Introduction p-i-n Photodiode Avalanche Photo Diode Receiver Noise Introduction p-i-n Photodiode Avalanche Photo Diode Receiver

odiode Avalanche Photo Diode Receiver Noise

Outline

Introduction

Optical Receivers
p-i-n Photodiode
Upeka Premaratne

Avalanche Photo Diode

EN4580 Optical Communication

Receiver Noise

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Introduction p-i-n Photodiode Avalanche Photo Diode Receiver Noise Introduction p-i-n Photodiode Avalanche Photo Diode Receiver Noise

Introduction Photo Detection

• Optical receivers convert the optical power back into an • The process of detecting emitted photons
electrical signal • The basic operating principle is optical absorption
• Main issues include, • If the photon energy is greater than the bandgap of the
• Receiver sensitivity
semiconductor, an electron-hole pair can be generated at the
• Handling channel noise and distortion
p-n junction
• Two basic types of receivers,
• p-i-n photodiodes (no amplification)
• Avalanche Photo Diode (APD) provides amplification through
electron multiplication

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Photo Detection (Contd..) Photo Detection (Contd..)

• If junction forward biased - photovoltiac behavior (solar cell) For a photo detecting p-n junction, the generated electron-hole
• If junction reverse biased - photoconduction pairs generate a photo current IP which is proportional to the
• The electric field of the depletion region prevents the incident optical power Pin .
generated electron-hole pair from recombining
• Photons that fall outside the depletion region most likely IP ∝ Pin (1)
recombine IP = RPin (2)

Where R is the responsivity of the photodetector.

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Introduction p-i-n Photodiode Avalanche Photo Diode Receiver Noise Introduction p-i-n Photodiode Avalanche Photo Diode Receiver Noise

Photo Detection (Contd..) The p-i-n Photodiode

The quantum efficiency of a detector,
IP
electron generation rate
η = = e
Pin
(3)
photon incident rate hf
hf
= R (4)
e
Alternatively,
ηe ηλ
R = = 1.24 (λ in μm) (5)
hf

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The p-i-n Photodiode (Contd..) Drift Time (Transit Time)

• An intrinsic layer inserted into the p-n junction (p-i-n) • The drift time (τtr ) is the time taken for charge carriers to
• The intrinsic layer increases the depletin layer cross the depletion layer.
• Therefore has a much higher quantum efficiency than a p-n • The main limiting factor in the bandwidth of a photodetector.
junction
• For a deplation layer of width W and drift velocity of vd ,
• Lower junction capacitance
• Higher charge carrier transit time W
• Therefore lower response time τtr = (6)
vd

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Introduction p-i-n Photodiode Avalanche Photo Diode Receiver Noise Introduction p-i-n Photodiode Avalanche Photo Diode Receiver Noise

Diffusion Time Junction Capacitance

• The diffusion time applies to charge carriers generated outside • Junction capacitance due to the depletion layer.
the deplation layer
• For a junction with permitivity ε, width W and area A,
• Charge carriers are free to diffuse in the absence of an electric
field
εA
• Not very significant if the optical pulse width is shorter than Cj = (8)
W
the diffusion time.
• For a junction with a minority carrier diffusion coefficient of
Dmin , the time taken to diffuse a distance of d is given by, • If the load resistance of the device is RL , the time constant
becomes,
d2
τdiff = (7) τcap ≈ 0.66RL Cj (9)
2Dmin

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Rise Time Fabrication

• The rise time (τr ) is the time taken for the receiver output to
increase from 10% to 90% of the final value.
• Similarly the fall time (τf ) is defined for the opposite.
• The same for the Avalanche Photo Diode

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Introduction p-i-n Photodiode Avalanche Photo Diode Receiver Noise Introduction p-i-n Photodiode Avalanche Photo Diode Receiver Noise

p-i-n Photodiode Generic Operating Parameters The Avalanche Photodiode

• Has a larger responsivity due to current gain by impact
Parameter Si Ge InGaAs ionization
Wavelength range (λ - nm) 400-1100 800-1650 1100-1700
Responsivity (R - W/A) 0.4-0.6 0.4-0.5 0.75-0.95
Dark current (ID - nA) 1-10 50-500 0.5-2
Rise time (τr - ns) 0.5-1 0.1-0.5 0.05-0.5
Bandwidth (B - GHz) 0.3-0.7 0.5-3 1-2
Bias voltage (VB - V) 5 5-10 5

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APD - Operation APD - Operation (Contd..)

• Electron hole pairs are generated within the intrinsic layer
similar to a p-i-n photodiode.
• The accelerated electrons pass through a p-type multiplication
layer.
• Since the multiplication layer is within the depletion layer it
has a very high density of negative ions.
• Impacts between the accelerated electrons and negative ions
produce further electrons (often two or three).
• This is a chain reaction.
• This multiplies the photo current

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Introduction p-i-n Photodiode Avalanche Photo Diode Receiver Noise Introduction p-i-n Photodiode Avalanche Photo Diode Receiver Noise

APD - Operation (Contd..) APD Generic Operating Parameters

• The output of an APD is the multiplied photocurrent IM .
• This is an average value since the number of impacts and Parameter Si Ge InGaAs
electrons emitted per impact varies. Wavelength range (λ - nm) 400-1100 800-1650 1100-1700
Multiplication factor (M) 20-400 50-200 10-40
• The multiplication factor M of the device can be defined in Dark current (ID - nA) 0.1-1 50-500 10-50 (M=10)
terms of the unmultiplied photo current IP as, Rise time (τr - ns) 0.1-2 0.5-0.8 0.1-0.5
Gain-bandwidth (M × B - GHz) 100-400 2-10 20-250
IM Bias voltage (VB - V) 150-400 20-40 20-30
M = (10) Excess noise factor (x) 0.3 1 0.7
IP

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Receiver Noise Thermal Noise

Basic noise mechanisms,
• Thermal noise due to random thermal motion of electrons
(Gaussian)
• Shot noise due to the generation and arrival of individual
electrons of the current (Poisson)

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Thermal Noise (Contd..) Shot Noise

For a resistor R0 at absolute temperature T , the mean square
thermal noise current for a bandwidth B is given by,
4kTB
i 2 therm = (11)
R0
where k is the Boltzmann constant.

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Shot Noise (Contd..) Signal to Noise Ratio

The mean square shot noise for a current I at a bandwidth B can For an optical receiver, the Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) is given in
be given by, terms of;

i 2 shot = 2eIB (12) (Output Current)2

SNR = (13)
i 2 therm + i 2 shot
Where e is the charge of an electron.
The thermal noise is due to the load resistor (for both photodiode
and APD).

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Introduction p-i-n Photodiode Avalanche Photo Diode Receiver Noise Introduction p-i-n Photodiode Avalanche Photo Diode Receiver Noise

SNR - p-i-n Photo Diode SNR - APD

• The both the dark current ID and photocurrent contribute to • In an APD the mean square shot noise contribution of the
shot noise photocurrent and dark current are scaled by M 2 . The
multiplication process increases the shot noise by a further
IP2 factor of M x .
SNR = 4kTB
(14)
2eB(IP + ID ) + RL
(MIP )2
(RPin )2 SNR = 4kTB
(16)
= 4kTB
(15) 2eB(IP + ID )M (2+x) + RL
2eB(RPin + ID ) + RL

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Optimum APD Gain Bit Error Rate

• The value of M for which the SNR is highest • An optical communication system will have two signal levels
corresponding to 0 (I0 ) and 1 (I1 ).
aM 2 • The receiver will have a decision threshold level ID to
SNR = (17)
bM (2+x) +c determine if it is a 0 or 1.
d (bM (2+x) + c)(2aM) − 2aM 2 (2 + x)bM (1+x)
SNR = =0
dM (bM (2+x) + c)2
2acM = xabM (3+x)
  1   1
2c (2+x) 4kT (2+x)
Mopt = = (18)
xb xeRL (IP + ID )

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Introduction p-i-n Photodiode Avalanche Photo Diode Receiver Noise Introduction p-i-n Photodiode Avalanche Photo Diode Receiver Noise

Bit Error Rate (Contd..) Bit Error Rate (Contd..)

• Noise is modeled using a Gaussian pdf Therefore the BER becomes,
• To approximate both thermal and shot noise, 0 and 1 are     
1 I1 − ID ID − I0
given different variances (σ0 and σ1 respectively) BER = erfc √ + erfc √ (19)
4 2σ1 2σ0
The optimum decision threshold is given by,
σ0 I1 + σ1 I0
ID = (20)
σ0 + σ1

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Bit Error Rate (Contd..) Bit Error Rate (Contd..)

For the optimum decision threshold,
“ ”
  − Q2
2

1 Q e
BER = erfc √ ≈ √ (21)
2 2 2πQ
Where,
I1 − I0
Q = (22)
σ0 + σ1
The approximation is reasonably accurate for Q > 3.

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Introduction p-i-n Photodiode Avalanche Photo Diode Receiver Noise Introduction p-i-n Photodiode Avalanche Photo Diode Receiver Noise

Quantum Limit of Photodetection Quantum Limit of Photodetection (Contd..)

• There is no shot noise for an ideal detector with no thermal For an average of NP photons per bit, the probability of generating
noise, dark current and ideal quantum efficiency during the m electron hole pairs will be given by,
absence of incident photons.
• Shot noise will occur during photon incidence due to the e −NP NPm
Pm = (23)
random nature of photon arrival. m!
• Modelled by Poisson statistics
• Due to this there will be a minimum number of photons
• p(1/0) = 0 because when NP (no incident photons) Pm = 0.
required for accurate photodetection
• For p(0/1), for any number of NP , m = 0.
Therefore,

p(0/1) = e −NP (24)

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Quantum Limit of Photodetection (Contd..) Quantum Limit of Photodetection (Contd..)

Therefore, the BER becomes,
1 −NP
BER = e (25)
2
Therefore, for a signal with a bit rate of B, the ideal power
required at a frequency of f for a given BER would be,

P = NP Bhf (26)

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