BIO 1 FINALS REVIEWER PhyloCode
CONCEPT OF SPECIES
Define species Comes from L word for “kind” or
“appearance”; is a group of organisms
whose mems can breed and prod fertile
offspring but who don’t prod fertile
offspring with mems from other grps
What is speciation? Emergence of new sp that increases
diversity of life
2 events involved in Linear events = a sp changes over time
evolutionary change Branching events = prod new sp & diversity
What is phylogeny? Is the evolutionary history of a sp or a grp
of related sp
What is systematics? The discipline that classifies organisms and
determines their evol rels.; uses fossils,
molecular, & genetic data to infer evol rels
Taxonomy Ordered div and naming of organisms
What is binomial Created by Carolus Linnaeus in the 18th cen,
nomenclature? this is a sys of taxonomy based on
resemblances.
It has 2 key feats:
1. 2-part names for species
- The 2-part scientific name if a sp is
called binomial
- The 1st part is the genus, the 2nd partis
the specific epithet (w/c is unique for
each sp w/in genus)
2. Hierarchical classification
- Intro’ed by Linnaeus, sys for grping sp
in increasingly broad categories
- Broad to narrow: domain, kingdom,
phylum, class, order, family, genus, sp.
In hier. class., what is a A taxonomic unit @ any level of hierarchy
taxon?
Describe the change Early taxonomists class’ed all sp as either
from 2 kingdoms to 5 plants/animals (the 1st 2 kingdoms).
kingdoms to 3 domains
Later, 5 k-doms were intro’ed: Plantae,
Animalia, Protista, Fungi, Monera
(prokaryotes).
More recently, the 3-domain sys was
adopted: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya.
Describe the tree of life Based on rRna genes, the tree of life
evolved slowly & suggests that eukaryotes
& archaea are more closely related to each
other than to bacteria.
What is horizontal gene Mvmt of genes from 1 genome to another;
transfer? part of the substantial interchanges of
genes bet. Org’isms in diff domains & thus
complicates efforts to build a tree of life
What are phylogenetic Branching trees by which systematists
trees? depict hypothesis about evolutionary
relationships; consist of a branch point
(reps the divergence of 2 sp), taxa, sister
taxa (grps w/ immediate common
ancestor), and rooted tree (includes a
branch to rep the last common ancestor of
all taxa in the tree)
Proposed by systematists; recogs only grps
w/ common ancestor & all its descendants
Polytomy Branch from w/c more than 2 grps emerge
Homology vs analogy Homology = similarity in structure due to
shared ancestry
Analogy = similarity due to convergent evol
Convergent evol Occurs when similar envi pressures & nat’l
selection prod similar adaptations in
organisms from diff evol lineages
Homoplasies Analogous strucs/mol seqs that evolved
independently
Enumerate the ways to 1. Biological sp concept
define a species - Defines sp as pop’n/grps of pop’ns w/
mems w/ potential to interbreed &
prod fertile offspring
- Involves gene flow bet pop’ns which
holds them together, and is prevented
by reproductive isolation w/c
maintains separate species
- DOES NOT WORK IN ALL SITUATIONS
2. Morphological sp concept
- Classifies organisms based on
observable phenotypic traits
- Can be applied to asexual organisms &
fossils when we don’t know about
interbreeding
- Involves subjectivity but used by most
field biologists
3. Ecological sp concept
- Defines a sp thru its eco role/niche
- Focuses on unique adaptations
4. Phylogenetic sp concept
- Defines sp as a set of organisms
rep’ing a specific evol lineage
- used on organisms w/ common
ancestor & can be distinguished from
others who don’t have same ancestor
What are reproductive Repro barriers isolate a sp’s gene pool &
barriers & what are the prevent interbreeding
2 types?
2 types: prezygotic (formed before
mating/fertilization, prevent mating) &
postzygotic (operate after hybrid zygotes
are formed)
Enumerate the pre- & PREZYGOTIC
postzygotic barriers 1. Habitat isolation = 2 sp encounter
each other rarely or not at all b/c they
live in diff habitats even though not
separated by phys barriers
2. Temporal isolation = sp that breed @
diff times of day/seasons/yrs can’t mix
gametes
3. Behavioral isolation = courtship rituals
& other behavs unique to a sp are
effective barriers
4. Mechanical isolation = morphological
diffs prevent successful mating
5. Gametic isolation = sperm of one sp
cant fertilize other sp’s eggs
POSTZYGOTIC
1. Reduced hybrid viability = genes of
the diff parent sp may interact &
 impair hybrid’s dev’t; MOST HYBRID
OFFSPRING DON’T SURVIVE
2. Reduced hybrid fertility = hybrids may
be vigorous but may be sterile
3. Hybrid breakdown = 1st -gen sp are
fertile but when they breed w/
another, next-gen offspring are sterile
2 types of speciation ALLOPATRIC = “other country”; pop’ns of
same sp are geog’ly separated, so gene
flow is reduced/separated/prevented
initially by geog barriers like:
1. Mt. formation
2. Deep canyons
3. Removal of land bridges bet
continents
4. Conti drift
SYMPATRIC = “same country”; speciation
happens in geog’ly overlapping pop’ns;
gene flow is reduced by:
1. Polyploidy = presence of extra
chromosome set b/c of accidents
during cell division
- Autopolyploid = ind w/ more than 2
chrom sets derived from 1 sp.
- Tetraploid plants = arise from a diploid
parent & can form by self-ferti of 2n
gametes where meiosis hasn’t
reduced the chrom set
2. Habitat diff’tion
3. Sexual selection
How can broad patterns 1. Using the fossil rec’d
in speciation be 2. Morphological data
studied? 3. Molecular data
2 patterns of speciation ANAGENESIS = accu of changes assoc’d w/
transformation of 1 sp to another
CLADOGENESIS = branching evol; budding
of 1 or more new sp from a parent sp;
PROMOTES BIODIV BY INC’ING NO. OF SP.
2 models of speciation GRADUALIST MODEL = isolated pop’ns
change slowly as their allel freqs shift
during adaptation by nat sel
PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM MODEL = by
Niles Eldredge & Stephen Jay Gould; pd of
rapid evol change (punc) followed by long
pds of no change (equi/stasis)
What is genomics? Allows researchers to iden specific genes
involved in some cases of speciation
MECHANISMS OF MACROEVOLUTION
Macroevolution Cumulative effect of many speciation &
extinction events
What played a major CONTINENTAL DRIFT = slow continuous
role in macroevol? mvmt of earth’s crustal plates on the hot
mantle
Mass extinction When extinction rates increase dramatically
Ordovician
Devonian
Permian – caused by volcanism
Triassic
K-T – most dinos died
Adaptive radiatons Caused by mass extinctions; evol of
diversely adapted sp from a common
ancestor upon intro to new envi opp’ities
Ex. Mammals after dino extinction
MECHANISMS OF MICROEVOLUTION
Microevolution Change in the relative freqs of alleles in a
gene pool over time
Describe the 3 main 1. Nat’l selection
causes of evol - Alters allele freqs when inds differ in
change/allele freq their survival & repro success
alterations in a pop’n - Ex. Non-/webbed boobies
2. Genetic drift
- Change in the gene pool of a pop’n
due to chance events w/c may lead to
loss of genetic diversity
- Leads to bottleneck effect (loss of gen
div when a pop’n is greatly reduced)
founder effect (when a few inds
colonize a new habitat; the smaller the
grp, the more diif the gene pool of the
new pop’n will be from the gene pool
of the orgi pop’n)
3. Gene flow
- mvmt of inds/gametes.spores bet pop’ns
What is an ind’s fitness Contrib it makes to next gen’s gene pool
Disclaimers abt nat sel Nat sel can’t fashion perfect organisms
1. Sel can only act on existing variations
2. Evol is limited by historical constraints
3. Adaptations are often compromises
4. Chance, nat sel, & envi interact
5 Evidences of 1. Fossils
evolution - Provs strong evidence for evol
- Biased in favor of sp that (1) existed
for a long time, (2) were abundant &
widespread, (3) had hard parts
- Taphonomy = sci study of fossil
formation
- Paleontology = study of fossils, dev’d
by Fr sci Georges Cuvier, who advoc’d
catastrophism (that each boundary
bet strat reps a catastrophe)
2. Biogeography
- Geog’ic distribution of sp, suggested
to Darwin that organisms evolve from
common ancestors
- James Hutton & Charles Lyell = that
changes in earth’s surface result from
slow continuous actions still op’ing
today
- Uniformitarianism = by Lyell, says that
mechs of change are constant over
time; strongly influenced Darwin’s
thinking
3. Comparative anatomy
- Comparison of body strucs of diff sps.
4. Comparative embryology
- Comparison of early stages of dev’t
among diff organisms
5. Molecular bio
- Reveal evol rels thru comparisons of
DNA & amino acid seqs
What is radiometric Determines the absolute age of fossils; a
dating parent isotope decays to a daughter
isotope @ a constant rate, where each ist
has a known half-life, the time req’d for half
the parent iso to decay
Define pop’ns Grp of inds of same sp living in same place
@ same time; OR localized grp of inds that
can interbreed & prod fertile offspring
Gene pool Total coll. Of genes in a pop’n @ any 1 time
Darwin’s DWM & NS That sp showed evidence of DWM from
common ancestors, and NS is the mech
behind DWM
Artificial selection From Darwin; that humans have modi’d sps
by selecting & breeding inds w/ desired
traits
Darwin’s 4 observations Obs 1: Mems of a pop’n often vary greatly
& 2 inferences in their traits
Obs 2: Traits are inherited from parents to
offspring
Obs 3: All sps are capable of prod’ing more
offspring than the envi can handle
Obs 4: Due to lack of food/other resources,
many of these offspring don’t survive
Inf 1: Inds w/ inherited traits that give them
a higher prob’ity of survival and repro, tend
to leave more offspring than others
Inf 2: This uneq ability of inds to survive &
repro lead to the accu of fav traits in the
pop’n over gens.
Scala naturae By gk philosopher Aristotle; arrangement of
sp where sps are fixed
Mutation = changes in the nucleotide seq of DNA;
ULTIMATE SOURCE OF NEW ALLELES;
beneficial when envi is changing
Chromosomal Impt source of genetic variation; if a gene is
duplication duplicated, new copy can undergo
mutation w/o affecting orig copy’s fcn
Hardy-Weinberg eqn Used to test if a pop’n is evolving;
Hardy-Weinberg That allele & genotype freqs w/in a sexually
principle repro’ing 2n pop’n will remain in equi
unless outside forces act to change those
freqs
Hardy-Weinberg Allele & geno freqs won’t change unless
equilibrium something acts to change the gene pool;
must satisfy 5 conditions (w/c are rarely
ever met):
1. Very large pop’n
2. No gene flow bet pop’ns
3. No mutations
4. Random mating
5. No nat sel
DWM vs NS DWM = explains life’s unity & diversity;
summarized Darwin’s perception of the
unity of life; that all organisms are related
thru descent from an ancestor from the
remote past
NS = cause of adaptive evolution
Lamarck’s Theory of Sps evolve thru USE & DISUSE OF BODY
Evolution PARTS and INHERITANCE OF ACQUIRED
CHARS (both unsupported by evidence)
Convergent evolution Independent evol of similar feats in diff
evol branches; does NOT give info abt
ancestry; may give rise to ANALOGOUS
traits (when grps independently adapt to
similar envis in similar ways)
HUMAN EVOLUTION
Describe primates Order of mammals w/ flexible hands & feet,
forward-looking eyes, enlarged brains
Lack strong specialization; related to
arboreal/tree-dwelling ancestry
3 main grps:
1. Lemur, loris, potto
2. Tarsier
3. Anthropoids (monkeys and apes)
Primate classification 2 Suborders
1. Prosimians (lower primates, “before
ape”)
- Oldest primate lineage, all the way to
Paleocene
- Lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, tree shrews
- Generally small (size of a mouse to a
house cat)
- Arboreal, w/ 5 digits
- Omnivorous
- Large, forward-looking eyes
specialized for night vision
- Declined due to colder weather;
presently only in tropical regions
-
2. Anthropoids (higher primates)
- Monkeys, apes, humans
- Evolved from a prosimian lineage
- Divided into 3 superfamilies
2 superfamilies of 1. Cercopithecoidea (Old World Monkey)
Anthropoids - Close-set, downward nostrils +
grasping hands + nonprehensile tail
- In tropical regions of Africa & Asia
2. Ceboidea (New World Monkey)
- In Central & S. America
- From African monkeys
- Prehensile tail + widely separated
nostrils
- Howler, spider, squirrel monkeys
3. Hominoidea (Great Ape)
- 3 families:
1. Great Apes (chimps, orangutan,
gorilla)
2. Lesser Apes (gibbon, siamang)
3. Hominids (humans, extinct
ancestors)
Hominid Genus Australopithecus
Not the same as modern apes (w/c are not
bipedal, no large brain, don’t make tools)
Paleoanthropology Study of human origins
Hominins From Africa abt 6-7 mya; had small brain
but walked upright; formerly hominids,
more closely related to humans than
chimps
Homo sapiens Included in the primate family Hominidae;
Large brain + bipedal locomotion; 200k y.o.
Derived chars of - Upright posture, bipedalism
humans (vs apes) - Larger brains
 - Language, symbolic thought workers
- Use of complex tools - Energy consumption increased
- Shortened jaw - Medical advances reduced deaths
- Shorter digestive tract - Age of spaceship & computers
Why did bipedalism 1. Carrying behavior 4. Info Tech
become the primary 2. Reduced overall heat stress = thru - Millennials
adaptation of convection; only humans have sweat - Globalization
hominids? glands that prod moisture to cool body - Soc med
3. Most energy-efficient way to travel - Multitasking
long distances - Reduced personal interaction
4. Better vision in open envis + defensive ECOLOGY
action by freeing hands What is ecology? - Comes from Gk word
Cradle of mankind Olduvai George, E. Serengeti Plain, N. “oikos”=”household” & “logos”=”study
Tanzania b/c of many hominid discoveries of”
Laetoli, Tanzania Discovered by Mary Leakey; preserved - Dynamic interplay/complex
hominid footprints in volcanic ash, possibly interactions between living &
Australopithecus afarensis nonliving things
Homo habilis Handy man Organismal ecology Study of how an organism’s struc, physio,
Homo ergaster 1st fully bipedal, large-brained hominid and behavior meet envi challenges
Homo erectus 1st hominin to leave Africa Limiting factors of Disease, food, predators, climate, space,
Homo floresiensis Hobbit pop’ns mates
Homo sapiens 1st to show evidence of symbolic, Carrying capacity Greatest no of inds a pop’n can sustain
sophisticated thought Community Grp of pop’ns of diff sps that inhabit a
2 theories about origin 1. OUT-OF-AFRICA (replacement particular area
of modern humans hypothesis) Ecosystem Community of organisms in an area & the
- They arose from Africa, and H. sapiens phys envi they interact w/
replaced other human pop’ns All organisms in a comm’ity & abiotic envi
- More reliable b/c fossils of modern- Components of Energy flow = energy passage thru ecosys
like humans were found in ecosystem Chemical cycling =mat transfer w/in ecosys
Africa/stone tools support African Describe producers & PRODUCERS = autotrophs
origin/DNA suggests a founding pop’n consumers - Where sunlight is main energy source
from Africa/supported by mol data for life on earth
- Plants, algae (plant-like protists), bac
2. Multiregional hypothesis w/c use light/chem to make food
- Pre-modern humans migrated from
Africa to become modern humans in CONSUMERS = heterotrophs
other parts of the world - Organisms that rely on others for their
- Interbreeding among diff H. erectus energy & food supply
grps and a common origin for H. - Carnivores/herbivores/omnivores/
sapiens on diff continents decomposers
3 milestones in man’s 1. Erect stance Photosynthesis Using light energy to convert CO2 & H2O
cultural history 2. Brain enlargement & prolonged post- into 02 & Carbs (6CO2 + 6H2O =
birth dev’t of skull contents 6O2+C6H12O6)
3. Evol of a prolonged childhood during Chemosynthesis Performed by bacteria; using chem energy
w/c cultural info is passed bet gens to prod carbs
Define culture Includes the accu knowledge, customs, Ex. Deep-sea vent in benthic zone; energy
bliefs, passed bet gens; gives us power to from chems from magma
change envi Food chain Series of steps in w/c organisms transfer
Major stages of culture 1. Scavenging-hunting-gathering energy by eating & being eaten; shows the
- Organization into communal grps path of energy from 1 living thing to
2. Agriculture (slash-&-burn) another; decomposers are needed here
- Led to pop’n increases Trophic levels Each step in a food chain/web
- Thru advanced plows & overgrazing,
led to soil erosion 1. Level 1 – producers (autotrophs)
- Changed the rel bet humans & 2. Level 2 – primary consumers (herbi)
biosphere 3. Level 3 – secondary consumers (carni
- Led to est of permanent settlements or omni)
- Allowed mems of many cultures to 4. Level 4 – tertiary consumers (usu top
specialize in other activities carnivores)
3. Machine age Ecological pyramids The relative amt of energy or organisms
- Industrial revolution in England contained in each trophic level of a food
- From small-hand tools to large-scale chain/web
machines Rule of 10 Only abt 10% of available energy w/in a
- Complex machs reduced need for agri trophic level is passed to next higher level
1st law of That energy cannot be created or mimics a harmful one
thermodynamics destroyed, only transformed - Mullerian mimicry = 2 unpalatable sps
2nd law of That every energy exchange increases the mimic each other
thermodynamics universe’s entropy GLOBAL ECOLOGY
Law of conservation of That matter cannot be created or Biosphere Global ecosys; sum of all planet’s ecosys;
mass destroyed; chem elems are continually atmos, lakes, oceans, streams
recycled w/in ecosystem Most impt abiotic - Solar energy
Biogeochem cycles 1. WATER CYCLE factors - Temp
- Environmental h2o cycle = - H2o
atmospheric water vapor condenses & - Nutrients
falls to earth’s surface; heated by sun - Other aquatic/terrestrial factors
& reenters atmos by evap Rachel carson 2st to see dangers of pesticide abuse;
- Organismic h2o cycle = surface h2o wrote concerns in 1962 book Silent Spring
taken by plant roots, reenters atmos Aquatic biomes = 75% of earth’s surface
thru transpiration from leaf surface - Wetlands
- Lakes
2. CARBON CYCLE - Rivers, streams
- Carbon enters atmos as CO2, w/c - Intertidal zones
plants take thru photosyn & prod - Oceanic pelagic biome
glucose - Coral reefs
- Organisms eat plant bodies and store - Benthos
carbon into their own tissue Terrestrial biomes - Tropical forest
- Most organisms extract energy from - Chaparral
food source & release CO2 as by - Temperate grassland
product of respiration - Tundra
- Desert
3. NITROGEN CYCLE - tropical, dry forest
- N2 comprises 80% of atmos but it’s Niche = involves both an organism’s habitat &
often the scarcest resource b/c it roles
needs to be converted to NH4 or NO3 = Consists of:
to be absorbed by plants thru nitrogen - role in ecosys (herbi, carni, etc.)
fixation - tolerance limits (soil PH, humidity)
- reqs for shelter (nesting sites, all
4. PHOSPHORUS CYCLE varying thru time)
- Plants absorb phosphate ions from soil Kinds of biodiv 1. Ecosystem diversity
& convert them to organic compounds - diff habitats, niche, sp interaction
- Decomposers return phosphates to 2. Species diversity
soil - Diff kinds of organisms, rels among sps
3. Genetic diversity
Interspecific 1. Competition (-/-) - Diff genes & gene combos w/in pop’ns
interactions - 2 organisms of same/diff sp try to use Megadiverse countries Grp of countries that harboer majority of
a shared eco resource @ same time @ earth’s sps & are thus considered
same place extremely biodiverse
2. Mutualism (+/+) Coral triangle = marine area in W. Pacific Ocean; includes
- Both sps benefit waters of Indonesia, Malaysia, Ph, PNG,
3. Predation (+/-) Timor Leste, Solomon Islands
- Where 1 sp kills & eats other for food = global center of marine biodiversity
4. Herbivory (+/-) = global priority for conservation
- Where an herbivore eats plant/alga = Amazon of the seas
- Led to evol of plant mech and chem Endemism When a sp lives only in a certain loc, such
defenses & herbivore adaptations as a specific island/habitat type; found only
5. Commensalism w/in a specific region
- Where 1 benefits & the other is Indigenous Found both w/in region & elsewhere
neither helped/harmed Native species Plants/animals living in an area w/o being
6. Parasitism (+/-) brought there by human activity
- 1 organism lives inside another &
Biodiversity hotspot Biogeog area that is a significant reservoir
harms it; parasite gets all/some of its
of biodiv & is threatened w/ destruction
nutri needs from host
Causes of biodiversity 1. Direct = hunting, coll’n, persecution
Symbiosis any rel where 2 sps live closely together
loss 2. Indirect = habitat destruction & modi
Adaptations -
Introduced species Those that humans move from native locs
- Cryptic coloration = canyon tree frog
to new geog regions; may spread rapidly
- Aposematic coloration = chem
(w/o predators & pathogens), but may
defense in form of bright warning
disrupt their adopted community
coloration; poison dart frog
CLIMATE
- Batesian mimicry = a harmless sp

Tradewinds Dry air descends & spreads back to equator
Cooling tradewinds blow from E to W in
tropics; prevailing tradewinds blow from W
to E in temperate zones
What causes seasons? The earth’s tilt
Doldrums Area of calm & very light winds
Greenhouse effect Certain gases in atmos absorb heat & make
earth’s overall temp higher than it’d be if
these gases weren’t present
Greenhouse gases Allow short-wave radiation to pass thru &
warm earth, but prevent long-wave
radiation from escaping back to space
75% CO2, and 25% methane, nitrogen,
oxides, ozone, and industrial GHGs
Ozone Form of oxygen that protects life on earth
by shielding us from sun’s radiation
CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons produced by human
activity and w/c destroy atmos ozone
Ecological footprint Concept that describes out impact on
earth; uses idea of multiple constraints
Area of land & amt of H2O needed to
support a human pop’n @ a particular
standard of living
Dev’d by Wackernagel & Rees from Canada;
world’s premier measure of our demand on
nature
Measurement of how much nat resources
an ind uses in his lifestyle
Biocapacity How much land & water are needed to
produce a resource & absorb its wastes
using prevailing tech
Ecological overshock When humanity’s eco resource demands
are higher than what nature can give
Ecological debtor If a country doesn’t have enough eco
country resources in its own territory and there’s a
local ecological deficit
Ecological creditor If country has ecological remainder
country
CONSERVATION BIOLOGY & RESTORATION ECOLOGY
Biodiversity = biological diversity
= describes the no., variety, variability of
living organisms
= syn of “life on earth”
= most commonly refers to “species
diversity”
Species diversity Variety of sps in ecosys/thruout biosphere
Endangered species In danger of becoming extinct throughout
all/sig part of its range
Threatened species Likely to become endangered in future
Causes for sps 1. Destruction of habitat
becoming endangered 2. Wildlife trade
3. Overhunting
IUCN Int’l Union for Conservation of Nature
Biodiversity areas in 1. Zamboanga Peninsula
Mindanao 2. Davao Peninsula
3. Cape San Agustin
Restoration Ecology To leverage human intervention to prod
habitat & biodiv recovery; rebuild a
functional ecosystem
Restoration Biology To preserve & maintain existing habitat &
biodiv; climate change mitigation;
preservation of endangered sps
Restoration Biology To restore pop’ns to be able to persist &
evolve w/in larger communities over time
Conservation biology Seeks to preserve life and integrates fields
of ecology, physio, mol bio, genetics, evol
bio
Pop’n fragmentation Harmful effect of habitat loss
Splitting & isolation of Can lead to extinctions
portions of pop’ns
Pop’n conservation Focuses on pop’n size, genetic diversity,
and critical habitat
2 approaches to pop’n 1. Small pop’n approach
conservation - Studies processes making small pop’ns
extinct
- Extinction vortex = downward spiral
unique to mall pop’ns; driven by loss
of genetic diversity
- Min viable pop’n (MVP) size = smallest
no. of inds needed to sustain a pop’n
- Effective pop’n size = based on pop’ns
inbreeding rate (4NfNm/(Nf + Nm))
- Pop’n viability analysis (PVA) =
method of predicting if a sp will
survive over time
2. Declining pop’n approach
- Proactive conservation strat for
detecting, diagnosing, and halting
pop’n declines
- More action-oriented
Landscape ecology Aims to make biodiv part of land-use
planning; consists of ecosys mgmt.
Nature reserves Bio div islands in a sea of habiata degraded
by human activity; consider disturbances as
a fcnal component of all ecosys
Restoration ecology Sci study of repairing disturbed ecosys thru
human intervention; assumption is envi
damage is reversible
2 key strats:
1. Bioremediation = use of living
organisms to detoxify ecosys
(prokaryotes, fungi, plants can take up
toxic molecules)
2. Biological augmentation = uses
organisms to add essential mats to a
degraded ecosys
o Ex. Nitro-fixing bacteria
Sustainable dev’t = dev’t that meets the needs of people
today w/o limiting the ability of future
gens to meet their needs
= ultimate goal
= improves human condition while
conserving biodiv