Subscripts Literature Cited

a = apparent Carberry, J. J., White, D.,lnd. Eng. Chem.. 6 1 (7), 27 (1969).

c = center of catalyst particle Mears. D.E., Chem. Eng. Sci., 26, 1361 (1971a).
Mears, D.E.,h d . Eng. Chem., ProcessDes. Dev., 10, 541 (1971b).
f = value a t catalyst bed outlet Mears, D. E., J. Catal., 20, 127 ( 1 9 7 1 ~ ) .
h = heat Olson, R.W., Schuler, R . W., Smith, J. M., Chem. Eng. Prog., 46, 614 (1950).
i = value a t catalyst bed inlet Suzuki, M.. Smith, J. M., Chem. Eng. J., 3, 256 (1972).
m = mass Valstar, J. M., Bik, J. D.,van den Berg, P. J., Trans. Inst. Chem. Eng. (Lon-
don), 47, CE 136 (1969).
0 = value well upstream of reactor inlet Votruba. A,, Hlavacek, V., Marek, M., Chem. Eng. Sci., 27, 1845 (1972).
p = particle or pressure Young, L. C., Finlayson, B. A , , Ind. Eng. Chem., Fundam., 12, 412 (1973).
s = a t catalyst particle surface
w = a t reactor wall Receiued for reuieu: J u n e 24, 1974
z = axial Accepted September 11, 1975

Continuous Thickening in a Pilot Plant

John P. S. Turner and David Glasser'

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

The continuous thickening of a uranium plant slurry was studied on a 7-ft diameter pilot plant. Flow patterns and
density profiles within the thickener were observed. It was found that there were two distinct stable modes of
operation which were named "settler" and "filter" modes. The "settler" mode coincided with the underloaded
operation while the "filter" mode corresponded to a fully loaded thickener. The flow patterns, internal circula-
tions, residence-time density functions, overflow turbidities, and visual appearances of these two states were
found to be very different. Maximum throughputs were 70-80% compared with those predicted by Coe and
Clevenger and flux theory methods. This is attributed mainly to a more rapid settling out of the settling zone of
the coarser particles, leaving the remaining pulp with a lower settling flux. Concentration zones in the thickener
were not found to agree with the flux theory predictions.

Introduction traction of the uranium by means of a sulfuric acid leach in

T h e existence of concentration zones within a thickener
was shown by Coe and Clevenger in 1916. In general, three
main zones exist, namely the clear water zone a t the top,
the settling zone in the middle, and the compaction zone a t
the bottom of the thickener. Coe and Clevenger compared
the settling process occurring in both batch settling and
continuous thickening and they formulated a method for
sizing thickeners from batch settling results. Talmage and
Fitch slightly modified the theory and test procedure in
1955, on the basis of the theory of sedimentation p u t for-
ward by Kynch (1952).
It has. however, been shown (Dunstan and Scott, 1969;
Scott and Paulsen, 1970; Cross, 1963) t h a t substantial flow
patterns can exist in a thickener, particularly the settling
zone, and this circulation has definite effects on the process
of sedimentation. Nevertheless, the batch settling data of
both Coe and Clevenger and Talmage and Fitch have been
reliably used for sizing thickeners for many years.
Many of the laboratory scale experiments in thickening
have used settling tanks with diameters of 30 cm or less.
Under these circumstances flow patterns have not been re-
ported as being of much significance. In order to consider
the effects not present in laboratory scale equipment, a 7-ft
diameter pilot plant was subjected to extensive investiga-
tion.
The nature of the flocculated pulps has been discussed
by many workers (Michaels and Bolger, 1962; Scott, 1968a)
and this will not be repeated here.
Experimental Section
Material. T h e slurry was obtained as a waste product
from a uranium processing plant. After oxidation and ex-
the presence of manganese dioxide, the filtered pregnant li-
quor is solvent extracted, and the barren acid solution is
treated with lime.
The stoichiometrically calculated composition of the
plant slime was in weight per cent: Fe(OH)Z, 10.0%;
Fe(OH),, 11.9%; Mn(OH):I, 10.8%; CaS04, 58.5%; lime im-
purities, 8.8%.
The pulp used consisted of the plant slime minus most of
the coarser particle sized lime impurities. Micrographs re-
vealed t h a t the suspension consisted of fairly discrete par-
ticles of iron hydroxide and transparent crystals of calcium
sulfate (Turner 1972).
Equipment. The continuous thickening experiments
were done on a 7-ft diameter pilot plant, with central feed
and underflow and peripheral overflow. The thickener was
run in closed circuit with the underflow and overflow being
combined in the stock tank to make up the feed pulp. The
feed pulp was circulated through a steady head tank to
maintain a constant feed rate. The level in the stock tank
was controlled, if necessary, by make-up water on a ball
valve control.
The equipment and circuit diagram are shown in Figure
1. A rake mechanism was incorporated with a variable
speed drive and consisted of angled rubber pads mounted
below two revolving arms. Overflow was effected through
88 0.5-in. diameter holes drilled in the metal perimeter.
The overflow could be adjusted in sections by blocking the
holes with rubber stoppers.
A conventional shallow feed well was used, with a hori-
zontal baffle placed below the feed well to reduce the
scouring effect. The feed distributor and baffle were
mounted on the central shaft driving the rake mechanism,
which revolved.

Ind. Eng. Chem., Fundam., Vol. 15, No. 1, 1976 23


Feed stock
Temperature
control
Figure 1. Circuit flow diagram
The thickener and associated equipment were installed
in a laboratory equipped with thermostatically controlled
fan heaters, and all the experiments were conducted a t con-
stant temperature. These ranged from 23.0 to 24.5OC. In
addition, the stock tank was equipped with three 1-kW
heating elements, activated by a simple on-off temperature
controller controlling to within 1.5OC. This equipment was
used in addition to the laboratory fan heaters, particularly
for heating any make-up water.
Measuring Equipment. The inlet flow was measured on
a rotameter and recorded using a transducer measuring the
pressure drop across an orifice plate. The underflow rate
was calculated by timing a measured volume, and the over-
flow flow rate was calculated by difference. These measure-
ments could be checked by timing a measured volume of
the overflow and controlling the stock tank level with
make-up water, which was done during tracer tests.
The inlet concentration was recorded using a specially
built turbidimeter, and the underflow concentration was
recorded by both a radioactive isotope density measure-
ment and oven-dried samples. Liquid residence times were
obtained from tracer tests using both radioactive sodium-
24 and rhodamine BN dye. Density height profiles within
the tank were measured using a submersible radioactive
isotope density gauge. This determined local densities
using a collimated beam across a 3-in. path length. Both
density gauges were built in the department and used Am-
ericium-241.
In an effort to observe flow patterns within the tank, an
open perspex section, immersed in the tank, was used. The
section was built like a wedge with sides along tank radii so
as to disturb flow patterns as little as possible and extend-
ing in depth to just above the rake mechanism. I t had a
perspex bottom and sides, but an open top to make obser-
vations possible. A t one point the flow was accelerated and
forced against the side by a baffle, and flow patterns could
easily he seen, even in the densest and slowest moving
pulps. This section was also particularly useful for siphon-
ing samples out of the tank.
A sedimentation tray with separated compartments was
used to measure radial settling in the tank. Built as thin as
possible, with a lid that slid off sideways in order to cause
minimum disturbance, the tray could be submersed to any
depth. The material collected in the compartments could
be examined and weighed. More details of the measuring
equipment have been published elsewhere (Turner 1972).
General Method of Operation of Thickener. During
experimental runs, the tank system was left running in
closed circuit 24 hr a day, in the temperature-controlled
laboratory. No difficulty was achieved with the choking of
lines because of the nature of the slime, and steady-state
runs were easily achieved. Monitoring the steady-state con-
dition was done with the inlet concentration. Steady-state
conditions were changed as required by changing under-
24 Ind. Eng. Chern., Fundarn., Vol. 15, No. 1, 1976
flow and/or inlet flow rates. Steady-state conditions were
run for several hours before samples were taken and then
sampled over a period of 0.5 hr and mass balances were
checked by comparing inlet and discharge. In the tracer
tests the overflow was run to waste, with the level and tem-
perature of the stock tank being maintained by the respec-
tive equipment.
A slow aging of the pulp seemed to occur and was pre-
sumed to be due to the action of the centrifugal pump in
the circuit. Coe and Clevenger batch tests were done, in a
constant temperature laboratory, after each alternate run
and if any evidence of aging was present the pulp in the
pilot plant was replaced with fresh pulp.
Continuous steady-state runs were done a t four different
inlet flow rates, with three or four separate runs a t each
flow rate, covering a range of inlet concentrations and tank
conditions from underloading to full capacity.
Results
Coe and Clevenger Batch Settling. The pulp exhibited
the two types of settling classified by Michaels and Bolger
(19621, namely dilute and intermediate, with the concen-
trated pulp not being subjected to batch tests.
Six representative tests, covering the range of concentra-
tions tested, are shown in Figure 2. The switch from dilute
to hindered settling was very noticeable, with an induction
period being required for the formation of floc particles.
This was clearly seen a t concentrations above 0.02 g/cm:'
and showed a pattern of increasing induction time with in-
creasing concentration.
The test of the modified Richardson and Zaki equation
(Richardson and Zaki, 1954; Michaels and Bolger, 1962)
u =U O ( ~- kc)' 65 (11
is shown in Figure 3 for representative batch tests. These
show a good straight line fit up to a concentration of 0.02
g/cm3. This is in agreement with the observations and de-
fines the boundary between dilute and intermediate set-
tling.
The results of uo and k taken from batch tests a t four
different temperatures are shown in Table I. These results
show a constancy of k with temperature, and a strong vari-
ation of uo with temperature. This variation is significantly
greater than expected from pure viscosity considerations,
and necessitated the strict temperature control during the
steady-state runs.
Temperature differences in the batch and continuous
tests were corrected for by using the reduced settling veloc-
ity and reduced flux curve (Shannon et al., 1963; Scott,
1 9 6 8 ~ )The
. value of h was taken as 18.00 cm.l/g for all cal-
culations. The reduced flux curves in Figures 11-14 repre-
sent all the hatch tests taken throughout the continuous
runs.
Talmage and Fitch Batch Settling. Talmage and Fitch
settling experiments were performed on the pulp a t various
concentrations. The method of obtaining settling rate con-
centration data from such curves, and the ranges of validi-
ty, have been well presented (Talmage and Fitch, 1955;
Fitch, 1966).
The Talmage and Fitch and Coe and Clevenger tests
were done simultaneously, and the value of u g thus ob-
tained used in any conversion of Talmage and Fitch results
to reduced units.
The settling velocity as a function of concentration
showed a very strong dependence on the initial concentra-
tion. This is shown in Figure 4, where the Talmage and
Fitch settling rate concentration curves are compared with
the Coe and Clevenger settling rate concentration curve. In
 40
c
z
:. 30
L:

;IO A‘
2 1 I
u
10 30 50 70
4
0 02
Soilds concentrotion
0 04
gmslcc
I

Time minutes Figure 4. Reduced settling velocities for Coe and Clevenger and
Figure 2. Coe and Clevenger batch settling curves. Initial concen- Talmage and Fitch methods: A, Talmage and Fitch, initial concen-
trations (g/cm3): A, 0.0087; B, 0.0153; C, 0.0209; D, 0.0257; E, tration = 0.0087 g/cm3; B, Talmage and Fitch, initial concentra-
0.0342; F, 0.0340. tion = 0.0155 g/cm3; C, Talmage and Fitch, initial concentration =
0.0238 g/cm3; D, Talmage and Fitch, initial concentration = 0.0286
g/cm3; E, Coe and Clevenger

Y
H r

settler modes

0 01 0 02 0 03
Feed concentration gmrlcc
Figure 5 . The Internal circulation rate and settling zone concen-
tration as a function of feed concentration for an inlet flow rate of
12 l./min.

density
I 0.01 0.02 0.03
I I
0.04 profile

Concentration gmslcc
Figure 3. Test of the modified Richardson and Zaki equation for
feed and settling zone material: 0 , feed material 24.5OC; A, feed
material 22.8OC; .,settling zone material 22.8OC.
Table I. Constants for Modified Richardson and Zaki
Equation
Temp, ’C u o , cmimin
24.5 4.77
22.6 3.39
21.0 2.72
20.0 2.16
all probability this is due t o some segregation during set-
tling (as found in the continuous settling). For this reason a
Talmage and Fitch flux curve was not drawn.
Continuous Thickening. Flow patterns and zones with-
in the thickener were very easily seen using the perspex
wedge and were very well defined. Under all conditions of
t h e thickener in normal operation three zones could be eas-
ily distinguished, namely clear water zone, settling zone,
and compaction zone. T h e steady-state runs showed the
thickener to operate under two distinct modes of operation,
characterized by different types of flow patterns and densi-
ty profiles. Both modes, called “settler” and “filter” were
shown to be stable operating conditions, corresponding to
the thickener being underloaded and a t full capacity, re-
spectively.
Figure 6. Velocity and density profile for the “settler” mode of‘
operation. Arrow lengths represent flow velocities.
T h e transition from “settler” to “filter” mode was dra-
matic, occurring at the throughput where the thickener was
a t maximum capacity. Any further increase in thickener
throughput resulted in a sliming thickener.
h , cm3/g T h e main difference between the two modes, besides
18.1 their throughputs, was in the flow patterns that existed in
17.7 the thickener. In “settler” mode large circulating flow pat-
17.9 terns existed in the settling and clear water zones, while in
17.0 “filter” mode circulating flow in these zones was almost
negligible as can be seen from Figure 5 . These differences
in flow patterns had a significant effect on a number of sec-
ondary parameters, particularly in the settling zone where
the depth and concentration of the settling zone increased
drastically as the circulation decreased. In fact the “filter”
mode derived its name from the very deep settling zone ex-
isting under almost stagnant conditions and appearing to
act as a filter bed for the feed material. This is also shown
in Figure 5.
“Settler” Mode of Operation. T h e general condition of
operation of “settler” mode is illustrated in Figure 6, show-
ing the zones, circulating flow patterns, and density profile.
T h e feed to the thickener entered the tank vertically
downward through the inlet distributor and was diluted by
the circulating water from the clear water zone. This feed
then turned horizontal and entered the thickener itself a t

Ind. Eng. Chem., Fundam., Vol. 15, No. 1, 1976 25

 teed
Figure 7. Velocity and density profiles for the “filter” mode of op-
eration. Arrow lengths represent flow velocities.
its compatible density level, forming the settling zone. This
cascading underwater waterfall effect has been seen by a
number of other authors.
The settling zone was relatively narrow, and the feed
into the settling zone covered the complete depth of the
settling zone. All three zones were very well defined with
definite interfaces between them.
Under “settler” mode the circulation of clear water from
the clear water zone was very high, being as high as 2.6
times the volumetric feed flow. This was calculated from
the dilution of the feed as it entered the thickener by si-
phoning samples into the wedge. As this diluted feed en-
tered the settling zone it spread very quickly toward the
perimeter, with a decrease in horizontal velocity as the pe-
rimeter was approached compatible with the increased area
available for flow. At the perimeter the water flowed up-
ward into the clear water zone leaving most of the solids
behind in the settling zone. T h e circulation back t o the
center originated from the perimeter, with a n increase in
horizontal velocity as the center was approached. At the
perimeter part of the upflow from the settling zone to clear
water zone did not recirculate to the center. This consti-
tuted the overflow.
Vertical velocity profiles existed in both the settling and
clear water zones, as illustrated in Figure 6. In addition a
horizontal velocity profile existed in both these zones and
could be seen by viewing the thickener in plan. A liquid
tracer added to the feed showed random maximum veloci-
ties as the tracer front moved out non-uniformly from the
center of the thickener. This uneven tracer front was visi-
ble in both settling and clear water zones.
T h e flow through the settling and clear water zones ap-
peared to be laminar. No mixing or transfer of material be-
tween or within the two streams occurred except a t the
feed distributor and at the perimeter.
In its passage from the center t o the perimeter the feed
appeared to undergo batch settling with the interface be-
tween the settling zone and clear water zone becoming bet-
ter defined as the concentration of the settling zone in-
creased. The upflow a t the perimeter carried particles from
the cloudy interface to the overflow, giving the “settler”
mode a relatively turbid overflow. T h e turbidity of the ov-
erflow decreased as the concentration of the settling zone
increased. These are phenomena that had parallels in the
batch settling experiments (Turner, 1972).
Generally the settling zone was of uniform depth with ra-
dius, but under conditions where the settling zone was very
narrow a slight wedge shape was noticed, with the settling
zone thinning toward the perimeter. This would be expect-
ed if there was batch settling from this zone.
The liquid residence time density function is shown in
Figure 8 illustrating clearly the circulating flow. These were
obtained from dye and radioactive tracers in the liquid.
Due t o the large circulating flow within the thickener and
the narrow settling zone the feed spread very quickly to the
perimeter. Under the actual experimental conditions the
feed reached the perimeter in 1.5-2 min, and the first trac-
er appeared back a t the center in 3.5-4 min. T h e upflow
from the perimeter to the overflow was slow in comparison
26 Ind. Eng. Chem., Fundam., Vol. 15, No. 1, 1976
Units
I /
4
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time mlnutel
Figure 8. Liquid residence-time density function curves; settler
mode feed flow rate = 11.8 I./min; filter mode feed flow rate = 11.9
l./min.
to the horizontal flow and the first tracer appeared in the
overflow after 4 min. This was the result of approximately
two equal time delays, namely in the settling zone from the
center to the perimeter and the flow a t the perimeter from
the settling zone t o the overflow. T h e peak in the residence
time density function curve appears after about 8 min. By
this time the fastest circulating flow in the thickener had
completed two cycles, giving the appearance of tracer com-
pletely mixed throughout the settling and clear water
zones. The liquid residence time distribution is thus not
dissimilar t o that of a perfectly mixed vessel with an initial
delay.
“Filter” Mode of Operation. T h e operation of the
thickener under “filter” mode is illustrated in Figure 7. As
in “settler” mode the feed entered the thickener vertically
from the inlet distributor, and then entered the settling
zone horizontally at its compatible density level. Under fil-
ter mode the settling zone was very deep and the feed en-
tered over almost the entire depth. T h e settling zone ex-
tended from the compaction zone almost to the surface,
leaving a very narrow clear water zone.
T h e rate of circulation of clear water was very low, and
thus very little dilution of the incoming feed occurred. T h e
rate of circulating water t o fresh feed was approximately
0.2, thus resulting in a settling zone concentration of much
higher concentration than under settler mode. Similarly,
the flow from the center out radially was only to replace
solids that settled into the compaction zone and water
flowing to the overflow. Thus the horizontal flow in the set-
tling zone was slow in comparison of t h a t of settler mode.
T h e flow out radially was laminar with a vertical velocity
profile as shown in Figure 7. Close to the interface with the
clear water zone flow was small and random. An additional
horizontal velocity profile occurred similar to the one for
“settler” mode.
In “filter” mode the settling zone was both much greater
in depth and much higher in concentration than in “set-
tler” mode. The higher concentration was due in part to
the lower circulation rate of clear water, and in part to a
higher feed concentration as the throughput increased.
T h e settling zone was of uniform concentration and
structure throughout and appeared to consist of a coherent
mass of floc particles, all interconnected and showing elas-
tic properties. These acted as a filter bed for the liquid
which percolated out of it, showing a sharply defined inter-
face and a crystal-clear clear-water zone. T h e sedimenta-
tion from the settling zone appeared t o have the same sur-
face and flow structure as those found in batch settling
tests.
Thus during the radial flow in the settling zone, batch
settling occurred. With a uniform settling zone concentra-
tion, settling was proportional to area, and this governed
the flow velocities. T h e horizontal velocity decreased very
quickly with radius, and solid tracer material in the settling
Table 11. Results of the Sedimentation Tray Tests
Test A B C
Mode of
operation Settler Filter Filter
Position of
tray Bottom of settling zone Bottom of settling zone Top of settling zone
Compartment Sedimentation Sedimentation Sedimentation
Wt % Wtlarea Wt % Wt/area Wt % Wtlarea
1 (center) 12.7 1.0 11.3 0.885 6.5 0.80
2 18.4 0.84 22.2 1.01 10.7 0.766
3 23.1 0.725 13.7 0.43 15.8 0.786
4 21.6 0.54 25.5 0.64 25.3 1.0
5 (perimeter) 23.8 0.48 27.3 0.55 41.7 1.33

zone appeared t o approach the perimeter asymptotically as

E
the horizontal velocity decreased to zero.
Analysis of the settling zone pulp gave two important re- ,E-
sults. 90

(i) Sedimentation tray tests, t o be discussed later,

showed evidence of segregation of the feed material as it
entered the settling zone, with the coarser material fed in
a t the bottom of the settling zone and settling out more 105
quickly.
(ii) Coe and Clevenger settling tests on the settling zone
and feed material were done. These show flocs from the
settling zone t o have a significantly lower settling rate than
the feed pulp. T h e test of the Richardson and Zaki equa- 125

tion (Figure 3) shows the feed a n d settling zone pulps to

have equal Stoke’s settling velocities (intercept) b u t differ-
ent proportionality constants h (determined from the
slope). T h e increase in the proportionality constant shows
a decrease in the density of the floc particle. This differ-
ence appears t o be due to segregation in the batch settling,
which, if taken into account, would in part a t least explain
the discrepancy between the feed curve and the settling
zone curve. It also supports the observation of segregation
of the feed as it enters the settling zone. T h e two reduced
flux curves for both feed and settling zone material are
shown in Figures 11-14.
With this segregation occurring, the method used to cal-
culate the rate of circulation of clear water is slightly in
error and tends t o overestimate the circulation.
In the clear water zone, flow patterns showed very little
circulation. General flow was toward the perimeter, with
the overflow originating from percolation out of the settling
zone a t all points in the thickener.
T h e difference in flow conditions between “filter” and
“settler” modes is clearly seen from the liquid residence
time density functions in Figure 8. Under the experimental
conditions, the first tracer in the overflow appeared after a
time delay of 4.5 t o 7.5 min. This originated from tracer
material that percolated out of the settling zone close t o
the feed distributor and then flowed directly t o the over-
flow. As the flow in the settling zone progressed out radial-
ly, so more tracer percolated into the clear water zone and
reached the overflow, until a maximum in the curve was
obtained after about 25 min.
Sedimentation T r a y Tests. T h e phenomenon of segre-
gation during sedimentation with the coarser particles set-
tling out first (Scott and Paulsen, 1970) was observed in
the present work using the sedimentation tray. Under both
“settler” and “filter” modes, when the tray was situated a t
the interface between the settling and compaction zones,
definite segregation was observed with the coarser particles
settling out nearer the center of the thickener. Table I1
shows the decrease in settlement per unit area as the pe-
rimeter is approached.
Figure 9. Progress of solid tracer material through the thickener
under “settler” mode of operation.
In contrast, when the sedimentation tray was situated
high in the settling zone (“filter” mode), Table I1 shows
fairly even settlement per unit area with no observed dif-
ferences in material settled near the center and near the
perimeter. This is to be expected from a uniform settling
zone, and shows the feed material t o undergo a vertical seg-
regation with coarse material entering a t the bottom of the
settling zone and settling out fairly rapidly.
The Compaction Zone and U n d e r f l o w Discharge.
Removal of settled material in the compaction zone by t h e
underflow occurred through a cone shaped discharge with
the underflow discharge as the apex. T h e material in the
compaction zone appeared t o flow slowly to the underflow
in the cone shaped draw-off, rather than settle vertically
and be scraped by the rake mechanism to the discharge. In
fact, cessation of the rake movement appeared to have lit-
tle effect on the underflow discharge.
T h e path of solid tracer material in Figure 9 illustrates
t h e cone draw-off and the effect of the rakes. T h e tracer
was fresh pulp which was green, old pulp being brown. T h e
importance of rakes, however, must necessarily vary with
the type and grind of the material in the thickener.
T h e elimination of water from the floc particles occurred
in the compaction zone (hCun&rflow > 1) due t o the weight
of overlying solids. This could be seen from the water

Ind. Eng. Chem., Fundam., Vol. 15, No. 1, 1976 27

 -
O3 [ : I---,- teed

A teed flux curve

B settling zone flux curve
6 -

9 -

12 -

A
. I5 -
E, 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
-I8 settiin> Solids volume fraction kc underflow
concent rotions concentrations
0,

=8 21 - Figure 12. Operating lines of runs no. 5, 6, and 7 (inlet flow rate =
12.2 l./min): - - -, run no. 5: settler mode; run no. 6: settler e.,

g 24-
mode; -, run no. 7: filter mode.
-a
Q
27 -

f 3ob c \ [ teed
concentrat ions A feed flux curve
(Ij
lll
lll
lll
ll B settling zone flux curve
0 04 08 12 16 20 24
Reduced solids concentration kc
Figure 10. Density profiles (or “settler” and “filter” modes (runs 5 F 0.04
and 7): 0 , filter mode half way t o the perimeter; 0,filter mode at
the centre of the tank; A , settler mode half way to the perimeter; 0
CL
A. settler mode at the centre of the tank.
1 I i I i h
-
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
settlinb ion; Solids volume traction kc zzx
teed concentrations concentrations
toncenlratlons
0.08 Figure 13. Operating lines of runs no. 8, 9, and 10 (inlet flow rate
A teed flux curve = 11.1 l,/min): -, run no. 8: filter mode; - - -, run no. 9: between
B settling zone flux curve settler and filter mode;. . . run No. 10: settler modes.
a,

p 0.04

V
teed
concentrations
d 0 08
A feed tlux curve
:I=
i D

B settling zone flux curve

04
iettling. zone‘
OB
Sollds volume fraction kc -- undertlow -
-
concentrations concentrations 2 004
Figure 11. Operating lines of runs no. 1 , 2 , and 4 (inlet flow rate = V
13.5 l./min): -, run no. 1: thickener sliming; - - -, run no. 2: filter a
mode;. . .., run no. 4: settler mode.
0.4 1.2 1.6 2.0
kettling. zone’ Solids volume fraction kc Lun&rflor .
trapped under the bottom of the observation wedge. T h e concentrations concentrations

bulk of displaced water percolated up, with a n occasional
channel formed to assist this upflow. These channels were
destroyed by the disturbances due t o the rake.
Density Profiles. T h e density profile and flow patterns
were taken simultaneously in all the experiments. Two re-
sults are shown in Figure 10 for the thickener under “set-
tler” and “filter” modes, respectively. As noted previously,
under all conditions the feed entered the thickener at its
compatible density level. Density profiles taken a t differ-
ent points in the tank showed no significant differences.
Operating Conditions Relative to the Flux Curves.
Operating lines for all the runs are shown relative to the re-
duced flux curves of the feed and the settling zone pulps re-
spectively in Figures 11-14. I t can clearly be seen t h a t the
“filter” modes correspond t o the highest throughputs. Also
we may note t h a t the operating lines for all the “filter”
modes lie below the tangent line to the feed flux curve and
above the tangent line for the settling zone flux curve. This
is t o be expected as the upper flux curve is not constructed
for the true settling zone material while the operating line
is not drawn for the correct settling zone flux (as some ma-
terial has bypassed the settling zone). There was insuffi-
cient information to draw the correct operating line, due t o
the feed material containing a distribution of particle sizes.
The amount of material bypassing the settling zone is thus
not known. T h e feed concentrations, the settling zone con-
Figure 14. Operating lines of runs no. 11, 12, and 13 (inlet flow
rate = 9.6 l./min): -, run no. 12: filter mode; - - -, run no. 13: filter
mode,. . .-,run no. 14: settler mode.
centrations, and the underflow concentrations are also
shown on these graphs.
Discussion
Under normal operating conditions the sedimentation
tank consisted of three zones: clear liquid zone on the top,
the settling zone in the center, and the compaction zone
thickening the discharge.
Sedimentation out of the settling zone appeared as batch
settling with segregation. T h e coarser particles settled out
first in both “filter” and “settler” modes, leaving a settling
zone consisting of feed material minus the coarser fraction
of particle sizes. T h e settling zone pulp thus displayed
lower batch settling characteristics from t h a t of the feed
pulp, but settling out of this zone nevertheless appeared as
batch settling. Flow velocities were sufficiently slow not to
really affect the settling process. The batch settling had su-
perimposed on it the effect of the underflow which in-
creased the batch settling flux by a certain amount.
Results in Relation to the Flux Theory. T h e flux
theory has been well presented by many workers (Robins,
1964, Jernqvist, 1965). T h e theory is criticized for the fact

28 Ind. Eng. Chem., Fundam., Vol. 15, No. 1, 1976

Table 111. Coe and Clevenger Flux Theory Results
________ _ ____
Flux theory
Coe and
Clevenger Upper Lower
limiting conjugate conjugate
concn concn concentration
Reduced Reduced Reduced
Run no. units, kc units, kc units, kc
2 0.522 0.075 0.52
7 0.513 0.075 0.52
8 0.612 0.075 0.49
12 0.684 0.080 0.49
13 0.628 0.080 0.49
t h a t its basic assumptions are not valid for industrial thick-
eners and hence the predicted concentration zones in the
thickener did not occur experimentally. Capacities did
show agreement.
I t is necessary to clarify what is meant by the flux theo-
ry. The drawing of a flux curve from hatch settling tests
and the associated mass balance line are not fundamental
only to the flux theory. I t is the relationship between the
flux curve and this line and the association of various zones
in the thickener with this graph which is unique to the flux
theory.
T h e basic assumption of the flux theory is the postulate
of the feed being distributed evenly and continuously
across the entire area of the thickener. Then due to the set-
tling flux a t the feed concentration being greater than the
feed flux, the concentration immediately drops to a lower
concentration (upper conjugate concentration) where the
settling flux equals the feed flux. This is contrary to the
concept of the feed entering a t its compatible density
(Fitch and Lutz, 1960; Sawyer, 1956), as seen in the present
work. With the upper conjugate concentration lower than
the feed concentration we would expect the feed to cascade
t o a point below this zone and then enter a t its compatible
density level. T h e floc bed a t the upper conjugate concen-
tration, if it exists, must then exist above the feed position
and not below it. T h e present work also showed the neces-
sity for a separate flux curve for the settling zone, due to
the segregation of the feed.
In the compaction zone limitations of predictions by the
flux theory have been expressed (Robins, 1964). The theory
predicts three concentrations; upper and lower conjugate
concentrations and the discharge concentration. The na-
ture of the compaction zone is not predicted, and the theo-
ry considers the thickening as independent of height. The
effect of overlying solids (or depth of compaction zone) is
not considered unless we use the flux envelope of Tory
(1968).
Capacities. The predicted capacities of the thickener
operating a t maximum capacity, as postulated by the flux
theory, and the predicted concentration zones are shown in
Table 111. These are compared with the actual conditions
for the thickener operating under “filter” mode in runs 2, 7 ,
8, 12, and 13. For runs 8, 12, and 13, where the feed concen-
tration is greater than the lower conjugate concentration,
the upper conjugate concentration is determined by the
normal method.
Although flux theory capacities are in fairly consistent
agreement with actual capacities, the upper and lower con-
jugate concentrations were not found to exist. This can be
seen to he true even for an upper conjugate concentration
determined by a fictitious settling zone operating line
drawn on the settling zone flux curve. There does not ap-
pear to he any direct correlation between the lower conju-
gate concentration and the settling zone concentration.
Coe and Clevenger capacities, calculated for each condi-
Actual results
Throughput Settling Actual throughput
Reduced zone concn as a 70of the predicted
units, Reduced Coe and Flux
Gk/Au, units k c Clevenger theory
_
0.0411 0.32 77.5 77.5
0.0408 0.36 77.1 77.7
0.0442 0.39 77.4 80.5
0.0435 0.48 73.7 80.5
0.0423 0.41 70.0 74.7
tion of “filter” mode of operation, also give consistent re-
sults. Actual throughputs are 70-80% of those predicted by
Coe and Clevenger. T h e formula of Coe and Clevenger may
he readily transposed to read (Tory, 1961)
This relationship of Coe and Clevenger can be derived
from the basic assumptions of the flux theory, which helps
to understand the agreement between throughputs and
throughputs calculated by both methods. Thus eq 2, a t a
specific concentration, defines the capacity for both meth-
ods. T h e flux theory, however, defines the capacity of the
thickener as limited by the minimum value of eq 2, which
occurs a t the lower conjugate concentration. Coe and Clev-
ener define thickener capacity as the minimum value of eq
2 between the feed concentration and the highest concen-
tration of free settling pulps. These two minimum values
are the same, unless the minimum value of the flux curve is
a t a concentration either lower than the feed concentration
or higher than the limiting concentration of free settling
pulps. Thus generally we would expect equivalent through-
puts from both methods.
In the present work the capacities for both methods are
the same for runs 2 and 7 . In these two runs the lower con-
jugate concentration falls between the feed concentration
and the highest concentration of free settling pulps. In runs
8, 12, and 13, however, the lower conjugate concentration is
a t a concentration below the feed concentration, and thus
the predicted flux theory capacity is lower than the Coe
and Clevenger capacity.
The zones and their concentrations described by Coe and
Clevenger (1916) to exist in a thickener closely approxi-
mate the conditions obtained under “filter” mode of the
present work, with a settling zone concentration fairly close
to the feed concentration. Two distinct differences oc-
curred.
(i) The coarse material effectively bypassed the settling
zone resulting in a settling zone with settling rate lower
than that expected from hatch tests on the feed material.
Although not all the material entered the settling zone it
was nevertheless rate limiting with regard to capacity
under “filter” mode.
(ii) Coe and Clevenger batch tests are expected to show
enhanced settling rates a t intermediate concentrations due
to the induction period which allows a settling mechanism
to develop. Thus with concentrations in the intermediate
range, up to the highest concentration of free settling
pulps, settling rates are expected to he lower than Coe and
Clevenger predictions.
The combined result of (i) and (ii) is actual throughputs
consistently lower than Coe and Clevenger capacities.
Irrespective of the design method used, the problem of
measuring the flux under actual operating conditions ex-
Ind. Eng. Chem., Fundam., Vol. 15, No. 1, 1976 29
 ists. The Coe and Clevenger method overestimates the set-
tling rate. The Talmage and Fitch method was shown to
give inconsistent results, depending on the initial concen-
tration. The application of either of these batch methods
rests on the basic assumption of settling rate as a function
of concentration only. I t has, however, been shown by a
number of workers t h a t additional factors besides solids
concentration affect the settling rate (Shannon and Tory,
1965; Scott, 1968a,b, 1970).
Relation to Industrial Thickening. T h e phenomenon
of classification in settling, with the coarser particles set-
tling out near the center and the finer particles settling
evenly over the thickener, has been shown to occur in in-
dustrial thickeners by Scott and Paulsen (1970). This phe-
nomenon is also described in the present work.
The coning effect in the compaction zone has also been
reported in previous work (Cross, 1963). The present work
shows effects such as the circulation of clear liquid, not
considered important in some previous work. T h e agree-
ment between flow patterns obtained in the present work
and those intimated in the work of Scott and Paulsen
(1970) on industrial thickeners suggests the existence of a
“settler” mode in the industrial thickeners.
In his paper, Fitch (1968) discussed the existence of a
floc zone in thickeners t h a t are intermittently fed. Cross
(1963) showed the existence of a floc bed with a density
profile in the tank very similar to that obtained under “fil-
ter” mode. The buildup of this floc bed also resulted in
very marked decrease in circulating flow within the tank.
I t is the view of the authors that the conditions obtained
in the 7-ft diameter tank of the present work are a reason-
able approximation to conditions in industrial tanks, and
significantly more representative than results obtained on
laboratory scale equipment.
Summary
Although based on one slurry only, the present work
gives a new insight into the operation of continuous thick-
eners thickening flocculated pulps, describing the zones
and concentrations existing and flow patterns occurring in
thickeners from direct observations within the thickener.
The conditions of a thickener operating below its maxi-
mum capacity (“settler” mode) have been shown to be
vastly different to the conditions a t full capacity (“filter”
mode). The latter conditions are, however, more important
as they define the capacity of a thickener. The zones and
pulp concentrations observed were similar to those ob-
served by Coe and Clevenger in 1916, and the Coe and
Clevenger method gave consistent, though higher capaci-
ties. The drawback of this method is the problem of ob-
taining settling, in hatch tests, representative of the set-
tling in continuous thickeners.
30 Ind. Eng. Chem., Fundam.,Vol. 15, No. 1, 1976
Under certain conditions, capacities calculated from the
flux theory are identical with those of Coe and Clevenger.
This occurs when the lower conjugate concentration falls
between the feed concentration and the highest concentra-
tion of free settling pulps. Under these conditions, the Coe
and Clevenger method is in fact the flux theory, without all
the trimmings of predicting density profiles with which
agreement was not found in the present work.
The sizing of thickeners for this type of feed material ap-
pears best done using the Coe and Clevenger method, add-
ing a safety factor over and above that necessary for plant
fluctuations and temperature variations.
Acknowledgments
J. P. S. Turner gratefully acknowledges the financial as-
sistance of Rand Mines Ltd., which made this work possi-
ble, and thanks the Blyvooruitzicht Gold Mining Co. Ltd.,
for the supply of raw material. We would like to thank Dr.
A. W. Bryson for initiating this project.
Nomenclature
A = cross-sectional area of thickener, cm2
c = solids concentration, g/cm3
c, = underflow concentration g/cm3
G = thickener solids throughput, g/min
k = specific volume of flocs, cm3/g of dry solids
u = batch settling velocity, cm/min
u o = Stokes’ settling velocity, cm/min
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Received for review October 1, 1974
Accepted August 7, 1975