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CONTENTS
1) ACKOWLEDGMENTS……………………………………………..2
2) DECLARATION……………………………..…………………3
3) OBJECTIVES………………………………………………………...5
4) RESEARCH METHODOLOGY……………………………………6
5) INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………7
6) ....................................…...9-11
7) …......................……11-20
8) ` ………….20-21
9) CONCLUSION………………………………………………...............22-23
10) REFERENCES…………………………………………………………24
Urbanization In India and China
OBJECTIVES
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
NATURE OF RESEARCH
This research work is descriptive and Analytical in nature. It describes the Ubanization and
development process in India and China.
SOURCES OF DATA
This study is done with the help of secondary data. This secondary information has been
obtained from published sources such as books, journals, newspapers, official websites,
government publications etc.
MODE OF CITATION
A uniform mode of citation has been adopted and followed consistently throughout this paper.
Urbanization In India and China
Review of Literature
There are plenty of publications that delve into the topic of urbanization within
each of the two
India. The following brief literature review examines two recent publications
contrasting the two
countries and then two journals that discuss urbanization in each country
individually
Mohan and Dasgupta (2004) authored a working paper for the Stanford
Center for
International Development, entitled “Urban Development in India in the
21st Century: Policies for Accelerating Urban Growth.” They analyze the
past urbanization of India as well as future projections of urban growth.
They also explain that in India, urbanization is
seen as a negative aspect of development. Mohan and Dasgupta provide
policy suggestions that would make India’s urbanization a lot better.
The Asia Pacific Housing Journal published an article entitled “Comparing
China and India’s urbanization”. The article looked a recent McKinsey
Quarterly reports on China and India’s urbanization and expanded on the
ideas that were presented. The author states that China has started to
embrace urbanization and is more efficient at doing so compare to India who
on the other hand, is just realizing the grand opportunity that awaits. A core
idea they tried to illustrate though is that even though the previous fact might
be true, India has the ability to gain a lot more in terms of their urban
Urbanization In India and China
demographic due to the fact that China is aging at a fast rate. The article
stresses that two major countries have never urbanized at the same time as
much as they are now. The implication of that will change not only the
individual countries’ economies but also shift the world economy.
INTRODUCTION
Urbanization is a population shift from rural to urban areas, "the gradual increase
in the proportion of people living in urban areas", and the ways in which each
society adapts to the change. It is predominantly the process by which towns and
cities are formed and become larger as more people begin living and working in
central areas. The United Nations projected that half of the world's
population would live in urban areas at the end of 2008. It is predicted that by 2050
about 64% of the developing world and 86% of the developed world will be
urbanized. That is equivalent to approximately 3 billion urbanites by 2050, much
of which will occur in Africa and Asia. Notably, the United Nations has also
recently projected that nearly all global population growth from 2016 to 2030 will
be absorbed by cities, about 1.1 billion new urbanites over the next 14 years.
1
www.economywatch.com/economy-business-and-finance-news/urbanization-in-china-and-india-a-potential-
gold-mine-28-07.html
Urbanization In India and China
resources more efficiently, to create more sustainable land use and to protect the
biodiversity of natural ecosystems.”
History
From the development of the earliest cities in Mesopotamia and Egypt until the
18th century, an equilibrium existed between the vast majority of the population
who engaged in subsistence agriculture in a rural context, and small centres of
2
populations in the towns where economic activity consisted primarily of trade
2
http://seekerblog.com/2010/07/14/comparing-urbanization-in-china-and-india/
http://www.insightsonindia.com/2014/10/29/urbanization-in-india-facts-and-issues/
Urbanization In India and China
at markets and manufactures on a small scale. Due to the primitive and relatively
stagnant state of agriculture throughout this period the ratio of rural to urban
population remained at a fixed equilibrium.
With the onset of the agricultural and industrial revolution in the late 18th century
this relationship was finally broken and an unprecedented growth in urban
population took place over the course of the 19th century, both through continued
migration from the countryside and due to the tremendous demographic
expansion that occurred at that time. In England the proportion of the population
living in cities jumped from 17% in 1801 to 72% in 1891 (for other countries the
figure was: 37% in France, 41% in Prussia and 28% in the United States).
As labourers were freed up from working the land due to higher agricultural
productivity they converged on the new industrial cities
like Manchester and Birmingham which were experiencing a boom in commerce,
trade and industry3. Growing trade around the world also allowed cereals to be
imported from North America and refrigerated meat from Australasia and South
America. Spatially, cities also expanded due to the development of public transport
3
http://ejap.org/environmental-issues-in-asia/expansion-cities.html
Urbanization In India and China
systems, which facilitated commutes of longer distances to the city centre for
the working class.
Urbanization rapidly spread across the Western world and, since the 1950s, it has
begun to take hold in the developing world as well. At the turn of the 20th century,
just 15% of the world population lived in cities. According to the UN the year
2007 witnessed the turning point when more than 50% of the world population
were living in cities, for the first time in human history.
Movement
4
http://12thplan.gov.in/forum_description.php?f=17
Urbanization In India and China
hedonistic pleasures of urban areas; proximity and ease of mass transport; and the
opportunity to assert individualism.
The rapid urbanization of the world's population over the 20th century is described
in the 2005 Revision of the UN World Urbanization Prospects report. The global
proportion of urban population rose dramatically from 13% (220 million) in 1900,
to 29% (732 million) in 1950, and 49% (3.2 billion) in 2005. The same report
projected that the figure 5is likely to rise to 60% (4.9 billion) by 2030.[10] It is
expected that from 2007 to 2050, the global urban population will nearly double
(from 3.3 billion to 6.4 billion), absorbing all population growth and as well as
inflows from rural areas.
According to the UNFPA State of the World Population 2007 report, sometime in
the middle of 2007, the majority of people worldwide lived in towns or cities, for
the first time in history; this is referred to as the arrival of the "Urban Millennium"
5
www.theguardian.com
Urbanization In India and China
or the "tipping point". In future it is estimated 93% of urban growth will occur in
developing nations, with 80% of urban growth occurring in Asia and Africa.
Causes
Urbanization occurs as individual, commercial flight social and government action
reduce the time and expense of commuting and transportation and improve
opportunities for jobs, education, housing, and transportation. Living in a city can
provide opportunities of proximity, diversity, and marketplace competition. As
against this, there may be alienation issues stress, increased cost of living, and
negative social aspects that result from mass marginalization.]Suburbanization,
which is happening in the cities of the largest developing countries, may be
regarded as an attempt to balance these negative aspects of urban life while still
allowing access to the large extent of shared resources.
In cities, money, services, wealth and opportunities are centralized. Many rural
inhabitants come to the city to seek their fortune and alter their social position.
Businesses, which provide jobs and exchange capital, are more concentrated in
urban areas6.7 Whether the source is trade or tourism, it is also through the ports or
banking systems, commonly located in cities, that foreign money flows into a
country.
Many people move into cities for the economic opportunities, but this does not
fully explain the very high recent urbanization rates in places like China and India.
Rural flight is a contributing factor to urbanization. In rural areas, often on small
family farms or collective farms in villages, it has historically been difficult to
access manufactured goods, though the relative overall quality of life is very
6
http://www.indexmundi.com/factbook/compare/india.china
7
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23570826
Urbanization In India and China
subjective, and may certainly surpass that of the city. Farm living has always been
susceptible to unpredictable environmental conditions, and in times
of drought, flood or pestilence, survival may become extremely problematic
Particularly in the developing world, conflict over land rights due to the effects
of globalization has led to less politically powerful groups, such as farmers, losing
or forfeiting their land, resulting in obligatory migration into cities. In China,
where land acquisition measures are forceful, there has been far more extensive
and rapid urbanization (54%) than in India (36%), where peasants form militant
groups (e.g. Naxalites) to oppose such efforts. Obligatory and unplanned migration
often results in rapid growth of slums. This is also similar to areas of violent
conflict, where people are driven off their land due to
violence. Bogota, Colombia is one example of this.
Cities offer a larger variety of services, including specialist services not found in
rural areas8. These services requires workers, resulting in more numerous and
varied job opportunities. Elderly people may be forced to move to cities where
there are doctors and hospitals that can cater for their health needs. Varied and high
quality educational opportunities are another factor in urban migration, as well as
the opportunity to join, develop, and seek out social communities.
Urbanization also creates opportunities for women that are not available in rural
areas. This creates a gender-related transformation where women are engaged in
paid employment and have access to education. This may cause fertility to decline.
8
http://12thplan.gov.in/forum_description.php?f=17
Urbanization In India and China
People in cities are more productive than in rural areas. An important question is
whether this is due to agglomeration effects or whether cities simply attract those
who are more productive. Economists have recently shown that there exists a large
productivity gain due to locating in dense agglomerations. It is thus possible that
agents. locate in cities in order to benefit from these agglomeration effects
Economic effects
As cities develop, effects can include a dramatic increase and change in costs,
often pricing the local working class out of the market, including such
functionaries as employees of the local municipalities. For example, Eric
Hobsbawm's book chapter 11, stated "Urban development in our period [1789–
1848] was a gigantic process of class segregation, which pushed the new labouring
poor into great morasses of misery outside the centres of government and business
and the newly specialized residential areas of the bourgeoisie. The almost universal
European division into a 'good' west end and a 'poor' east end of large cities
developed in this period." This is likely due the prevailing south-west wind which
carries coal smoke and other airborne pollutants downwind, making the western
edges of towns preferable to the eastern ones. Similar problems now affect the
developing world, rising inequality resulting from rapid urbanization trends. The
drive for rapid urban growth and often efficiency can lead to less equitable urban
development. Think tanks such as the Overseas Development Institute have
proposed policies that encourage labor-intensive growth as a means of absorbing
the influx of low-skilled and unskilled labor. One problem these migrant workers
are involved with is the growth of slums. In many cases, the rural-urban low
skilled or unskilled migrant workers, attracted by economic opportunities in urban
areas, cannot find a job and afford housing in cities and have to dwell in
slums. Urban problems, along with infrastructure developments, are also fueling
Urbanization In India and China
suburbanization trends in developing nations, though the trend for core cities in
said nations tends to continue to become ever denser. Urbanization is often viewed
as a negative trend, but there are positives in the reduction of expenses in
commuting and transportation while improving opportunities for jobs, education,
housing, and transportation. Living in cities permits individuals and families to
take advantage of the opportunities of proximity and diversity. While cities have a
greater variety of markets and goods than rural areas, infrastructure congestion,
monopolization, high overhead costs, and the inconvenience of cross-town trips
frequently combine to make marketplace competition harsher in cities than in rural
areas.
In many developing countries where economies are growing, the growth is often
erratic and based on a small number of industries. For young people in these
countries barriers exist such as, lack of access to financial services and business
advisory services, difficulty in obtaining credit to start a business, and lack of
entrepreneurial skills, in order for them to access opportunities in these industries.
Investment in human capital so that young people have access to quality education
and infrastructure to enable access to educational facilities is imperative to
overcoming economic barriers.
Environmental effects
The existence of Urban heat islands has become a growing concern over the years.
An urban heat island is formed when industrial and urban areas produce and retain
heat. Much of the solar energy that reaches rural areas is consumed by evaporation
of water from vegetation and soil. In cities, where there is less vegetation and
exposed soil, most of the sun's energy is instead absorbed by buildings and asphalt;
leading to higher surface temperatures. Vehicles, factories and industrial and
Urbanization In India and China
domestic heating and cooling units release even more heat. As a result, cities are
often 1 to 3 °C (1.8 to 5.4 °F) warmer than surrounding landscapes. Impacts also
include reducing soil moisture and a reduction in reabsorption of carbon dioxide
emissions.
In his book Whole Earth Discipline, Stewart Brand argues that the effects of
urbanization are primarily positive for the environment. First, the birth rate of new
urban dwellers falls immediately to replacement rate, and keeps falling, reducing
environmental stresses caused by population growth. Secondly, emigration from
rural areas reduces destructive subsistence farming techniques, such as improperly
implemented slash and burn agriculture.
In July 2013 a report issued by the United Nations Department of Economic and
Social Affairs warned that with 2.4 billion more people by 2050, the amount of
food produced will have to increase by 70%, straining food resources, especially in
countries already facing food insecurity due to changing environmental conditions.
The mix of changing environmental conditions and the growing population of
urban regions, according to UN experts, will strain basic sanitation systems and
health care, and potentially cause a humanitarian and environmental disaster.
Urbanization In India and China
URBANIZATION IN ASIA
Urbanization is a sign of a nation’s prosperity and progress. No country in the
world has ever achieved sustained economic growth or rapid social development
without urbanization. In the Asian continent, the phenomenon of urbanization is
particularly striking. Globally, in 1800, only 2% of the world’s population was
urbanised. By 1950, 30% of the world population was urban. And the World
Urbanization Prospects (UN) has said that by 2020, 55% Asia’s population will
live in urban areas, underlining unprecedented urbanization across Asia in the days
to come. The graph shows how urban population in Asia has increased since 1950.
However, urbanisation has brought with it the huge challenge of making cities
‘liveable’ - by providing adequate infrastructure facilities, water supply provision,
sanitation, heath care and housing. Compounding such problems are growing
issues of climate change, which may threaten the sustainability of water use in
urban centres by reducing water availability and quality from surface and
groundwater sources, while water demand for household and industrial use may
simultaneously increase as temperatures rise.9 There is also an inequitable
distribution of health threats within urban areas. Families with the lowest incomes
are most at risk of their children being malnourished and dying early, and are also
disadvantaged in terms of their living conditions, such as access to piped water.
Importantly, these inequities exist along a social gradient, also affecting middle-
class city dwellers to at least some extent. The Asian experience while being
positive is less than adequate. In the 2000-2010 decade, a huge population in the
region moved out from slum conditions. China and India together upgraded about
125 million people from slums. But, the rapid pace of urbanisation will actually
9
http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/Strategic_Plan_draft_new[1].pdf.pdf
Urbanization In India and China
increase the absolute number of slum dwellers. Cleary, much more needs to be
done.
Over the next four decades, Asia will experience a marked increase in their
urban populations and by mid-century most of the urban population of the
world will be concentrated in Asia. While changing human geography beyond
recognition, it has also resulted in significant changes in the complexion of
development aims and processes. A World Health Organisation study has said
that in many places in Asia, cities will merge together to create urban
Urbanization In India and China
settlements on a scale never seen before. “These new configurations will take
the form of mega-regions, urban corridors and city-regions. The city region of
Bangkok in Thailand will expand another 200 km from its current centre by
2020.” While China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh and Pakistan would be the
major contributors to Asia’s increasing urban population, an urban sprawl
would also be created that will give rise to unforeseen problems as well as
opportunities. Unplanned expansion of urban centres will create a threat to
health and quality of life. Today only a small proportion of Asia’s urban
population lives amid abundance which could cause social disorder, severe
class conflicts, crimes and extreme economic inequalities. In the last decade,
absolute number of slum dwellers in Asia has actually increased from about
777 to 827 million in 2010 due to rapid urbanization. The UN estimates that, by
2020, 14 of the world’s 25 mega cities will be in Asia and the Pacific. The
mega cities where people already live in densely populated areas will face more
pressure on key issues related to health, growth, jobs and urbanization
Urbanization In India and China
URBANIZATION IN INDIA
Urbanization in India began to accelerate after independence, due to the country's
adoption of a mixed economy, which gave rise to the development of the private
in urban areas in India, according to 1901 census, was 11.4%. This count increased
to 28.53% according to 2001 census, and crossing 30% as per 2011 census,
urban areas. As per World Bank, India, along with China, Indonesia, Nigeria, and
the United States, will lead the world's urban population surge by 2050.
Mumbai saw large scale rural-urban migration in the 21st century. Mumbai
India, followed by Delhi with 11 million inhabitants. Witnessing the fastest rate of
urbanization in the world, as per 2011 census, Delhi's population rose by 4.1%,
History
Modern India
v
t
e
4,585,3 2,117,9
9 Surat Gujarat 19 Kochi Kerala
67 90
3,073,3 2,030,5
10 Jaipur Rajasthan 20 kozhikode kerala
50 91
The contribution of the agricultural sector to the GDP of India started to decline
and the percentage contribution from secondary sector increased. The period after
1941, witnessed rapid growth of four metropolitan cities in India, which
were Kolkata, Delhi, Mumbai, and Chennai. The nation's economy saw a rise due
to industrial revolution and the invention of new technologies increased the
standard of living of people living in urban areas. The growth of public
sector resulted in development of public transport, roads, water supply, electricity,
and hence the infrastructure of urban areas.
Maharashtra was the most urbanized state in India till 1991, stood behind Tamil
Nadu in 2001 and third after it in 2011, with Kerala being second, with the urban-
total state population ratio. However, Maharashtra's urban population of 41
million, far exceeds that of Tamil Nadu which is at 27 million, as per the 2001
census.
1. Urban population will be growing much faster than rural population in the
2. Similarly, the Mckinsey Global Institute projects that that India’s urban
population will be 590 million by 2030 which would be about 40 percent of the
total population of the country and further estimates that by 2030, the number of
million plus cities will increase to 68 of which 13 cities will have more than 4
million and six cities will have more than 10 million persons.
2.1 By 2050, it is estimated that urban population will constitute nearly half
of the total population in India.
2.3 The state of basic services in urban areas leaves much to be desired as brought
out below.
a) Water Supply: The urban water supply is beset with problems relating to
coverage, quality, poor operation and maintenance and sustainability. As per 65th
round of the National Sample Survey, 74% of urban households are served by
piped water supply, leaving 26 % population to be covered by other sources like
tube wells and hand pumps etc. The sanitation rating conducted for 423 class I
Urbanization In India and China
cities brought out the fact that drinking water samples from only 39 cities
qualified on all three basic tests conducted to check water quality at consumer end:
turbidity, residual chlorine and Thermo Tolerant Coli form bacteria (TTC).
Megacities.
Urbanization in China
Urbanization in the People's Republic of China increased in speed following the
initiation of the reform and opening policy. By the end of 2014, 54.7% of the total
population lived in urban areas, a dramatic increase from 26% in 1990.
History
China's increase in urbanization was one of the several functions of the surpluses
produced from the agricultural sectors in China (farming and pastoral dependency).
This judgment is based on (1) the fact that not until the end of the Qing Period did
China begin importing moderate quantities of foodstuffs from the outside world to
help feed its population; and (2) the fact that the handicraft sector never challenged
agricultural dominance in the economy despite a symbiotic relationship between
them.10
By the same token, urbanization rarely exceeded ten percent of the total population
although large urban centers were established. For example, during the Song, the
northern capital Kaifeng (of the Northern Song) and southern capital Hangzhou (of
the Southern Song) had 1.4 million and one million inhabitants, respectively. In
addition, it was common that urban residents also had one foot in the rural sector
due to private landholding property rights.
10
http://www.slideshare.net/PlanComIndia/urbanisation-in-india-12th-plan-2012-2017
Urbanization In India and China
Modern history
Urban population grew steadily at around 3%-4% from 1950 to 1965. Urban
population experienced a 'great jump' in 1958-1961 during the "Great Leap
Forward" in conjunction with the massive industrialization effort. During the
Cultural Revolution years of 1965-1975, urban population growth dropped as a
result of 'rustication'. From 1962 to 1978, it is estimated that almost 18 million
urban youth moved to the countryside.
However, after reforms were launched at the end of 1978, urban population growth
began to accelerate. The inflow of foreign direct investment created massive
employment opportunities, which fostered urban population growth. In the 1990s,
urban population growth started to slow. This reflected a slower increase in
employment growth following the restructuring of the state-owned enterprises
(SOE).
The majority of China's people live in the eastern segment of the country, the
traditional China proper. Most are peasants living, as did their forebears, in the
low-lying hills and central plains that stretch from the highlands eastward and
southward to the sea.11 Agriculture predominates in this vast area, generally
favored by a temperate or subtropical climate. The meticulously tilled fields are
evidence in part of the government's continuing concern over farm output and the
food supply.
Although migration to urban areas has been restricted since the late 1950s, as of
the end of 1985 about 33 percent of the population was urban. An urban and
11
https://www.american.edu/cas/economics/ejournal/upload/Global_Majority_e_Journal_6_1_Porter.pdf
Urbanization In India and China
industrial corridor formed a broad arc stretching from Harbin in the northeast
through the Beijing area and south to China's largest city, the industrial
metropolitan complex of Shanghai.
The pace of urbanization in China from 1949 to 1982 was relatively slow because
of both rapid growth of the rural population and tight restrictions on rural-urban
migration for most of that period. According to the 1953 and 1982 censuses, the
Urbanization In India and China
4
ratio of urban consumption share to
3.5
urban population share
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
density (urban population share)
Urbanization In India and China
In 2005, China had 286 cities. Most of China's cities have a population of one
million and below. Shanghai is the largest city in China, with a population of 19
million, followed by Beijing with a population of 17.4 million. These are the two
mega-cities in China.
rural villages and building new cities and towns to relocate villagers to. It
ultimately aims to integrate about 70% of China's population, about 900 million
people, into cities by 2025.
As shown in the table (right), China's urban population growth is higher than that
of Asia as well as the world.
China and India are in the vanguard of a wave of urban expansion that is
restoring the global prominence that Asia enjoyed before the European and North
American industrial revolution. By 2025, nearly 2.5 billion Asians will live in
cities, accounting for almost 54 percent of the world’s urban population. India and
Urbanization In India and China
China alone will account for more than 62 percent of Asian urban population
growth and 40 percent of global urban population growth from 2005 to 2025.
In 1950, India was a more urban nation than China (17 percent of the population
lived in cities, compared with China’s 13 percent). But from 1950 to 2005, China
urbanized far more rapidly than India, to an urbanization rate of 41 percent,
compared with 29 percent in India. New research from the McKinsey Global
Institute1 expects this pattern to continue, with China forecast to add 400 million to
its urban population, which will account for 64 percent of the total population by
2025, and India to add 215 million to its cities, whose populations will account for
38 percent of the total in 2025.
Never before in history have two of the largest nations (in terms of population)
urbanized at the same time, and at such a pace. This process will drive fundamental
shifts—in both countries—which will have significant consequences for the world
economy and offer exciting new opportunities for investors.
In India, urban per capita GDP is projected to grow at a rate of 6 percent a year
from 2005 to 2025, while China will see growth of 7.3 percent. The number of
urban households with true discretionary-spending power in India could increase
sevenfold, to 89 million households, in 2025. In China, there are 55 million
middle-class households today. That number could more than quadruple to nearly
280 million in 2025, to account for more than three-quarters of all China’s urban
households. For businesses, the significant increase in per capita urban incomes
and middle-income households offers the potential of vibrant new markets to
serve.
Urbanization In India and China
So what markets are likely to benefit the most from these trends? In India, by 2025,
the largest markets will be transportation and communications, food, and health
care, followed by housing and utilities, recreation, and education. Even India’s
slower-growing spending categories will represent significant opportunities for
businesses because these markets will still be growing rapidly in comparison with
their counterparts in other areas of the world. In China’s cities, the fastest-growing
categories are likely to be transportation and communications, housing and
utilities, personal products, health care, and recreation and education.
In addition, in both China and India, urban infrastructure markets will be massive.
For example, from 2005 to 2025, India will need to add 700 million to 900 million
square meters of floor space a year; in China, the required numbers could be 1,600
million to 1,900 million square meters. During the same period, India will need to
add at least 350 to 400 kilometers of metropolitan railways and subways annually,
while the corresponding number in China will be closer to 1,000 kilometers.
Urbanization In India and China
CONCLUSION
There is little doubt about the scale of the new markets in China and India
unleashed by the pace and scale of their urbanization. But businesses still need to
be able to serve these markets in practical terms. The way cities are run—and the
productivity that results—is a major factor for companies. Here, China is in much
better shape than India. While India has barely paid attention to its urban
transformation, China has developed a set of internally consistent practices across
every element of the urbanization operating model: funding, governance, planning,
sectoral policies, and the shape, or pattern, of urbanization, both across the nation
as a whole and within cities themselves.
India has underinvested in its cities; China has invested ahead of demand and given
its cities the freedom to raise substantial investment resources by monetizing land
assets and retaining a 25 percent share of value-added taxes. While India spends
$17 per capita on capital investments in urban infrastructure annually, China
spends $116. India has devolved little real power and accountability to its cities,
but China’s major cities enjoy the same status as provinces and have powerful
political appointees as mayors. While India’s urban-planning system has failed to
address competing demands for space, China has a mature urban-planning regime
(emphasizing the systematic development of run-down areas) consistent with long-
range plans for land use, housing, and transportation.
The starkest contrast between the two countries is that China has embraced and
shaped urbanization, while India is still waking up to its urban reality and the
opportunities that its cities offer for economic and social transformation.
Urbanization In India and China
However, if India fixes its urban operating model, it has the potential to reap a
demographic dividend from the increase—of around 250 million expected in the
next decade—in the working-age population. This dividend is even larger than that
in China, which is aging rapidly. By 2025, nearly 28 percent of its inhabitants will
be aged 55 or older, compared with only 16 percent in India, whose demographic
profile is much more youthful. If India optimizes the productivity of its cities and
maximizes their GDP, the economy could add more than 170 million urban
workers to its labor force from 2005 to 2025, compared with 50 million in China
over the same period. The stakes are high.
Urbanization In India and China
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. www.youarticlelibrary.com
2. www.kalyan-cityblogspot.in
3. www.wikipedia.com