seven million hectares are planted with
citrus throughout the world (Table 2). Although citrus are native to East Asia,
citriculture has expanded in tropical, subtropical and mediterranean climatic
regions (Table 3). Mediterranean countries are the leading producers for the
international fresh market. The all-inclusive term “Phytophthora root rot” indicates a
complex disease which is caused by several soil-borne species of Phytophthora and is
recognized as a major fungal disease of citrus almost universally (Boccas & Laville,
1978; Klotz, 1978; Gregory, 1983; Magnano di San Lio, 1994; Erwin & Ribeiro,
61
A. Ciancio & K. G. Mukerji (eds.), Integrated Management of Diseases Caused by Fungi,
Phytoplasma and Bacteria, 61–84.
© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2008
62 S. O. CACCIOLA AND G. MAGNANO DI SAN LIO
1996; El-Otmani; 2006; Sadowsky, 2006; Tuset, 2006). Phytophthora spp. attack
citrus plants at all stages and may infect all parts of the tree, including roots, stem,
branches, twigs, leaves and fruits. Root rot, foot rot (also known as “gummosis”,
“trunk gummosis” or “collar rot”), fruit brown rot, twig and leaf dieback (often
indicated collectively as “canopy blight”) and rot (better known as “damping off ”)
of seedlings, all caused by Phytophthora spp., may be considered different facies of
the same disease.
caused by root rot is on average about 5%, while the damage caused by gummosis
was estimated to be on average about 1% (Menge & Nemec, 1997).
Country hectares
China 1,476,679
Brasil 942,267
Nigeria 730,000
Mexico 523,503
U.S.A 430,080
Spain 296,950
India 264,500
Iran 232,500
Italy 168,507
Argentina 145,000
Egypt 143,883
World 7,295,135
Brown rot of fruit is a common preharvest decay of citrus fruit, which causes
the fruit to fall. The infection occurs with rain splash to lower hanging fruits.
Infected fruits picked during the incubation period of the disease can still infect
healthy fruits in storage. This disease causes occasionally severe damage when
heavy or lasting rainfall occurs before harvest.
The epidemic explosions of brown rot usually occur in areas where heavy
rainfall coincides with the early stages of fruit maturity as immature fruits are not
susceptible to the infection. Severe attacks have also been caused occasionally by
overhead sprinkler irrigation, due to the use of water contaminated by Phytophthora
propagules. Annual losses from brown rot vary greatly, even in the same site. As
much as 90% of the crop on an individual tree and up to 30% of the total production
of some orchards were estimated to be lost when the disease was noticed for the first
time in Florida (Knorr, 1956).
Severe damages caused by canopy blight have been occasionally observed in
the nursery and on potted ornamental citrus plants under greenhouse (Kuramoto,
1981; Magnano di San Lio, Tuttobene & Pennisi, 1986; Magnano di San Lio,
Pennisi & Tuttobene, 1986).
Seedling rot is a disease of citrus in nurseries and affects the seedlings just
before or just after they have emerged from soil. It has disastrous effects although
limited in 24 hours, and about 80% of the seedlings in a seedbed may be killed.
64 S. O. CACCIOLA AND G. MAGNANO DI SAN LIO
Brasil 20,594
U.S.A 14,907
China 14,655
Mexico 6,475
Spain 6,206
India 4,750
Iran 3,825
Italy 3,493
Nigeria 3,250
Argentina 2,690
Egypt 2,562
Turkey 2,408
South Africa 1,850
Indonesia 1,600
Pakistan 1,585
Japan 1,470
Greece 1,227
Morocco 1,139
Thailand 1,116
World production 108,181
2.3. Epidemiology
Both P. citrophthora and P. nicotianae are polyphagous, that is, they infect
numerous plant species. Phytophthora nicotianae is more active in warm conditions
than P. citrophthora (Table 4) and attacks mainly the rootlets. P. citrophthora is the
main causal agent of trunk gummosis and fruit brown rot. The primary source of
inoculum is the rhizosphere soil, where the pathogen survives in the roots in the
form of mycelium, chlamydospores and oospores. The infected rootlets and fruits
with brown rot infections are the sources of the secondary inoculum and, in fact,
sporangia are formed on their surfaces, whereas no sporangia are formed on the
gummy cankers at the foot of the trunk. As far as it is known, P. citrophthora does
not reproduce sexually and very probably P. nicotianae reproduces sexually only
occasionally, since in the majority of citrus orchards examined only one mating type
of mycelium is found.
Sporangia are produced on contact with air on the most superficial soil layers
and are transported on the fruits by rain, irrigation water and wind. They germinate
in water, and a single sporangium releases from 5 to 40 zoospores. Production and
germination of sporangia are influenced above all by temperature and soil water
potential. The zoospores are motile and can swim short distances by flagellar
movement or can be carried over longer distances by soil water. The zoospores are
attracted by root exudates and sweem towards roots and encyst upon contact. Cysts
66 S. O. CACCIOLA AND G. MAGNANO DI SAN LIO
then germinate and penetrate the cortex through wounds or directly. The zoospores
can affect any part of the plant, if it remains wet at least 18 hours. The trunk,
branches and roots are infected through lesions, but the zoospores germ tube can
penetrate fruits, leaves, shoots and green twigs directly even in absence of lesions.
P. citrophthora 5 25-28 35
P. nicotianae 5-10 28-30 35-38
correlated with starch concentration (Fig.1). Also the bark susceptibility to infection
by P. citrophthora in subtropical and mediterranean climates varies throughout the
year and is higher in spring and autumn and very low in winter and summer
(Matheron & Matejka, 1989; Adonia et al., 1992).
In subtropical and mediterranean areas, when soil temperature falls to about
12°C, citrus roots stop their growth. In these circumstances, P. nicotianae forms
chlamydospores and becomes inactive. The subsequent population increase of this
species occurs in spring, when soil temperatures rise again, and coincides with a
new flush of roots. In tropical regions, where roots grow almost all the year,
seasonal fluctuations of plants susceptibility to root rot infections are less evident.
Phytophthora palmivora is found in tropical areas but its epidemiology is more
similar to that of P. citrophthora. It attacks preferentially fibrous roots and fruit. The
fruit is susceptible to brown rot infections from the ripening phase.
Brown rot epidemics are more frequent in citrus orchards where trunk gummosis
is endemic. If the environmental conditions are favourable for infections, for instance
when there is heavy rainfall in the winter period, brown rot is associated with the
dieback of leaves and twigs. The incubation period of brown rot is 3 – 7 days,
according to the temperature (Schiffmann-Nadal & Cohen, 1966). Asymptomatic
infected fruits can still infect healthy fruits even after harvesting, during transportation
and storage.
symptoms of decay on the canopy appear when the plant is no longer capable of
producing new rootlets to substitute the rotten ones.
2.5.1. Baits
In citrus orchards, the presence and quantity of Phytophthora inoculum in soil can
be determined empirically according to how frequently the ripe fruit left on the
ground for 3 – 7 days is infected. Ripe fruit of lemon and sweet orange can be used
as bait to capture P. citrophthora in the soil. Fragments of leaves from different
citrus cultivars are universal baits, i. e. they can be used to capture all Phytophthora
species living in citrus orchards. About ten grams of soil are incubated at ambient
temperature in the dark in a paper-glass filled with distilled water (soil : water ratio
1:6). After 4-6 days of incubation leaf pieces are picked up and observed at the
microscope for the presence of sporangia along the leaf cut edge. Another option is
to transfer the leaf fragments used as baits in Petri dishes on a selective isolation
medium and to identify the Phytophthora colonies grown from baits after 3-6 days
of incubation at 22-24 °C (Magnano di San Lio & Perrotta, 1982). However, to
identify the species or to determine the exact amount of inoculum, laboratory tests
are required.
Although the ELISA method is highly sensitive and can detect the presence of
Phytophthora at lower population densities than dilution plating onto selective
media (Timmer et al., 1993), it has not been applied on a large scale for
Phytophthora detection in citrus orchard, probably because of the special laboratory
equipment which is needed to obtain quantitative data.
Molecular detection methods have been developed more recently, including
PCR with species-specific primers, nested-PCR with genus and species-specific
primers as well as real time-PCR (Ippolito, Schena & Nigro, 2002; Grote et al.,
2002; Ippolito et al., 2004). The molecular methods are very sensitive and rapid but
may be applied in specialised laboratories only.
2.5.3.1. Definition
Monitoring consists in periodically determining the quantity of inoculum of the
various species of Phytophthora present in the soil of the citrus orchard or in the
irrigation water. Quantitative methods are used, such as isolation from infected
organic material (roots, leaves, bark etc.) on selective media, insemination of the
substrate with a series of soil dilutions, the DSA-ELISA assay on infected roots or
molecular analysis using Real time-PCR of the DNA extracted from samples of
water, soil or organic material. Monitoring is useful, especially for the rational
timing and management of chemical treatments (Sandler et al., 1989; Matheron
Porchas & Matejka, 1997).
Population levels show a seasonal pattern (Fig. 1) and may vary considerably
from year to year. It is also important to remind that Phytophthora populations in
soil are not uniform across the orchard. Studies on their horizontal spatial
distribution indicate either a random or an aggregate negative binomial pattern
(Magnano di San Lio, Reforgiato & Russo, 1987; Timmer et al., 1988; Magnano di
San Lio & Pennisi, 1994; Graham & Timmer, 2006). Because of this not uniform
spatial pattern of the inoculum, a great number of soil samples might be required to
detect lowest ID. Timmer et al. (1988) suggested that Elliot’s equation may be used
to calculate the number of soil samples theoretically needed to obtain a reliable
estimate of the ID of Phytophthora populations, fitting a negative binomial
distribution. They estimated that about 5-10 samples/hectare would be sufficient to
determine the mean ID in citrus orchards with moderate to high inoculum level.
2.5.3.3. Sampling
The criteria suggested in practice for collecting soil samples to determine routinely
ID are the following: the soil samples are taken from the rhizospere of the tree at a
depth of about 10-30 cm, under the tree canopy in the area soaked by irrigation
water, and they must contain rootlets. Each sample is obtained by mixing 20-40 sub-
samples taken from at least 4 trees over a surface of about 4 hectares, to give an
overall weight of 0.5-1 kg. It is advisable to analyse the sample within 24-48 hours
after its collection. If it must be kept for a longer period, it should be stored at room
temperature in a plastic bag, which should be left open to avoid water condensation.
3. DISEASE MANAGEMENT
3.1.2. Grafting
The bud union must be enough far from ground level (above or at least 40 cm) to
prevent the Phytophthora inoculum present in soil from reaching the scion through
water splashing (Whiteside, 1972). Most of the citrus species and cultivars used as
scions, in fact, are susceptible to Phytophthora infections. Grafting with highly
susceptible species or cultivars such as clementines or nucellar clones of sweet
orange may reduce rootstock resistance (Boccas & Laville, 1978; Laville, 1984;
Feichtenberger et al., 1994; Ippolito et al., 1994; Ippolito, Nigro & Lima, 1997).
- soil fumigation with i.e. Vapam or sterilisation with steam, before planting;
- limit as far as possible the transit of people or vehicles in the nursery;
- grow plants in separated containers;
- keep the containers above ground level on benches or gravel beds
- avoid resting containers on water-proof plastic sheets, tarmac or cement;
- examine the plants periodically and eliminate those with symptoms of
gummosis to prevent the disease from spreading;
- do at least one quantitative determination of the Phytophthora inoculum
density in the soil of the containers between April and November;
- do not excede with irrigation;
- select a nursery site at some distance from commercial citrus orchards;
- avoid using machinery and tools previously used in other citrus orchards.
PHYTOPHTHORA MANAGEMENT ON CITRUS 73
74 S. O. CACCIOLA AND G. MAGNANO DI SAN LIO
3.1.4. Pruning
Pruning modifies the architecture of a tree and may have an effect on the diseases
caused by Phytophthora. For example, the removal or the thinning of the lower
branches can create an unfavourable habitat for trunk gummosis infections and
reduce the risk of infections of fruit brown rot. Drastic pruning or topworking of
plants with symptoms of decline due to foot or root rot reduce the volume of the
canopy and prevent the tree from collapsing. Moreover, it helps the tree to recover,
given the predisposing causes of infection are removed, and will result in a more
efficient management if complemented by chemical treatments.
3.1.5. Surgery
Surgical intervention, practised in the past before systemic fungicides were
introduced to help infected plants recover from foot gummosis (Klotz, 1978), is now
almost obsolete. This is indeed a laborious and time consuming practice. It consists
in carving out the rotten bark. There must be a clean cut to help the scar to cicatrize
quickly and it is not necessary to penetrate too deeply into the woody cylinder. The
lesion can be disinfected with copper-based products, such as the Bordeaux mixture,
copper oxychlorides or mixtures of systemic copper-based fungicides. An alternative
method could be to cauterise the gummy canker with a flame, without removing the
bark (an ordinary blowtorch can be used).
place occurs when the host surface remains moist for some hours (at least 18),
giving enough time for the zoospores to germinate and for the germ tube to
penetrate. Another aspect to consider is that hypoxia, which is a consequence of the
soil water saturation, increases the susceptibility of citrus trees roots to
Phytophthora infections and inhibits the growth of new roots.
From this epidemiological knowledge it is convenient to follow some simple
general principles for rational irrigation management:
a) use water not contaminated by Phytophthora;
b) do not wet the trunk;
c) avoid flooding the soil.
Irrigation methods that wet the trunk favour gummosis infections. When one of
these methods is used, it is preferable to irrigate during the day and for short periods,
in order to allow water to evaporate and reduce the time the bark remains wet. As a
root rot preventive practice, the time intervals between irrigations can be extended
(Ohr & Menge, 2006) to reduce the water potential of the upper layers of soil below
the lowest values for P. citrophthora and P. nicotianae activity (Fig. 2). By this
way, the ID in the soil layers with the higher concentration of roots is reduced.
However, the practical application of this concept is difficult. In a study aimed at
determining the influence of different irrigation regimes on Phytophthora rot of
feeder roots, it was shown that in the presence of Phytophthora spp. larger plants
with healthier roots were obtained with frequent irrigation scheduled on the basis of
tensiometer readings, thus suggesting that the practice of drying out orchards soils to
reduce root rot problems is unnecessary, unless excess water was added to soil
(Stolzy, 1959). In the case of irrigation water, it is important to avoid premature
irrigations in spring, when roots are inactive. A recommended practice would be
irrigations of shorter duration with the frequency adjusted on instrument readings
(Ohr & Menge, 2006).
Generally speaking, the use of localised irrigation methods, such as drippers,
makes the plants more vulnerable to root rot. In fact, the ID of P. nicotianae is
directly correlated to the root density which, in arid or semi-arid environments, is
inversely proportional to the volume of soil wetted by irrigation water. In citrus
orchards irrigated in this way, constant monitoring of the water status using
tensiometers is recommended to avoid soil saturation. The effect of various methods
of irrigation on soil populations of Phytophthora has also been investigated by many
authors (Magnano di San Lio et al., 1988; Feld, Menge & Stolzy, 1990; Ippolito,
Lima & Nigro, 1992).
3.2.3. Fertilising
In citrus orchards with problems of root rot, it is better to apply nitrogen in nitrate
rather than ammonium form. The ammonium nitrogen, in fact, is rapidly
metabolised to asparagine and glutamine. These amino acids provide ideal
nourishment for P. nicotianae and attract zoospores (Menge & Nemec, 1997).
76 S. O. CACCIOLA AND G. MAGNANO DI SAN LIO
prevents the inoculum present in soil from coming into contact with fruits and
leaves, trough water splashing.
Figure 3. Effect of three systemic fungicides, applied as foliar spray (175 g a.i. ·100 liter -1
H2O) at various time intervals before inoculation with Phytophthora citrophthora, on the
development of cankers on sweet orange trees grafted on sour orange. A) Effect of
treatments on the length of cankers on the twigs (sweet orange), 21 days after
inoculation. B) Effect of treatments on cankers size on the basal portion of the rootstock
stem (sour orange), 70 days after inoculation (mean of 8 replicates ± SE).
with high concentrations of these fungicides (6% a.i. of mefenoxam and 10% a. i. of
fosetyl-Al) also help the plant to recover. The treatment must be started at the first
sign of symptoms and must be repeated after 3-4 months. If more than 50% of the
tree circumference is affected by gummosis, then the treatment is no longer effective
and it is better to substitute the plant. Painting and spraying of the trunk can also be
carried out using copper-based products, but this has only a preventative effect,
since these products do not penetrate the bark. Painting is impractical if trunk
infection is under the soil level.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Research on the ecology and epidemiology of P. citrophthora and P. nicotianae has
provided a corpus of knowledge and data which has been essential for the
development of rational strategies of integrated management of Phytophthora root
rot in citrus orchards and nurseries. These strategies are based on concepts, such as
inoculum density, threshold levels, host susceptibility and pathogen population
dynamics, as well as on general principles, such as use of genetic resistance of the
host, monitoring of inoculun, reduction of inoculum potential, timing of treatments,
sanitation measures, management of cultural practices to obtain an environment less
favourable to the pathogen and to reduce the disease pressure, induction of
resistance and eradication of infections by chemicals.
The efficacy of fosetyl-Al and mefenoxam has relaunched chemical control as
essential part of a rational and effective management strategy of this complex
disease. Proper timing and mode of application of these fungicides based on the
knowledge of the type of fungicide activity, the dynamics of pathogen populations
and the seasonal fluctuations of host susceptibility can help in reducing the
environmental impact of chemicals. The introduction in the scenario of new
systemic active ingredients adds flexibility to the chemical control and can help in
reducing the potential rik of fungicide resistance in the patogen populations.
The substitution of a resistant rootstock such as sour orange, due to further
spread of Citrus Tristeza Virus in the Mediterranean area and the diffusion of
cultivars, such as clementine and nucellar clones of sweet orange (Laville 1984,
Ippolito, Nigro & Lima, 1997), which induce susceptibility even in a tolerant
rootstock, might encourage the use of fungicides as routine control methods.
However, to be effective chemical control of Phytophthora root rot must be
complemented by cultural practices in order to make the environment less
favourable for infections and to reduce the disease pressure.
Genetic resistance of the rootstock appeared to be the most effective means to
control Phytophthora gummosis since the devastating epidemics of the second half
PHYTOPHTHORA MANAGEMENT ON CITRUS 81
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