UNITS, PHYSICAL QUANTITIES, AND VECTORS

1. Physics is an experimental science. It relies on idealized models of complex physical

situations. Physical theories and models evolve to include new ideas and observations.

2. To make accurate measurements, we need to define units of measurement that do not

change and that can be duplicated easily.

3. The accuracy of a calculated result is usually no greater than the accuracy of the input data.
We indicate the accuracy of a measurement by the number of significant figures.

4. A vector quantity has a direction in space as well as in magnitude. A scalar quantity has no
direction. Addition of vectors is a geometric process. There are two kinds of products of
vectors; the dot product of two vectors is a scalar quantity, but the cross product of two
vectors is another vector.

5. The fundamental physical quantities of mechanics are mass, length and time. The
corresponding basic SI units are the kilogram, the meter, and the second. Other units for
these quantities, related by powers of 10, are identified by adding prefixes to the basic unit.
Derived units for other physical quantities are products or quotients of the basic units.
Equations must be dimensionally consistent; two terms can be added only when they have
the same units.

6. The accuracy of a measurement can be indicated by the number of significant figures, or by a

stated uncertainty. The result of a calculation usually has no more significant figures than the
input data. When only crude estimates are available for input data, we can often make useful
order-of-magnitude estimates.

7. Scalar quantities are numbers and are combined with the usual rules are arithmetic. Vector
quantities have directions as well as magnitude and are combined according to the rules of
vector addition. Graphically, two vectors A and B are added by placing the tail of B at the
head, or tip, of A . The vector sum A  B then extends from the tail of A to the head of B .

8. Vector addition can be carried out by using components of vectors. If Ax and Ay are the
components of A and Bx and By are the components of vector B , the components of the
vector sum R AB are given by

Rx A
x Bx,
R
y A
y B
y

9. Unit vectors describe directions in space. A unit vector has a magnitude of 1, with no units.
  
We always write unit vectors with a caret or “hat” (^). The unit vectors i , j , and k , aligned
with the x-, y-, and z- axes are of a rectangular coordinate system, are especially useful.

10.The scalar product C  A B of two vectors A and B is a scalar quantity, defined as

A

B 
ABc
osA
Bc
os  
The scalar product can also be expressed in terms of components:
 A
B
A
xB
xA
B
yyA
B
zz

The scalar product is commutative; for any two vectors A and B , A BB A. The
scalar product of two perpendicular vectors is zero.

11.The vector product C  AB of two vectors A and B is another vector C , with magnitude
given by

CABsin
The direction of the vector product is perpendicular to the plane of the two vectors being
multiplied, as given by the right-hand rule. In terms of the components of the two
vectors being multiplied, the components of the vector product are

C
xAB
y zAB
z y, C
yAB
z xAB
x z, C
zAB
x yAB
y x

The vector product is not commutative; for any two vectors A and B , AB
B A.
The vector product of two parallel or anti-parallel vectors is zero.

MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE

12.The average velocity of a body is its displacement divided by the time interval during which
the displacement occurs. Instantaneous velocity is the limit of this quantity as the time
interval approaches zero.

13.The average acceleration of a body is its change in velocity divided by the time interval
during which the change occurs. Instantaneous acceleration is the limit of this quantity as the
time interval approaches zero.

14.On a graph of position versus time, velocity is represented by the slop[e of the curve at the
each point. On a graph of velocity versus time, acceleration is represented by the slope of the
curve at each point.

15.In straight-line motion with constant acceleration, the position and velocity at any time and
the velocity at any position are given by simple equations. Free fall is an example with
constant acceleration.

16.If the acceleration in straight-line motion is not constant, integration must be used to find the
position and velocity at any time.

17.When a particle moves along a straight-line, we describe its position with respect to an origin
O by means of a coordinate such as x.

18.The particle’s average velocity during a time interval t t2 t1 as defined as

x2x x
v
av
1

t2t
1 t
 The instantaneous velocity at any time t is defined as

x d x
v lim 
t 0 t dt
19.The average acceleration during a time interval t t2 t1 is defined as

v2v v
a
av
1

t2t
1 t

The instantaneous acceleration at any time t is defined as

v d
v
alim 
0 t
t d
t

20.When the acceleration is constant, the position x and the velocity v at any time t are related
to the acceleration a, the initial position x0, and the initial velocity v0 (both at time t = 0) by
the following equations:

vv0 at (constant acceleration only),

12
xx
0vt a
0 t (constant acceleration only),
2
2
vv2
02axx
0 (constant acceleration only),
v
 0v
xx
0 2 t (constant acceleration only),
 

21.Free fall is a case of motion with constant acceleration. The magnitude of the acceleration
due to gravity is a positive quantity g. The acceleration of a body in free fall is always
downward.

22.When the acceleration is not constant but is a known function of time, we can find the
velocity and position as functions of time by integrating the acceleration function.

MOTION IN TWO OR THREE DIMENSIONS

23.Motion in two or three dimensions is described by displacement, velocity, and acceleration

vectors. A particle has acceleration when its speed is changing; it also has acceleration when
its direction of motion is changing.

24.Projectile motion with no air resistance is a combination of two independent motions:

horizontal motion with constant velocity and vertical motion with constant acceleration. The
path of a projectile is a parabola.

25.In uniform circular motion, a particle moves in a circular path with constant speed
(magnitude of velocity) but continuously changing direction of velocity. The particle’s
acceleration vector at each point is directed toward the center of the circle; its magnitude
depends on the speed and on the radius of the circle.
26.If a particle moves in a circle with varying speed, the particle’s acceleration vector has both a
component toward the center of the circle and a component tangential to the circle. The
tangential component describes how the particle’s speed changes.

27.The velocity of a body depends on the frame of reference in which it is observed. Different
observers, moving relative to each other, will measure different velocities.

28.The position vector r of a point in space is the displacement vector from the origin to P. Its
component are the coordinates x, y, z.

29.The average velocity vector of v av during the time interval t is the displacement r (the
change in the position vector r ) divided by t :

r
2r r
v
av
1

t
2t
1 t

The instantaneous velocity is v dr /dt. Its components are:

dx dy dz
vx  , vy  , vz 
dt dt dt

The instantaneous speed v is the magnitude of v .

30.The average acceleration vector aav during the time interval t is the velocity change v
divided by t :

v2v v
a
av
1

t2t
1 t

The instantaneous acceleration vector is a

av dv/dt. Its components are:

dvx dvy dvz

ax  , ay  , az 
dt dt dt

31.Acceleration can also be represented in terms of its components parallel and perpendicular to
the direction of the instantaneous velocity.

32.In projectile motion with no air resistance, ax  0 and ay  g . The coordinates and velocity
components, as functions of time, are
 x  v0 cos0t
1
y  v0 sin0t  gt2
2 ,
vx  v0 cos0
vy  v0 sin0  gt

The shape of the path in projectile motion with no air resistance is always a parabola.

33.When a particle moves in a circular path of radius R with constant speed v, it has an
acceleration with magnitude

v2
arad 
R
The acceleration is always directed toward the center of the circle and perpendicular to
v . The period T of a circular motion is the time for one revolution. If the speed is
constant, then v2 R/T and

42R
a
rad 
T2

When the speed is not constant, there is still a radial component of a , but there is also
a component of a parallel to the path; this component is equal to the rate of change of
speed, dv / dt .

34.When a body P moves relative to a body (or reference frame) B, and B moves relative to A,
we denote the velocity of P relative to B by v P / B , the velocity of P relative to A by v P / A , and
the velocity of B relative to v B / A . If these velocities are all along the same line, their
components along that line are related by

v/ 
PA v/ 
PB v
BA
/ (relative velocity along a line)

More generally, these velocities are related by

v/ 
PA v/ 
PB v
BA
/ (relative velocity in space)

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTIONS

35.How a body moves is determined by the interactions of that body with its environment. These
interactions are called forces.

36.Force is a vector quantity. The various forces acting on a body combine by vector addition,
often carried out by use of components.

37.If the vector sum of forces on a body is zero, its motion doesn’t change; the body is either at
rest or moving with constant velocity. (This is Newton’s first law.) The body is said to be in
equilibrium.
38.The mass of a body describes its inertial properties. The vector sum of forces on a body
equals the body’s mass times its acceleration. (This is Newton’s second law.)

39.When two bodies interact, they exert forces on each other that are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction. Each force acts on the other body. (This is Newton’s third law.)

40.Free-body diagrams are helpful in determining the forces that act on the body.

41.Force, a vector quantity, is a quantitative measure of the interaction between two bodies.
When several forces act on a body, the effect on its motion is the same as when a single
body force, equal to the vector sum (resultant) of the forces, acts on the body.

42.Newton’s first law states that when no force acts on a body, or when the vector of all forces
acting on it (the net force) is zero, the body is in equilibrium. If the body is initially at rest, it
remains at rest; if it is initially in motion, it continues to move in constant velocity. This law is
valid only in inertial frames of reference.

43.The inertial properties of a body are characterized by its mass. The acceleration of a body
under the action of a given set of forces is directly proportional to the vector sum of the
forces (the net force) and inversely proportional to the mass of the body. This relationship is
Newton’s second law: F  ma.

Like the first law, this is valid only in inertial frames of reference.

44.The unit of force is defined in terms on the units of mass and acceleration. In SI units the
kg m/s2.
unit of force is the newton (N), equal to 1

45.The weight of a body is the gravitational force exerted on it by the earth (or whatever other
body exerts the gravitational force). Weight is a force and is therefore a vector quantity. The
magnitude of the weight of a body at any specific location is equal to the product of its mass
m and the magnitude of the acceleration die to gravity g at that location: w = mg.

The weight of a body depends on its location, but the mass is independent of location.

46.Newton’s third law states that, “actions equals reaction”; when two bodies interact, they
exert forces on each other that are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. Each force
in an action-reaction pair acts on only one of the two bodies; the action and reaction forces
never act on the same body.

APPLICATION OF NEWTON’S LAWS

47.Newton’s first law: When a body is in equilibrium, the vector sum of the forces acting on it
(the net force) must be zero. Hence, the sum of the force components in each coordinate
direction must by zero.

48.Newton’s second law: The vector sum of forces (the net force) acting on a body equals its
mass times its acceleration. Hence, the sum of the force components in each coordinate
direction equals the mass times the corresponding acceleration component

49.When a body is in contact with a surface, that surface must exert a force on the body. This
force can be represented in terms of a normal component perpendicular to the surface and a
friction component parallel to the surface. The friction force depends on the character of the
surfaces in contact and on whether or not the body is moving relative to the surface.
50.When a body is in circular motion, it is accelerating and the net force on it is not zero.

51.Good systematic problem-solving technique is essential in solving problems in mechanics and

in all other branches of physics.

52.When a body is in equilibrium in an inertial frame of reference, the vector sum of forces
acting on it must be zero. In component form,

Fx  0, Fy  0 (particle in equilibrium)

Free-body diagrams are useful in identifying the forces acting on the body being
considered. Newton’s third law is also frequently needed in equilibrium problems. The
two forces in action-reaction pair never act on the same body.

53.When the vector sum of forces on a body is not zero, the body has an acceleration
determined by Newton’s second law:

F  ma

In component form,

Fx max, Fy may

54.The contact force between two bodies can always be represented in terms of a normal force
n perpendicular to the interaction surface and a frictional force f parallel to the surface.
When sliding occurs fk is approximately proportional to n, and the proportionality contains is
k , the coefficient of kinetic friction:

fk  kn (magnitude of kinetic friction force)

When there is no relative motion, the maximum possible friction force is approximately
proportional to the normal force. The proportionality constant is  s , the coefficient of
static friction:

fs  sn (magnitude of static friction force)

The actual static friction force may be anything from zero to this maximum value,
depending on the situation. Usually, k is less than  s for a given pair of surfaces.

55.In uniform circular motion, the acceleration vector is directed toward the center of the circle
2
and has magnitude v / R . The motion is governed by F  ma, just as for any other
dynamics problem.

56.The fundamental forces of nature are the gravitational, electromagnetic, strong, and weak
interactions. The electromagnetic and weak interactions have been unified into a single
interaction, the electroweak interaction.

WORK AND KINETIC ENERGY

57.When a force acts on a body that moves, the force can do work on the body. Work is a
scalar quantity, computed from the force and the displacement. The work done by a force
can be positive, negative, or zero.

58.Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity associated with the motion of a particle. It is defined as
one-half of the product of the particle’s mass and the square of its speed. The kinetic energy
of a particle is equal to the total work done to accelerate it from rest, and is equal to the total
work the particle can do while being brought to rest.

59.In any displacement of a particle, the change in its kinetic energy equal the total work done
by all the forces acting on the particle.

60.Power is the time rate of doing work, that is, work per unit time.

61.When a constant force F acts on a particle that undergoes a displacement s , the work W
done by the force is defined as

W
Fs
co
s Fs
,

where  is the angle between the directions of F and s . The unit of work in SI units is
1 joule = 1 newton · meter ( 1 J 1 N m ). Work is a scalar quantity; it has an algebraic
sign (positive or negative) but no direction is space.

62.The kinetic energy K of a particle equals the amount of work required to accelerate the
particle from rest to speed v; it is also equal to the amount of work the particle can do in the
process of being brought to rest. The kinetic energy of a particle with mass m and speed v is

1 2
K mv
2

Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity that has no direction in space; it is always positive or
2 2
zero. Its units are the same as the units of work: 11
J  N m  1kg m /s .
63.When forces act on a particle while it undergoes a displacement, the particle’s kinetic energy
changes by an amount equal to the total work Wtot done on the particle by all the forces:

W
t
otK2K
1
K

This relation is called work-energy theorem. It is valid whether the forces are constant
or varying and whether the path followed by the particle is straight of curved. It is
applicable only to bodies that can be treated as a particle.

64.When the force varies during a straight-line displacement, and the force is in the same
direction as the displacement, the work done by the force is given by

x
Wx12Fdx

If the force makes an angle  with the displacement, the work done by the force is

W


P
F
1
co
sd
l

P
2
P
1
F
dl

P
1
Fd
l  P
2 P
2
 This expression is valid even if the path is curved and the angle  varies during the
displacement.

65.Power is the time rate of doing work. If the amount of work W is done in a time t , the
average power Pav is

W
Pav 
t

The instantaneous power is defined as


Wd W
Plim 
t0t d
t

When a force F acts on a particle moving with velocity v , the instantaneous power or
rate at which the force does work is

P  F v

Like work and kinetic energy, power is a scalar quantity. The unit of power in SI units is
1 matt = 1 joule/second ( 1W 1J/s).

POTENTIAL ENERGY AND ENERGY CONSERVATION

66.Potential energy is energy associated with the position of a system rather than its motion.
Examples are gravitational potential energy (for a body acted on by the earth’s gravitation)
and elastic potential energy (stored in a stretched or compressed spring.)

67.The work done on a body by certain forces (called conservative forces) can be expressed as a
change in potential energy. When all the forces that do work on a body are conservative, the
total mechanical energy of the system (kinetic plus potential) is constant. Otherwise, the
change on the total energy equals the work done by the forces not included in the potential
energy.

68.In any process, the total energy – the sum of kinetic, potential, and inertial energy – remains
constant.

69.The work done on a particle by a constant gravitational force can be represented in terms of
potential energy U  mgy :

W
g
r
a
v 
mg
y
1mg
y
2
U
1U
2
U

70.The work done by a stretched or compressed spring that exerts a force Fx  kx on a
particle, where x is the amount of stretch or compression, can be represented in terms of a
1 2
potential-energy function U  kx :
2

12 12
W
l
e kx
1kx
2
U
2 2
71.The total potential energy U is the sum of the gravitational and elastic potential energy. If no
forces other than the gravitational and elastic forces do work on a body, the sum of kinetic
and potential energy is conserved.

K
1U1K2U2

The sum KU E is called the total mechanical energy.

72.When forces other than the gravitational and elastic forces do work on a body, the work
Wother done by these other forces equals the change in total mechanical energy (kinetic
energy plus total potential energy):

K
1U
1W
o
th
er
K2U
2

73.All forces are either conservative or nonconservative. A conservative force is one for which
the work-kinetic energy relation is completely reversible. The work of a conservative force
can always be represented by a potential-energy function, but the work of a nonconservative
force cannot.

74.The work done by nonconservative forces manifests itself as changes in the internal energy of
bodies. The sum of kinetic, potential, and internal energy is always conserved:


K
U
Ui
n t0

75.For motion along a straight line, a conservative force Fx  x  and its associated potential
energy U  x  are related by

dU
xx
F 
dx

In three dimensions, where U is a function of x, y, z, and the components of force are

U U U
Fx  , Fy  , Fz 
x y z

or, in vector form,


U U U
ˆ
F
 ˆ
i ˆ
jk

x y z

MOMENTUM, IMPULSE, AND COLLISIONS

76.The momentum of a particle, a vector quantity, is the product of the particle’s mass and
velocity.
77.When a constant force acts for a certain time interval, the impulse of the force is the product
of force and the time interval. The change of momentum of a body or a system equals the
impulse of the net force acting on it.

78.In any system of two or more particles in which the net force on each particle is due only to
interactions with the other particles of the system, the total momentum (vector sum of the
momenta of the particles) is constant or conserved.

79.A collision in which total kinetic energy is conserved is called an elastic collision. When kinetic
energy is not conserved, the collision is inelastic.

80.The center of mass of a system is the average position of the mass of the system. Its motion
under given forces are the same though all the mass were concentrated at the center of the
mass.

81.The momentum p of a particle with mass m moving with velocity v is defined as the vector
quantity

p  mv

In terms of momentum, Newton’s second law for a particle may be expressed as

dp
F 
dt

82.The impulse j of a constant net force  F acting for a time interval from t1 and t2 is the
vector quantity

j
F
t2t
1
F
t

If the net force varies with time, the impulse is

t
j t12 Fdt

The change in momentum of a body in any time interval equals the impulse of the net
force that acts on the body during that interval:

j  p2 p1

The momentum of a body equals the impulse that accelerated it from rest to its present
speed.

83.An internal force is a force exerted by one part of a system on another. An external force is a
force exerted on a part of system by something outside the system. An isolated system is
one with no external forces.

84.The total momentum of a system of particles A, B, C,… is the vector sum of the momenta of
the individual particles:
 P
P
A
P
B.
..
mv
A
Amv
B
B

85.If the net external force on a system is zero, the total momentum of the system is constant
(conserved); each component of total momentum is separately conserved.

86.Collisions can be classified according to energy relations and final velocities. In an elastic
collision between two bodies, the initial and final total kinetic energies are equal and the
initial and final relative velocities have the same magnitude. In an inelastic two-body
collision, the final total kinetic energy is less than the initial total kinetic energy. If the two
bodies have the same final velocity, the collision is completely inelastic.

87.The coordinates xcm and ycm of the center of the mass of a system of particles are defined
as

m
xmx 
m x.
.
. mx
i i
x
c
m11 22 33
i
,
m1
m
2m .
.
3.  mi
i

m
ymy 
m y.
.
. my
i i
y
c
m11 22 33
i

m1
m
2m .
.
3.  mi
i

In terms of the position vectors r1 , r2 ,… of the particles, the position vector rcm of the
center of the mass is

mrm
 rmr
..
. mr
ii
r
c
m 11 2
2 33
i

m1m
2m
.
3.
.  m
i
i

88.The total momentum of P of a system equals its total mass M multiplied by the velocity v cm
of its center of mass:

M
vm
c
mv
1
1mv
2
2mv
3.
.
3.
P

89.The center of mass of a system moves as though all the mass M was concentrated at the
center of mass. If the net external force on the system is zero, the center of mass velocity
v cm is constant. If the net external force is not zero, the center of mass accelerates:

Fext Ma
cm

90.In rocket propulsion, the mass of a rocket changes as the fuel is burned and exhausted.
Analysis of the motion of the rocket must include the momentum carried away by the fuel as
well as the momentum of the rocket itself.