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By Vaishali Kulkarni
Background
• World's largest machine; extends to all countries
• Huge economic and social importance
• Specialized in voice transmission
• Other applications have been created: fax, data etc.
• Basic service: full-duplex voice transmission
• Small end-to-end delays, small delay variation (more than
150ms delay disturbs discussion --note satellites!)
• Call admission control, and accepted calls will complete
• Grows all the time, now mostly growth of mobile networks
• Although most traffic in the telecom networks is now data,
most of the money comes from voice
8/3/2018 Digital Voice Communication 2
Background
• Telephones are addressed by telephone numbers,
that are unique
• There are special numbers or area codes that
need translation
• The network formed by the end systems
(telephones, faxes, modems etc.) and the
hierarchic switching and transmission systems is
called Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
or informally as Plain Old Telephone System
(POTS).
8/3/2018 Digital Voice Communication 3
FOUR WIRE TO TWO WIRE CONVERSION
4w to 2w conversion
4
FOUR WIRE TO TWO WIRE CONVERSION
HYBRID
4W Trans 4W Rec
TRANSFORMERS
Termination 2W
2 Wire
4W Rec 4W Trans
5
TIME SHARING OF FUNCTIONS
6
Telephone Network Architecture
Switching Switching
Office Office
CPE CPE
9
PSTN
STATION A STATION B
OPERATOR OPERATOR
ASSISTED ASSISTED
SERVICES SERVICES
GATEWAY GATEWAY
LOCAL LOCAL
TAX TAX
EXCH EXCH
TRANSPORT NETWORK
10
ELEMENTS OF A TELECOM NETWORK
A network is a combination of
NODES
LINKS
TERMINALS
11
Basic Telephone Systems - Loops
•The local loop is the telephone line that runs from the
telephone company’s central office to your home or
business.
•The central office is the building that houses the
telephone company’s switching equipment and provides
a local dial tone on your telephone.
•If you place a long distance call, the central office
passes your telephone call off to a long distance
provider.
SWITCHING
OFFICE
CONTROL
NETWORK
Special
Service
Circuit
L
M PILLAR
T D
E F
DP
PRIMARY CABLE
DISTRIBUTION CABLE
0.4 mm
CONDUCTOR 0.5 mm CONDUCTOR
21 July 2009 30
TRANSMISSION LIMIT
21 July 2009 31
CABLE CHARACTERISTICS
Insulation between two conductors forming a pair : 5000 M ohms per km.
Capacitance between conductors of the same pair: 0.04 microfarads per
km
21 July 2009 32
TUTORIAL
21 July 2009 33
TUTORIAL
21 July 2009 34
TUTORIAL continued
21 July 2009 35
TUTORIAL continued
21 July 2009 36
Extending the Subscriber Loop
1
4
Unloaded
Attenuation dB
cable
1
2
Loaded
1 88 mH
0
8
500 1000 1500 2000
2500 3000
6
21 July 2009 Frequency Hz 39
USE OF REMOTE CONCENTRATORS
PROCESSOR
EXCHANGE
DIGITAL
DIGITAL
TRANS LINK
ROUTE
M L L L
D CONC T T SW T
F U U U
BLOCK
LOCAL
CONTROL
41
Tutorial
• In a subscriber loop that contains a series resistance of 300
ohms to protect the - 40V batteries in the exchange, a
normalized telephone draws 10 mA and its standard input d.c.
resistance is 50 ohms. Calculate the maximum distance at
which a subscriber can get good speech reproduction if a
cable of 52 ohms/km resistance is used. If a standard hand set
of 30 mA current is used what will be the change in distance?
Tutorial
• Let RL be the line loop resistance
• Normalized Microphone current = 10 m A
• Telephone set resistance = 50 ohms, Series resistance = 300 ohms
• Battery voltage = 40 V
• I =V/R 10 x 10 -3 = 40 .
• (300+50+ RL)
• Hence 3500 + 10 RL = 40,000
• 10 RL = 36500 ohms; RL = 3650 ohms
• Maximum distance from exchange = 3650/52/2 = 35 Km
Tutorial
• (ii) When hand set current = 30 mA
• 30 x 10 -3 = 40 .
• (300+50+ RL)
• Hence 30 (350+ RL) = 40,000
• 10500+30 RL = 40,000 ; 30 RL = 29500; RL = 983 ohms
• Maximum distance from exchange = 983/52/2 = 9.45 km
• The maximum distance of subscriber from the exchange changes from 35 kms to
9.45 kms.
Tutorial
• An exchange uses a –40 V battery to drive subscriber lines. A
resistance of 250 ohms is placed in series with the battery to
protect it from short circuits. The subscribers are required to
use a standard telephone set which offers a dc resistance of
50 ohms.The microphone requires 23mA for proper
functioning. Given DC resistance of 133 ohms/km, find the
farthest distance from the exchange at which the subscriber
can be located .
Tutorial
• Let R be the line loop resistance, using the relation I = V/R,
the value of R can be calculated as
• 23 x 10 – 3 = 40 .
• (250+50+R R = 1439 ohms
•
• Loop length= 1439/133 = 10.82 km
• Therefore, the farthest distance at which the subscriber can
be located is 10.82/2 = 5.41 km
QUALITY OF SERVICE AND
TELECOMMUNICATION
IMPAIRMENTS
Loudness Rating
Determination of Loudness Rating
OLR = SLR + CLR + RLR.
• The overall loudness rating (OLR) is defined as the loudness
loss between the speaking subscriber’s mouth and the
listening subscriber’s ear via a telephone connection.
• The send loudness rating (SLR) is defined as the loudness
loss between the speaking subscriber’s mouth and an
electrical interface in the network.
• The receive loudness rating (RLR) is the loudness loss
between an electrical interface in the network and the
listening subscriber’s ear.
• The circuit loudness rating (CLR) is the loudness loss
between two electrical interfaces in a connection or circuit,
with each interface terminated by its nominal impedance
Transmission Impairments
• Phase Distortion
• The velocity of propagation of the signal tends to
vary with frequency because of the electrical
characteristics associated with the network.
• Again, the biggest culprit is filters.
• Considering the voice channel, therefore, the
velocity of propagation tends to increase toward
band center and decrease toward band edge.
Transmission Impairments
• Phase distortion is often measured by a parameter called envelope
delay distortion (EDD).
• Mathematically, envelope delay is the derivative of the phase shift
with respect to frequency.
• The maximum variation in envelope delay over a band of
frequencies is called envelope delay distortion.
• Therefore, EDD is always a difference between the envelope
• delay at one frequency and that at another frequency of interest in
the passband.
• It should be noted that envelope delay is often defined the same as
group delay—that is, the ratio of change, with angular frequency, of
phase shift between two points in the network
Transmission Impairments
Noise
• Noise, in its broadest definition, consists of any
undesired signal in a communication circuit.
• The subject of noise and noise reduction is probably
the most important single consideration in
transmission engineering. It is the major limiting factor
in overall system performance.
• For our discussion in this text, noise is broken down
into four categories:
– 1. Thermal noise
– 2. Intermodulation noise
– 3. Impulse noise
– 4. Crosstalk
Transmission Impairments
Crosstalk
• Crosstalk is the unwanted coupling between
signal paths. There are essentially three causes of
crosstalk:
1. Electrical coupling between transmission media, such
as between wire pairs on a voice-frequency (VF) cable
system and on digital (PCM) cable systems.
2. Poor control of frequency response (i.e., defective
filters or poor filter design).
3. Nonlinear performance in analog (FDM) multiplex
systems.
Transmission Impairments
Crosstalk
Crosstalk
Crosstalk
• Two basic forms of crosstalk of concern to
telecommunications engineers are :
– Near end crosstalk (NEXT)
– Far end crosstalk (FEXT)
• Near end crosstalk refers to coupling from a
transmitter into a receiver at a common location.
Often this form is most troublesome because of a
large difference in power levels between the
transmitted and received signals.
• Far end crosstalk refers to unwanted coupling into a
received signal from a transmitter at a distant
location.
Near – end and Far – end crosstalk
FEXT
NEXT
ECHO AND SINGING
• Echo and singing are two important impairments that
impact QoS.
• Echo is when a talker hears her/his own voice delayed.
The annoyance is a function of the delay time (i.e., the
time between the launching of a syllable by a talker
and when the echo of that syllable is heard by the
same talker). It is also a function of the intensity (level)
of the echo, but to some lesser extent.
• Singing is audio feedback. It is an “ear-splitting” howl,
much like the howl one gets by placing a public address
microphone in front of a loudspeaker.
ECHO AND SINGING
• Echoes and singing occur both occur as a result of
transmitted signals being coupled into a return path
and fed back to the respective sources.
• The most common cause of this coupling is an
impedance mismatch at a four-wire-to-two-wire
hybrid.
• If only one reflection occurs then talker echo occurs, if
two reflections occurs then listener echo also occurs.
• When the returning signal is repeatedly coupled back
into the forward path to produce oscillations, singing
occurs.
Generation of Echoes at two wire to
four wire interface
Echo suppressor circuit