Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135

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Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jvolgeores

Review

Structure of volcano plumbing systems: A review of

multi-parametric effects
Alessandro Tibaldi
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Milan-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 4, 20126 Milan, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Magma is transported and stored in the crust mostly through networks of planar structures (intrusive sheets),
Received 31 December 2014 ranging from vertical dykes to inclined sheets and horizontal sills, and magma chambers, which make up the
Accepted 21 March 2015 plumbing system of volcanoes. This study presents an overview of plumbing systems imaged at different depths
Available online 11 April 2015
and geodynamic settings, in order to contribute to assessing the factors that control their geometry. Data were
derived from personal field surveys and through the analysis of publications; observations include local lithology
Keywords:
Plumbing system
and tectonics of the host rock with special reference to local fault kinematics and related stress tensor, regional
Dyke tectonics (general kinematics and far-field stress tensors), geology and shape of the volcano, topographic set-
Sill tings, and structural and petrochemical characteristics of the plumbing system. Information from active volca-
Volcano noes and eroded extinct volcanoes is discussed; the shallow plumbing system of active volcanoes has been
Stress reconstructed by combining available geophysical data with field information derived from outcropping sheets,
Magma chamber morphometric analyses of pyroclastic cones, and the orientation and location of eruptive fissures. The study of
eroded volcanoes enabled to assess the plumbing system geometry at deeper levels in the core of the edifice
or underneath the volcano-substratum interface. Key sites are presented in extensional, transcurrent and con-
tractional tectonic settings from North and South-America, Iceland, the Southern Tyrrhenian Sea and Africa.
The types of sheet arrangements illustrated include swarms of parallel dykes, diverging rift patterns, centrally-
inclined sheets, ring and radial dykes, circum-lateral collapse sheets, sills, and mixed members. This review
shows that intrusive sheet emplacement at a volcano depends upon the combination of several local and regional
factors, some of which are difficult to be constrained. While much progress has been made, it is still very challeng-
ing to forecast the likely paths and geometry of sheet propagation and emplacement during volcanic unrest
events.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2. Definition of a magma plumbing system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3. Propagation and arrest of intrusive sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4. Deep plumbing system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.1. Felsic magmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.2. Mafic magmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5. Shallow plumbing system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6. Plumbing system in the interior of volcanoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.1. Tectonic vs. magmatic components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.2. Intrusive sheets and orientation of tectonic stress tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.2.1. Vertical σ1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.2.2. Vertical σ3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.2.3. Vertical σ2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.3. Topographic influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
7. Plumbing systems and surface deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
8. Plumbing systems at calderas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
9. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2015.03.023
0377-0273/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
86 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
This paper addresses the fast-growing field of studies on the struc-
ture of magma plumbing systems below and inside volcanoes, the
sites where processes like magma transfer, storage and evolution
occur. A magma plumbing system can be defined as a network of con-
duits along which magma moves, interconnected with chambers
where magma accumulates. A plumbing system may be connected
to the surface, at least during transient times, to which magma is
transported producing eruptions. During transfer from the deep fluid
source and subsequent storage in the crust, magmas are subject to a se-
ries of processes that lead to their differentiation. From the shallow
chambers to the surface, magmas are subject to further processes that
eventually dictate the type, intensity and duration of eruption. All
these processes are influenced by a series of parameters that include,
for example, depths of differentiation, amount of wall-rock assimilation,
rates and timescales of magma generation, and times of storage (Annen
and Zellmer, 2008). Magma storage and ascent are above all tightly
linked to the structure and state of stress of the crust (Chaussard
and Amelung, 2014), but in turn magma intrusions might control
plate boundary evolution (Acocella, 2014). As a consequence, the recon-
struction of the structure and geometry of the plumbing system is of
paramount importance for understanding how the subvolcanic engine
works.
The assessment of volcanic hazard is also dependant on the compre-
hension of the structure of magma plumbing systems. Processes acting
at open conduit volcanoes, and leading to paroxistic explosions, have
been recently addressed taking into consideration the structure of the
shallower conduits. Chouet et al. (1997), for example, studied the
wave fields of tremors and explosions at Stromboli Volcano, Italy, dem-
onstrating that the source of this phenomenon is localised beneath
the summit crater in the shallower part of the plumbing system at
depths b 200 m. The model for degassing and explosion occurrence is
consistent with a vertical, NE–SW-striking crack-like conduit. This ge-
ometry fully coincides with the field observations carried out at
Stromboli's plumbing system, which crops out in the more dissected
parts of the volcano (Pasquarè et al., 1993; Tibaldi, 1996, 2001). Later,
more detailed geophysical studies on the active conduit (Chouet et al.,
2008) and field data on Holocene conduits (Tibaldi, 2003; Corazzato
et al., 2008) put further constraints on conduit geometry suggesting a
dip towards NE.
Also the evaluation of the areas most prone to the opening of new
vents and eruptive fissures is intimately linked to the understanding
of the structure of plumbing systems, especially at volcano-tectonic
rift zones on volcano slopes (e.g. Bonali et al., 2011). Mafic magma, in
fact, is normally supplied to the surface along planar and mostly
steeply-dipping intrusive sheets that may group to form dyke swarms
(Dieterich, 1988; Carracedo, 1994; Moore et al., 1994; Walter and
Schmincke, 2002), and eventually volcano-tectonic rift zones formed
by hundreds of such parallel dykes (Fiske and Jackson, 1972; Walker,
1999). These rift zones can be studied at the surface by analysing the
orientation and location of eruptive fissures, vents and the morphomet-
ric characteristics of pyroclastic cones (Tibaldi, 1995), as well as by
interferometric methods (Massonnet and Sigmundsson, 2000). At
the same time, much information can be obtained by studying in the
field the eroded parts of the rift zones where sheet intrusions are ex-
posed. Field studies of thousands of sheet intrusions also show that
most sheets become arrested on their way to the surface, and that un-
rest commonly does not lead to an eruption (Fig. 1) (Gudmundsson
and Brenner, 2005). The comprehension of this phenomenon depends
on a better understanding of the physical conditions for the injection
128
128
of sheet intrusions from the source magma chamber and their propaga-
tion to the surface, which again requires knowledge of the structure of
the plumbing system and of the host rock.
Classically, studies of plumbing systems focused on igneous process-
es that are elucidated by sampling of exposed rocks and laboratory anal-
yses, more recently integrated with experimental approaches. The new
field of studies of “volcanotectonics” devoted to reconstructing the
structure of plumbing systems uses field data, analogue modelling and
numerical modelling. The experimental approaches are rapidly growing
in number and quality, but it is fundamental to anchor and validate their
results with field truth. In recent years, exposed plumbing systems have
been studied in sufficient detail with modern techniques of structural
geology in order to get information aimed at a better understanding of
the entire process from crustal magma storage to eruption at the
surface.
The present paper contributes to the knowledge of magma plumb-
ing systems by reviewing the most relevant literature and integrating
it with field data mostly collected by the author. The focus is on the anal-
ysis of the structure of plumbing systems in the uppermost crust and in-
side volcanoes, where more data obtained from field evidence and
geophysics are available. This is integrated with a summary of the liter-
ature on the deeper part of plumbing system above the melt generation
zone. These data provide a backdrop for understanding the entire
magma plumbing system and the processes that take place within it.
Through a series of examples, from deeply eroded volcanoes to the sur-
face of active volcanoes, I describe the various parameters that control
the geometry of plumbing systems; these in fact are sensitive to multi-
ple factors that frequently work together to dictate the final configura-
tion of the conduit array. Intact cones and volcanoes that experienced
lateral failure or caldera collapse are taken into consideration.
One of the most complex conditioning factors is represented by the
tectonic settings; the tectonic influence on magma migration and volca-
nism has received a lot of attention recently, but several issues are still
open and controversial. As an example, for decades volcanism and re-
gional extensional tectonics have been thought to be tightly linked, as
Fig. 1. A magma plumbing system is represented as a network of vertical, inclined and hor-
izontal conduits that channel magma towards the surface, and a series of chambers where
magma can be stored. Main nomenclature is shown. Not to scale.
 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135
this type of stress state favours magma upwelling along vertical frac-
tures perpendicular to the regional least principal stress (σ3) that is hor-
izontal (Anderson, 1951; Cas and Wright, 1987; Watanabe et al., 1999).
For arc volcanism occurring at convergent margins, Nakamura (1977)
stated that the overall tectonics of the arcs should be strike-slip (with
σ3 and greatest principal stress, σ1, both horizontal) instead of compres-
sional reverse (σ3 vertical). Strike-slip tectonics would allow magma to
ascend through vertical dykes parallel to the direction of σ1 (Nakamura
and Uyeda, 1980). By contrast, a pure contractional tectonic environ-
ment, with reverse or transpressional faulting, is usually regarded as a
highly unfavourable setting for volcanism (Glazner, 1991; Hamilton,
1995; Watanabe et al., 1999), where only intrusive emplacement is ex-
pected (Cas and Wright, 1987), although in reality local magma stress
can give rise to eruption also in this setting. In the present paper I inves-
tigate also these issues through examples that encompass different
geodynamic settings including compressional and extensional regimes
with normal, strike-slip and reverse fault kinematics. Plumbing systems
form a major component of diverging plate margins and orogenic belts
at converging margins, and can be highly varied both spatially and tem-
porally, which has led to a number of controversies about their architec-
ture and evolution.
The paper is structured in order to present a review and analysis of
many existing data and models, by introducing magma plumbing sys-
tems and their settings, and the possible influencing parameters at dif-
ferent depths. First we will investigate the deeper level from the fluid
source zone, then the upper crust zone, and finally the interior of volca-
noes and their surface.
2. Definition of a magma plumbing system
Volcanoes are underlain by magmatic plumbing systems that trans-
port magma from the Earth's mantle and crust towards the surface. A
large fraction of this magma never reaches the surface and becomes so-
lidified in the Earth's interior as magmatic intrusions, providing clues to
the past geometry of magma pathways. As globally assumed in the
Earth Sciences, the behaviour of a geological process in the past can be
a key to forecast the future development of the same process. Thus
the reconstruction of the recent plumbing system below a volcano can
help to assess the present magma paths at an active volcano, but, as
we will see later on, plumbing systems are extremely dynamic and
changes can occur at a fast rate.
A plumbing system can be represented as a network of vertical or in-
clined conduits that channel magma towards the surface, and sills and
chambers where magma can be stored (Fig. 1). At a certain time, one
or more of these members can be partially or totally molten. Further
magma injection can be supplied from a deeper source in the mantle,
or from one or more active magma chambers in the crust. Magma cham-
bers located at different levels in the plumbing system can act as a sink
for magma from the deeper reservoir, and as a source for magma injec-
tions into the surrounding crust (Gudmundsson, 2012).
Magma conduits have been represented for decades with a cylindri-
cal shape and a circular section. However, direct observations of
eruptions along fractures, ground deformation measures, and the distri-
bution of seismicity associated with magma intrusions provide evidence
for the role of dykes in mafic, intermediate and felsic magma transport
(Pollard et al., 1983; Rubin and Pollard, 1987; Peltier et al., 2005;
Yamaoka et al., 2005; Aloisi et al., 2006; Mattia et al., 2007). Conduits
have also been studied by field evidence in eroded volcanoes where tab-
ular sheets compose the bulk of the plumbing system (Gudmundsson,
1987, 1988, 1990; Tibaldi, 2001; Gudmundsson, 2002; Corazzato et al.,
2006; Pasquarè and Tibaldi, 2007; Tibaldi et al., 2008a,b,c, 2009). In
the case of andesitic volcanism, some authors still suggest that erup-
tions are more focused and the conduits are more cylindrical (Zellmer
and Annen, 2008), as explained through progressive melting of host
rocks (Quareni et al., 2001) and in terms of the sharp increase in
magma viscosity close to the surface due to decompression, degassing
87
and crystallisation. At caldera structures also felsic magmas are normal-
ly emplaced as ring dykes, although this concept has been argued by
Legros et al. (2000) who suggest that magma ascent at caldera ring-
fissures is less favoured than at more restricted conduits.
These data indicate that the most of the magma is generally
transported towards the surface through conduits that can be repre-
sented by tabular intrusions (sheets) with planar, curved, en-échelon,
or more complex geometries, but that invariably have a very high length
(and depth) to thickness ratio. A magmatic sheet is thus a crystalline
rock that formed in a crack, primarily caused by the magma itself, in a
pre-existing rock body. In the field, intrusive sheets are classically divid-
ed into three end-members based on their attitude and the relations
with the country rocks: vertical to steep-dipping dykes, inclined sheets,
and sills, formed when magma is injected between rock layers forming a
horizontal or gently-dipping sheet. In origin, dykes have been described
as tabular bodies that intrude normally or obliquely to the bedding
plane of the host rock, to be called also “discordant intrusion”, while
the term sill indicated a sub-parallel or “concordant intrusion”
(Billings, 1972; Best, 1982; Hall, 1987). Other authors, like Bates and
Jackson (1987) adopted a terminology consistent with the intrusion at-
titude and referred to dykes as vertical tabular intrusions and to sills as
horizontal ones. Hatayama et al. (1980) define a dyke as a vertical intru-
sion, a sheet as a horizontal intrusion, and a sill as a horizontal and con-
cordant intrusion. The definition of these parts of a plumbing system as
based on their relations with the bedding of the host rock is misleading,
also because it implies that dykes have to produce cracks in order to
propagate across the bedding, whereas sill intrusion is easier along
pre-existent weakness zones like bedding discontinuities. Although
some authors consider that magma filling already existing fractures is
an important dyke intrusion mechanism (e.g. Delaney et al., 1986;
Bear et al., 1994; Delaney and Gartner, 1997; Valentine and Krogh,
2006), it is important to note that not always do sills follow pre-
existing discontinuities and not always do dykes propagate along self-
generated fractures. I here encourage to use a terminology that does
not bear reference to the relations with fractures and is based on inher-
ent geometric attributes: “dykes” are those tabular intrusions that have
a dip ≥ 76°, “inclined sheets” have a dip N 10° and b 76°, and “sills” have
a dip ≤ 10°. This terminology is essentially descriptive of the present
sheet attitude and does not take into account their possible tilting due
to post-intrusion deformation. Post-sheet regional tilting must be
retro-deformed in order to get the original sheet architecture.
Magma chambers can be totally or partially molten, and in the latter
case a large part may consist of a crystal mush that behaves as poroelastic
(Maaløe and Scheie, 1982; McKenzie, 1984; Gudmundsson, 1987; Marsh,
1989; Sinton and Detrick, 1992; Marsh, 2000). A totally or partially mol-
ten magma chamber can be recognised by geophysical methods due to
its size that usually is much larger than sheet intrusions and to its phys-
ical properties that differ from those of the host rock. Also, a completely
solidified, buried magma chamber usually has different properties than
the host rocks, which enable to recognise it. Solidified magma chambers
can have dimension spanning from tens of km3 (plutons) to small intru-
sions with size b 1 km3, which have been named differently in the past, in
relation to their shape. This can be from spherical to strongly ellipsoid or
tabular, and this geometric feature is very important since the shape of an
active magma chamber dictates the orientation of the stress exerted on
the host rock by magma overpressure (Gudmundsson, 2006, 2012).
The more complex plumbing systems can be composed of a plexus of in-
terconnected sills, inclined sheets, dykes and multiple magma chambers
(Hildreth, 1981; Lahr et al., 1994; Donoghue et al., 1995; La Delfa et al.,
2001; Preston, 2001; Dawson et al., 2004; Marsh, 2004; Sanchez et al.,
2004; Cartwright and Hansen, 2006).
3. Propagation and arrest of intrusive sheets
Magma propagation occurs along planes of weakness that are al-
ready present in the host rock, or along hydrofractures generated by
88 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135

internal fluid pressure. Hydrofractures are primarily extension fractures
whose propagation can be modelled as mode I cracks (extension normal
to the fracture wall) (Bahat, 1980; Gautneb et al., 1989; Gudmundsson
et al., 2001). Many studies have been devoted to understanding
hydrofractures in general and significant progress has been made on
dyke propagation in particular. Earlier papers proposed that a sufficient-
ly large buoyant force can cause fractures to propagate upwards
(Weertman, 1971; Secor and Pollard, 1975), whereas other studies did
not consider buoyancy (Spence and Sharp, 1985). From numerical
modelling, Spence et al. (1987) and Lister (1990) obtained a solution
of fracture surface displacement that results in the formation of a dyke
with a bulbous head and a constant width tail. Lister and Kerr (1991)
showed that magma moves along dykes under a local balance between
buoyancy forces and viscous pressure drop. Rubin (1993) and Chen
et al. (2007) modelled dyke propagation mainly based on a given source
pressure (see also Rubin, 1995a and references therein, and Roper and
Lister, 2005). Buoyancy and source pressure have been modelled by
Meriaux and Jaupart (1998) and Bonafede and Rivalta (1999). Analogue
modelling on magma-fracture propagation has been carried out for ex-
ample by Maaløe (1987), Takada (1990), Menand and Tait (2002), Ito
and Martel (2002) and Tibaldi et al. (2014).
These papers suggest that buoyancy forces or magma overpressure
can contribute to the propagation of hydrofractures to the surface,
although in most cases the fracture and the intrusive sheet are arrested
inside the rock succession. The resulting magma pressure induces stress
concentration at the tip that, in turn, creates the fracture. Numerical
models and field data suggest that the magma front should lag behind
the hydrofracture tip during its propagation, and thus there should be
a dry part of the fracture (Warpinski, 1985; Bonafede and Olivieri,
1995; Garagash and Detournay, 2000). Sometimes in the field it is pos-
sible to observe the fracture at the sheet tip that still hosts magma with
a considerably minor thickness, in the order of a few mm–cm (e.g.
Fig. 2A). Ahead of the tip, a hydrofracture opens if it has a suitable orien-
tation with respect to the surrounding stress field in the host rock, and if
the tensile stresses exceed the rock strength. If the rock succession is not
homogeneous and contains discontinuities and layers with different
mechanical properties, the tensile stress generated at the fracture tip
cannot be large enough to overcome the resistance to fracture propaga-
tion and the sheet can become arrested (e.g. Fig. 2B). Intrusive sheets
can stop when they meet: (1) discontinuities; (2) stress barriers; or
(3) rock layers with strongly contrasting Young's moduli. The opening
of discontinuities (1) with a different orientation from the propagating
sheet, can dissipate stresses; when a horizontal discontinuity, like a
bedding plane, is encountered at the contact ahead of a hydrofracture
tip, the hydrofracture may be unable to propagate through the horizon-
tal, open discontinuity (Gudmundsson and Brenner, 2001, 2005;

Fig. 2. A. Photo (left) and sketch (right) of a sheet showing a sudden decrease in thickness in correspondence of the hydrofracture propagated at its tip and initial intrusion along the frac-
ture; note that only a few centimetres of the fracture's length are dry (Skye Island, UK). B. Photo (left) and sketch (right) of a dyke arrested at the contact with a discontinuity (bedding) and
a layer with different mechanical properties (a thick lava flow) (Reunion Island).
 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135 89

Gudmundsson, 2002). (2) Stress barriers are layers with local stresses
unfavourable for intrusion propagation, such as layers that contain
stresses in excess of up to 5–10 MPa with respect to the adjacent
rocks (Gretener, 1969; Gudmundsson, 1986, 1990; Parsons et al.,
1992). Regarding point (3), ascending dykes can stop at the contact of
bedding layers with different mechanical properties, such as in the ex-
ample of Fig. 2B where a dyke is intruded into a succession of thin
(b20 cm) lava flows and dominant breccia layers and then stops at
the contact with the thick (~ 2 m) lava flow. Experiments also show
that soft layers can be more effective in arresting hydraulic fractures
than stiff layers (Charlez, 1997; Yew, 1997), as can be seen in the exam-
ple of Fig. 3A where an inclined sheet gradually splits into minor fingers
and finally becomes arrested within a soft layer media made of poorly
consolidated breccia deposits.
The termination of an intrusive sheet can have different shapes that
represent the diverse settings for the stoping of the fracture propagation

Fig. 3. Photos (left side) and sketches (right side) of: A. an inclined sheet that gradually splits into minor fingers and finally becomes arrested within poorly consolidated breccia deposits
(northwest coast, Sao Miguel, Azores Archipelago), since soft layers can be more effective at arresting hydraulic fractures than stiff layers (Charlez, 1997; Yew, 1997); B. a gently-dipping
sheet that terminates with a series of secondary intrusions (asymmetric fingers) that depart upward (Stromboli volcano, Italy); and C. an arrested steeply-dipping sheet with an upward
symmetric fanning arrangement (Ross Lake, Washington, USA).
90 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135

(Gudmundsson, 2003). The sheet can maintain a unique main plane
with a bulbous tip shape, or it can show sets of fingers that depart up-
ward (Fig. 3B) or in a fanning arrangement (Fig. 3C). The propagation
of fingers uses more mechanical energy on the processes of flow, dila-
tion, and deformation than the propagation by a continuous sheet ge-
ometry (Pollard et al., 1975) and thus can explain the arrest. Finger
formation may occur when local inhomogeneities in the rock mass
along the wall of the sheet tip are located ahead of the bulk of the intru-
sion, and the magma may accelerate at the inhomogeneity as it finds
less resistance there. Alternatively, fingers can form where there are
perturbations in the cooling distribution in the magma sheet and
lobes with higher temperatures advance as the others have a greater
viscosity (Wylie et al., 1999). A sheet can also change its geometry
into an en-échelon pattern expressed by individual fingers that
are oblique, in section view, with respect to the main sheet plane
(Fig. 4A). Sheet en-échelon segmentation commonly occurs in response
to stress field rotation at an angle to the principal stress directions, fre-
quently found approaching the surface, as also experimentally obtained
by Tibaldi et al. (2014) (Fig. 4B). En-échelon sheet fingers can show sys-
tematic step-overs between segments owing to tangential stress on
the sheet walls (Pollard, 1987). Segmentation may also reflect dyke
propagation through heterogeneous geological media with local devia-
tions of the stress field, and in this case the segments' step direction is
non-systematic (Daniels et al., 2012). In layered host rocks, overlapping
sheet segments may tend to link together by folding and thinning of the
rock between the overlapping segments (bridge) and by thickening of
the sheet, by a propagating crack that is usually straight. In isotropic
host rocks, the termination of the single sheet segment tends to bend to-
wards the adjacent segment, breaking the bridge (Fig. 4C); this occurs
because there is a mechanical interaction between the adjacent crack
tips, with the stress field at one tip altering the stress of the adjacent
propagating tip by inducing curved cracks (Nicholson and Pollard,
1985). At overlapping sheet segments, a local temperature decrease at
one sheet segment might hinder further magma propagation here and
coalescence at the adjoining segment, with the possible effect of disper-
sion of the magma overpressure and stoping of the intrusion propaga-
tion. However, if magma flux is high enough, the original bridge can
be completely cut across, resulting in the two original sheet segments
now linked (Fig. 4D) (‘bridge xenoliths’ of Rickwood, 1990). Inflation
can proceed until a complete coalescence has been reached and the con-
tinuous planar sheet configuration has been restored (Hutton, 2009;
Schofield et al., 2012).

Fig. 4. A. Photo of en-échelon fingers in section view departing from a single intrusive sheet (Skye Island, UK). B. Photo of an analogue model, physically scaled, of a sheet intrusion showing
the upward protrusion of en-échelon fingers approaching the free topographic surface; white and black boxes have 1 cm side. C. Photo (left side) and sketch (right side) of two partially
overlapping sheet segments whose tips bend towards the adjacent segment, typical of isotropic host rocks (Skye Island, UK). D. Photo (left side) and sketch (right side) of a bridge xenoliths
isolated by two partially overlapping sheet segments linked together (Skye Island, UK).
B. After Tibaldi et al. (2014).
 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135
4. Deep plumbing system
Information on the deeper part of magma plumbing systems mostly
comes from geophysical and petrological research. Outcrops of
the deeper portions of plumbing systems are extremely rare and
are not representative of the actual root zone, where melts start to as-
cend. Much research has been carried out on both felsic and mafic
root zones, resulting in different models also depending on magma
geochemistry.
4.1. Felsic magmas
In granitic systems, a classical view is that percentages within the
range 30–50% of melt fraction may allow for the mobilisation of zones
hundreds of metres in lateral extent (Wickham, 1987). For example,
in the Trois Seigneurs massif in the Pyrenees (France), metamorphic
rocks pass gradationally into migmatitic biotite–sillimanite gneisses
and then into a biotite granite–quartz diorite body (Wickham, 1987).
Within the metamorphic sequence there are ponds of granite with di-
ameters ranging from l m to l km across. Melting at 670–700 °C, 3.0–
4.0 kbar under water-rich conditions was followed by segregation and
movement of melt into fractures. When large enough, these bodies in-
truded the overlying metasediments, but were soon halted as they be-
came water-saturated. The zone of granite ponds corresponds to the
zone of partial melting, segregation and collection (a) in the division
of plumbing systems of Atherton (1993), above which there are the
transport zone (b) and the emplacement zone (c), where freezing oc-
curs (Fig. 5). In zone (a), with increasing melt proportion there is a
change of the mechanical properties of the rock melt that changes
from linearly-elastic to elastic–plastic and finally to viscous; this is
reflected in the flow behaviour that therefore will vary with melt frac-
tion, and thus in the formation of the deeper part of plumbing systems
(Shaw, 1965; Murase and McBirney, 1973; Shaw, 1980; Wickham,
1987). In the case of low melt content, small batches of magma will be
able to rise and will soon stop. In the case of large melt fraction, such
as for example in the case of high thermal gradients (80–100 °C/km),
large magma batches can ascend giving rise to huge plutons, especially
if associated with contemporaneous rifting or local extension related to
pull-apart structures or releasing bends within transcurrent shear zones
and the consequent horizontal regional ductile extension (Atherton,
1993). Similarly, also Zellmer (2008, 2009) based on global correlations
between eruptive style, surface heat flux and convergence rates at dif-
ferent volcanic arcs, infers that the rate of melt production in the mantle
wedge ultimately controls the deep dynamics of magma transfer.
From zone (a) of melt production, fluids should find their pathway
to move upwards through zone (b). Models of fluid transport in the lith-
osphere propose diapiric ascent or fluid flow through networks of
Fig. 5. Subdivision of a granitic plumbing system modified after Atherton (1993) for Cor-
dilleran setting, with: (a) zone of partial melting, segregation and collection; (b) transport
zone; and (c) emplacement zone where freezing occurs.
91
interconnected static microfractures (porosity networks). For the
lower crust, magma diapirism is thought to be a common mechanism
of magma transport (Whitehead and Luther, 1975; White and
Chappell, 1977; Pitcher, 1979; Hildreth, 1981; Marsh, 1982). In the
deeper section of plumbing systems, in fact, it is considered that the
thermal and pressure conditions are such as to allow for the ductile
flow of the host rock around the rising magma mass, whereas at
upper levels (middle to upper crust) this is regarded as thermally and
mechanically unrealistic. Moreover, the diapiric ascent model is also
controversial since numerical modelling indicates that magma solidifi-
cation should occur due to the slow ascent (Clemens and Mawer,
1992). The model of flow through porosity networks is accepted, for ex-
ample, in sediments at low confining pressures, but the model is
questioned for geopressured zones since it cannot explain all aspects
of the observed large-scale fluid flow (Nunn, 1996). The third model
of propagation relies on fluid-filled fractures and is considered valid
throughout the lithosphere. If diapirs rise in the lower crust, their up-
ward pressure can induce fracturing in the roof rocks, where fluid-
filled fractures can propagate much faster than diapirs, thus overcoming
the problem of time-dependant solidification.
Tectonics plays a major role not only in contributing to the creation
of heat flux conditions, but also in governing the weakness zones that
may favour magma upwelling. Several examples, mainly based on
field data, indicate that melt upwelling in the deeper parts of plumbing
systems was channelled along transcurrent zones (Mitjavila et al., 1997;
Olivier et al., 1999; Rossetti et al., 2000; Rosenberg, 2004; Weinberg
et al., 2004; Marcotte et al., 2005). This is mainly related to two facts:
(1) transcurrent faults are vertical shear zones that extend downward
to lower crustal levels, whereas reverse and thrust faults and normal
faults are less steep and tend to acquire a horizontal geometry with
depth (Fig. 6) (Davis et al., 1996) and (2) magma can enter ductile ex-
tensional jogs within shear zones as envisaged for example by Aydin
et al. (1990), D'Lemos et al. (1992) and Chiarabba et al. (2004a). Recent-
ly it has been suggested that even transpressional tectonics can be an ef-
ficient mechanism for moving magma through the lithosphere (Saint
Blanquat et al., 1998), although magma upwelling under transpression
might result in the movement of only a small volume of magma to the
surface (Marcotte et al., 2005), and finally an in-depth review by
Tibaldi et al. (2010) shows several examples of volcanism along
transpressional, transcurrent and transtensional fault zones. For felsic
magmas it is also interesting to note a close temporal relation between
peak anatexis and regional strike-slip displacements, suggesting that
strike-slip motions may initiate along zones that were thermally soft-
ened by anatexis and that regional tectonics and granite formation
may be inextricably linked processes (D'Lemos et al., 1992). Based on
this, the shape of granitic intrusions should be represented by elongated
vertical bodies with a horizontal major axis from parallel to sub-parallel
to the strike of a wrench zone (e.g. Farris et al., 2006). Notwithstanding
this, some authors indicate that granitic plutons are mostly thin with
aspect ratios (thickness to width) up to 1:15 and a flat shape (e.g.
Atherton, 1993). Geophysical and structural studies showed that some
plutons are sill-like, low aspect-ratio, tabular bodies (Bridgwater et al.,
1974; Lefort, 1981; Cruden, 1998; Petford et al., 2000), whereas
magma chambers and plutons are often represented as spherical bodies
(e.g. Pitcher, 1979).
The importance of major, deep crustal fracturing in triggering felsic
magma melting and assisting magma upwelling has been put forward
by many authors (e.g. Rittmann, 1962). They suggest that the deep
plumbing system of granitic magmas is dominated by intrusions that
frequently use vertical and horizontal extensional features linked to
strike-slip faulting as in the British Tertiary Province and Irish
Caledonides (Leake, 1990), at the Coastal Batholith of Peru (Pitcher,
1978), at the Main Donegal granite (Hutton, 1982), at the Peruvian
Cordillera Batholith (Petford and Atherton, 1992), in Scotland
(Watson, 1984), in southern Greenland (Harrison et al., 1990), and at
the Boulder and Tobacco Root Batholiths (Montana, USA, Schmidt
92 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135
Fig. 6. Deep magma plumbing system is conditioned also by the geometry of tectonic weakness zones that can channel magma flow. Transcurrent faults are vertical shear zones that extend
downward at lower crustal levels and can capture ascending magmas. On the contrary, reverse faults with their typical ramp and flat geometry tend to stop dykes or divert dykes into sills.
Finally, normal faults are shallower-dipping than strike-slip faults and tend to acquire a horizontal geometry with depth where they exert a lower influence on ascending magmas.
et al., 1990). Most authors thus agree that zone (b) (Fig. 5) of plumbing
system of granitic magmas should be characterised by sheet-like com-
plexes of intrusions that give rise to the conduit system below plutons,
the latter also being controlled by shear zones. This corresponds to the
mechanism of transport and emplacement in the middle crust.
In zone “c” of Atherton (1993) storage processes occur and most
magma is emplaced in the form of plutons. Storage includes a series of
mechanisms that can be summarised by two end-members, although
it is reasonable to consider that a spectrum of intermediate possibilities
exists. One end-member is represented by a plutonic body that results
from a single, connected and fairly closed batch of magma that freezes
while rising through the crust. This mechanism can also be viewed as
a diapir that has been disconnected from its source (Paterson et al.,
2010). The other end-member is represented by a plutonic body that
is a frozen part of a former complex plumbing system that remains ac-
tive for an extended duration. In this case the plumbing system is
huge, evolves over time, is used during several magma upwelling
events, and remobilises material from older pulses or from host rock
(Paterson et al., 2010). Pluton growth can be further complicated
by other processes such as: magma pulses moving back down the
magma pathway during rise of other pulses; loss of magma from the
plutonic system by volcanic eruptions; reheating of crystal mush
zones and consequent continuous movements in a magma conduit; in-
ternal differentiation processes. A long-lasting scientific discussion re-
volved around the question if magmas more commonly ascend by
continuous upwelling or by pulse-like flow. Abundant field evidence
suggests that the latter mechanism might be more common than previ-
ously thought; several sheeted dyke and sill complexes indicate that
plutonic bodies have been constructed through magma pulsing
(Pitcher and Berger, 1972; Hardee, 1982; Hutton, 1982; Lagarde et al.,
1990; Paterson and Vernon, 1995; McNulty et al., 1996; Vigneresse
and Bouchez, 1997; Paterson and Miller, 1998; Wiebe and Collins,
1998; Johnson et al., 1999; Miller and Paterson, 2001; Miller and
Miller, 2002; Memeti et al., 2010).
In the middle-upper crust, dyking is hence considered as the most
consistent magma transfer mechanism (Clemens and Mawer, 1992;
Clemens et al., 1997; Petford et al., 2000). Granite intrusion along ductile
extensional shear zones is considered the most suitable process for up-
welling and storage and this solves the room problem posed by pluton
emplacement by diapirism (Hutton et al., 1990). A model that instead
extends diapirism also to the middle crust is the one proposed by
Miller and Paterson (1999); these authors suggested that felsic
magma can rise and be emplaced as ‘visco-elastic diapirs’ through a se-
ries of multiple magma batches within regional tectonic deformation,
accompanied by downward movements of the host rocks through mul-
tiple processes including brittle deformation and stoping (Cabello et al.,
2006; Farris et al., 2006; Zak and Paterson, 2006). Recently, diapirism
has been extended up to the middle–upper crust by del Potro et al.
(2013) who, based on the inversion of high-resolution gravity data
beneath the Bolivia Altiplano, suggest that partially molten granitic bod-
ies ascend by way of a diapiric mechanism through the hot ductile crust.
4.2. Mafic magmas
In the case of mafic magma, the deep plumbing system is considered
to be governed by a higher mobility than in the case of a felsic magma at
parity of other conditions. Mafic magma is transported through cracks
in the lithosphere that give rise to swarms of dykes. These dykes can
be connected with deep to shallow magma chambers, or they may di-
rectly convey magma from the mantle towards the surface without a
shallow reservoir, as derived for example from the very high magma
supply rate of 0.7 km3/yr during the 1959 Kilauea Iki eruption
(Takada, 1999) respect to the values of 0.02 to 0.18 km3/yr during
1952–1983 (Dvorak and Dzurisin, 1993). Nevertheless, as for felsic
magmas, mafic magmas mostly also stop rising in the crust. Although
direct observations of exhumed deep intrusions are rare, some outcrops
indicate that mafic magma bodies emplaced within or at the base of the
lower crust, result from the accretion of successive magma pulses. For
example, a deep section of a mafic plumbing system has been exhumed
after orogenic uplift and erosion at the Ivrea mafic body in the Italian
Alps, where the evidence of individual pulses of magma can be directly
observed (Quick et al., 1994).
An explanation for the deep magma accumulation along a horizontal
zone was initially proposed by Ryan (1987) and Lister and Kerr (1991)
at the level of neutral buoyancy (LNB). Here it was retained that magma
density equals the density of the host rock and buoyancy becomes null,
favouring sill emplacement. This hypothesis was revised in more recent
years based on the fact that several dykes cut through the LNB and even
through rock successions with a lower density than magma. Sills in fact
can emplace due to other mechanical and physical conditions that will
be discussed later. If the magma supply rate is low, sills can freeze,
whereas if the magma supply rate is high, they may combine and result
in the formation of a magma chamber (Gudmundsson, 1990, 1995).
Once formed, the magma chamber can further stop other ascending
dykes, thus growing in size. Below continental crust, mafic magmas
can be trapped near the Moho or within the lower crust. Below oceanic
island volcanoes, it has been suggested that basaltic to gabbroid rocks
are denser than basaltic magmas and thus LNB conditions are not
reached within the lower crust. In this condition, a LNB can be present
a few kilometres below the volcano or even inside the volcanic edifice,
giving rise to very shallow magma chambers (Klügel et al., 2005).
Deep tabular horizontal sills have also been individuated by means of
seismic profiles: layering in the lower crust has been interpreted as
due to the presence of sills (Fuchs et al., 1987; Wenzel and Brun,
1991; Franke, 1992). Exposure of very deep lithospheric section at the
Oman Ophiolite shows that magma-induced fracturing and intrusion
propagation are common processes that occur even at the Moho level
(Nicolas et al., 1994).
 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135 93

The occurrence of mafic intrusions in the lower crust has also been
modelled by numerical simulations by several authors (Petford and
Gallagher, 2001; Annen and Sparks, 2002; Dufek and Bergantz, 2005;
Annen et al., 2006a), who showed that if the composition of the crust
in contact with the mafic intrusions is amphibolitic, partial melting of
the crust is very limited. This on one side implies that large quantities
of silicic melts can be generated by incomplete crystallisation of the in-
truded mafic magma (Dufek and Bergantz, 2005; Annen et al., 2006b),
and on the other side that a deeper plumbing system should preserve
its original architecture given by tabular intrusions, because the con-
tacts with the host rocks are subject to limited modifications. Dahm
(2000) modelled the possible deep plumbing system at convergent
margins. He found that fluid-filled fractures can propagate through
the inhomogeneous stress field of the asthenospheric mantle wedge
above a subduction zone. The magma paths depend on the dip angle
of the subducting slab, the distance from the wedge corner, the subduc-
tion velocity, the mantle viscosity, and the apparent buoyancy force of
dykes. In particular, dykes propagate upwards parallel to the slab if
the angle of subduction is N 45°, whereas dykes are bended in sub-
horizontal curved sills, and thus magma is trapped without reaching
the lithospheric layer, in the case of shallow subduction angles (Dahm,
2000).
More information comes from recent geophysical studies that allow
imaging of the entire crust down to the source region of the magma in
the uppermost mantle, as for example at the deep plumbing system of
Mt Etna volcano; Chiarabba et al. (2004b) show the structure beneath
Mt Etna down to a depth of 24 km through tomographic inversions of
P- and S-wave arrival times from local earthquakes (Fig. 7). Tomogra-
phy shows the lower plumbing system made by a main narrow conduit
zone, 4–6 km long, beneath the central part of the volcano between 9
and 18 km of depth, and a wide region of low Vp in the uppermost man-
tle (below 34 km of depth) associated with the magma source region.
The upper plumbing system is characterised by an intrusive complex
below the southern craters and the Valle del Bove, and another complex
extending between 3 and 9 km of depth and 8–10 km in length beneath
the central and eastern sectors of the volcano.
At Kilauea Volcano (Hawaii) several studies have been carried out on
the plumbing system in the last 45 years. Wright (1971) suggested a
vertical plumbing system located below the summit zone of Kilauea
with a shallow magma chamber at a few km depth, a storage zone at
20–25 km of depth, and a region of partial melting at 65 km of depth.
These features account for the high pressure crystal fractionation
emphasised by Clague (1987) and the xenolith populations in the
lavas that require a magma reservoir at the base of the oceanic crust.
The presence of a magma chamber at a depth N 16 km has been sug-
gested also by Frey et al. (1990) based on geochemical data. One of
the first and most complete models of the Kilauea plumbing system
was presented by Ryan (1988), who outlined the presence of a deep
main conduit zone located down to a depth of 60 km below the summit
zone of the volcano (Fig. 8). This conduit is elongated and probably is
composed of a series of vertical and sub-vertical dykes which are linked
to a long feeding system located in the uppermost kilometres below the
volcanic rift. Based on microgravimetry data, it appears that the dense
central core of the volcano extends south of the summit, implying a
structural continuity between the Southwest Rift Zone and the East
Rift Zone (Kauahikaua et al., 2000). The surface of the dense core
beneath the East Rift Zone is steeper to the south than to the north,
suggesting southward migration of more recent eruptive activity
(Kauahikaua, 1993). Microgravimetry also suggests possible connec-
tions of the plumbing system at depths of 10–14 km between different
volcanoes of the Island of Hawaii. These connections reach a depth com-
patible with the oceanic crust and their existence would suggest that
magma may have exploited linear zones of weakness in the oceanic
plate before the conduits became separated, or that island-building vol-
canoes can originate along the rift zones of older volcanoes (Kauahikaua
et al., 2000). The main conduits of Kilauea are punctuated by a series of
flat bodies that represent various magma chambers highlighted by
aseismic zones. The maximum volume of the aseismic zone is 40 km3

Fig. 7. The deep plumbing system of Mt Etna (Italy) has been revealed by tomographic inversions of P- and S-wave arrival times from local earthquakes down to 24 km depth. Two to-
mographic sections (oriented SSE–NNW and SW–NE) show the presence of a high velocity body (HVB) interpreted as a main solidified intrusive body. Magma intrusions prevalently affect
the western and north-western border of the HVB, following NNW–SSE and NE–SW structures.
After Chiarabba et al. (2004b), reproduced under license number 3490690796656 of Oct 16, 2014.
94 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135

Fig. 8. One of the first and most complete models of the Kilauea plumbing system was presented by Ryan (1988), who outlined the presence of a deep main conduit zone located down to a
depth of 60 km below the summit zone of the volcano. This elongated conduit is composed of a series of vertical and sub-vertical dykes which are linked to a long feeding system located in
the uppermost kilometres below the volcanic rift.
Reproduced under license number 3490680301921 of Oct 16, 2014.

(Klein et al., 1987); however, it must be noted that an aseismic zone
may include a crystal-mush zone and a hot, ductile region surrounding
the magma reservoir. More recent studies showed that rapid variations
of 206Pb/204Pb isotopes on a time scale of years to decades require short-
term changes in the pathway that melt takes from the source zone to
surface (Greene et al., 2013, and references therein). This suggests
that the plumbing system is more complicated than expected and that
it might be made of interconnected conduits with various geometries.
Moreover, the integration of previous geophysical and geochemical
data with new findings suggests the presence of a deeper magma cham-
ber at about 10–12 km depth (Lin et al., 2014), another at 3–5 km depth
(Fiske and Kinoshita, 1969; Klein et al., 1987), and a shallow chamber at
about 1 km depth (Cervelli and Miklius, 2003; Johnson et al., 2010).
As opposed to the geometry of the plumbing systems of Mt Etna
and Kilauea volcanoes, geophysical studies at the Shinmoe–Dake volca-
no, Japan, indicate the presence of a magma feeding system with a gen-
eral oblique dip (Fig. 9A). Magnetotelluric data from Aizawa et al.
(2014) combined with petrographic data show the presence of a deep
basaltic–andesitic magma chamber located in an offset position from
this volcano at a depth N 10 km. Evidence from the 2011 eruption sug-
gests that magma migrated towards the volcano along inclined path-
ways. These pathways coincide with a conductor zone located through
resistivity analyses. This type of deep to medium-depth magmatic sys-
tem implies a component of lateral transport of magma and contributes
to the recent discussion on magma chambers that are in an offset posi-
tion from the volcanoes they are connected with. Another recent exam-
ple comes from Ishizuka et al. (2008) who found geophysical and
petrological evidence of long-distance lateral horizontal magma trans-
port below the submarine/subaerial volcanic chain of the northern Izu
arc (Fig. 9B). Lava outpoured in different parts of the chain resulted to
come from the same basaltic primary magma, and this suggests that
magma was laterally transported for at least 20 km in the middle to
lower crust (10–20 km deep here). Later on, the same magmas experi-
enced crystal fractionation and accumulation at a shallow magma
chamber with further transport at distance b 5 km. Ishizuka et al.
(2008) also suggested that the long-distance magma transport has
been controlled by a regional extensional stress regime, while the
shorter (b5 km) distance transport has been controlled by a local stress
 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135 95

Fig. 9. Models of oblique and horizontal deep magma plumbing systems. A. Geophysical studies at the Shinmoe–Dake volcano, Japan indicate the presence of a magma feeding system with
a general oblique dip. Magnetotelluric data from Aizawa et al. (2014) combined with petrographic data show the presence of a deep basaltic–andesitic magma chamber located in an offset
position from this volcano at a depth N 10 km. Evidence from the 2011 eruption suggests that the magma migrated towards the volcano along inclined pathways. B. Ishizuka et al. (2008)
found evidence of long-distance lateral horizontal magma transport below the submarine/subaerial volcanic chain of the northern Izu arc: lava emitted in different parts of the chain re-
sulted to derive from the same basaltic primary magma; this enabled to conclude that magma was laterally transported for at least 20 km in the middle to lower crust (10–20 km deep).
Later on, the same magmas experienced crystal fractionation and accumulation at shallow magma chamber with further transport at distance b5 km.

regime linked to the load of the volcanic chain. Similarly, significant
lateral magma migration, in the order of ~ 15 km, has been found at
El Hierro Island (Canary Archipelago) during the July–October 2011
seismic–volcanic crisis (González et al., 2013). On October 2011, a sub-
marine fissure eruption occurred at a distance of 15 km from the initial
earthquake loci. Geodetic analysis reveals two distinct shallow magma
reservoirs, at 9.5 ± 4.0 km and 4.5 ± 2.0 km, vertically offset from
one another and linked by vertical conduits.
5. Shallow plumbing system
The shallow part of plumbing systems, that is to say the first
kilometres below volcanoes, is better constrained than the deeper part
due to the larger accessibility of outcrops at eroded volcanoes and to
more feasible geophysical studies. The plumbing system can go from
very simple dyke complex, made of tens to thousands parallel vertical
dykes that link the magma chamber to the uppermost volcano conduit,
to a very complex intrusive plexus made of dykes, sills and inclined
sheets, which interconnect multiple shallow magma chambers. For a
long time it has been believed that the simpler kind of plumbing system
without shallow chambers can be found at oceanic island volcanoes, but
more recent observations indicate the opposite (Amelung and Day,
2002; Klügel et al., 2005; González et al., 2013). The possible absence
of shallow magma chambers has been interpreted as due to local pro-
cesses that can modify the structure of a volcano such as catastrophic
flank collapses (Amelung and Day, 2002; Tibaldi, 2004; Tibaldi et al.,
2008a, 2008b, 2008c; Manconi et al., 2009) or due to poor knowledge
of the subvolcanic system.
At El Hierro Island (Canary archipelago), geodetic data indicate the
presence of a shallow magma reservoir at a depth of 4.5 ± 2.0 km be-
neath the volcano flank of the southern rift (Gonzalez et al., 2013), al-
though a deeper chamber has been suggested by Becerril et al. (2013).
At the Island of Hawaii, beneath Kilauea Volcano there are two main
magma storage zones at shallow level, at ~ 1 km and ~ 3 km depth
(Cervelli and Miklius, 2003; Baker and Amelung, 2012). At Piton de la
Fournaise, two active magma chambers have been detected at ~ 2.5
and ~7 km of depth (Peltier et al., 2009). The Fernandina Island volcano
(Galápagos Islands) has two levels of magma storage at depths of ~ 1
and ~ 5 km (Chadwick et al., 2011; Bagnardi and Amelung, 2012).
Other volcanoes of the Galápagos Islands have a single shallow crustal
magma reservoir, detected geodetically, such as at Alcedo, Cerro Azul,
Darwin, Sierra Negra, and Wolf volcanoes. The existence of shallow
magma chambers has been attributed to the existence of a high melt
supply rate from the deep mantle by Clague and Dixon (2000).
González et al. (2013) suggest that at the Canary Islands the high melt
supply rate is not enough for the existence of shallow magma reservoir,
because the volcanoes of this archipelago have the lowest magma
supply rates for oceanic island volcanoes (~ 0.0002 km/yr, Amelung
and Day, 2002). Hildner et al. (2012) proposed that the age of the un-
derlying lithosphere could control the presence of one or more cham-
bers within the upper part of the plumbing system, because the older
oceanic lithosphere is much cooler and denser and tends to sink due
to advanced thermal contraction together with a deepening of the
magma chambers. González et al. (2013) similarly suggested that
the main controlling factor is the thermomechanical structure of the
crust, which in turn depends on the deep mantle magma supply rate
and on the age of the oceanic lithosphere. Fialko and Rubin (1998)
and Grandin et al. (2012) claimed that the presence of double shallow
magma chambers is linked to the presence of two horizons of neutral
buoyancy, where magma accumulation occurs preferentially and its lat-
eral migration is facilitated, giving rise to eruptions along rift zones. The
deeper horizon associated with olivine-rich cumulates exists, for exam-
ple, at a depth of 6–10 km for Hawaii and at ~9.5 km at El Hierro, and a
shallower one at 2–4 km at Hawaii and ~ 4.5 km at El Hierro (Ryan,
1988; González et al., 2013).
Shallow magma chambers have been detected also at several eroded
volcanoes for example in the British Tertiary Igneous Province (United
Kingdom and Ireland) and in Iceland (Walker, 1958, 1960; Bald et al.,
1971; Walker, 1974, 1975; Fridleifsson, 1977; Gudmundsson, 1990,
1995, 2002; Klausen, 2004, 2006; Tibaldi and Pasquarè, 2008; Tibaldi
et al., 2011). These chambers may host magma with the same pressure
as the host rock and in this case their presence does not perturb sensibly
the surrounding stress field. However, the presence of magma is linked
to high temperatures and a different rheology than the host rock, condi-
tions that can perturb the propagation of dykes from below (Karlstrom
et al., 2010). Chambers that instead are significantly overpressured with
respect to the stress in the host rock can perturb the stress field in the
surrounding region; below the chamber there may be a rock volume in-
side which the stress produced by magma forces is large enough to per-
turb the trajectories of rising dykes, focusing them towards the magma
chamber (Fig. 10A) (Karlstrom et al., 2009), although, as far as I know,
there are no field examples of such focusing below eroded magma
chambers.
On the contrary, there are plenty of examples of the structure of
plumbing systems immediately above shallow magma chambers, espe-
cially in the case of mafic magmas. These plumbing systems are made of
swarms of inclined sheets that have a typical arrangement consisting in
variable dips that tend to converge on a central area. The definition of
inclined sheet was first used by Harker (1904) for intrusions at Skye,
while the term “cone sheet” was later introduced by Bailey et al.
(1924) to describe the occurrence of sheets arranged in a conical
swarm geometry around a main intrusion. Diverse models have been
introduced to explain the formation of cone sheets, which have been
widely studied due to their importance in magma transport, also
96 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135

Fig. 10. Chambers that are significantly overpressured with respect to the stresses in the host rock can perturb the stress field in the surrounding region. A. Below the chamber there may be
a rock volume inside which stresses produced by magma force are large enough to perturb the trajectories of rising dykes, focusing them towards the magma chamber. B. Boundary el-
ement results showing a pressurised spherical magma chamber with an internal magmatic excess pressure of 5 MPa as the only loading; the trajectories of the greatest principal stress
depart at the right angle from the chamber walls, creating a radial pattern.
A. Redrawn after Karlstrom et al. (2009). B. Redrawn after Gudmundsson (1998).

laterally from the central zone of a volcano; cone sheets are crucial also
in terms of the possibility of locating the magma chamber based on their
geometry and of the fact that the piecemeal intrusion of hundreds of in-
clined sheets induces a major upward deformation of the host rock (Le
Bas, 1971). Bailey et al. (1924) suggested that any increase in the pres-
sure of a magma reservoir at depth would superimpose a tensional re-
gime on the host rock and favour the formation of inward-dipping
fractures, the intrusion of which produces cone sheets (Fig. 11A). A de-
crease in the magma chamber pressure instead may promote instability
in the roof rock resulting in subsidence along outward-dipping or sub-
vertical fractures, the intrusion of which produces “ring dykes”
(Fig. 11B) (Bailey et al., 1924). Anderson (1936) considered that ring
dykes should be emplaced along shear fractures that dip outward in
the range of 60–70° becoming shallower upward. Robson and Barr
(1964) and Durrance (1967) put forward the importance of shear
planes in guiding the emplacement of cone sheets, although now it is
recognised that most sheets occupy extensional fractures. The model
of Phillips (1974) suggests that cone sheets are restricted to a concentric
swarm departing from the shoulders of a magma chamber and follow-
ing shear fractures, and thus they are missing above the centre of the
magma chamber, something usually different in the field (Fig. 11C).
Shear fractures form as rotational strain develops along inward-
dipping strips that delimit roof uplifts relative to the immobile side
regions. Phillips (1974) also suggested that cone sheets could extend
upward in sub-vertical shear fractures with a bowl-like geometry
(Fig. 12) or they may curve into sub-horizontal sills upwards with a
trumpet-shape (Fig. 12). In the present paper I prefer to use the term
“centrally-inclined sheet swarm” because it is more descriptive and
does not bear reference to the previous cone sheet models.
Within a centrally-inclined sheet swarm, the sheet dip may vary
from one sheet to another and also at the same sheet. Anyway, it is
worth noting that outcrops of centrally-inclined sheet swarms are usu-
ally limited in lateral/vertical extent and different geometries of inclined
sheets can be found; accordingly, different models are proposed to
explain them. These models put forward: (1) concave-downward
(trumpet-shaped) sheets with increasing dip closer to the magmatic
source (Fig. 12A) (Phillips, 1974); in this model, sheets are missing in
the central part; (2) concave-upward (bowl-shaped) sheets with de-
creasing sheet dip with depth from a pressurised magma chamber
(Fig. 12B) (Phillips, 1974); also here, sheets are missing in the central
part; (3) radial planar sheets from a spherical magma chamber
(Fig. 12C) (Chadwick and Dieterich, 1995; Gudmundsson, 1998);
and (4) planar parallel to sub-parallel sheets originated from a lobate
(sill-like) magma chamber (Fig. 12D) (Gudmundsson, 1998; Tibaldi
et al., 2011; Bistacchi et al., 2012).
In westernmost Iceland, along the southern coast of the Snaefellsnes
Peninsula that is essentially made up of Tertiary–Quaternary basalts,
there are two major intrusions, each surrounded by a centrally-
inclined sheet swarm. The intrusions correspond to the Midhyrna gab-
bro and Lysuskard granophyre (Upton and Wright, 1961) and both in-
truded Tertiary basaltic lava flows. The Midhyrna and Lysuskard
intrusions are surrounded and intruded by two centrally-dipping
sheet swarms (Fig. 13A) (Tibaldi et al., 2013); these sheets show no
gradual variation in dip with distance from the focus area, are rectilinear
in section view, and intrude with the same geometry the main intrusive
bodies as well as the layered Tertiary lavas (Fig. 13B). The diameter of
both sheet swarms is about 12 km, the average sheet thickness is
0.63 m, and the average dip is 28° (Tibaldi et al., 2013), lower than
 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135 97

Fig. 11. Models of cone sheet and ring dyke emplacement in a vertical section view: A. an expanding magma chamber induces a radial σ1 (continuous lines) and concentric σ3 (segmented
lines) parallel to the vertical section view, cone sheets are emplaced along tension fractures (diverging arrows). B. Magma chamber deflation induces shear zones at the periphery along
which ring dykes may intrude. C. An expanding magma chamber produces tensional fractures (diverging arrow) along which cone sheets may intrude with a downward-concave shape,
and/or shear zones with rotational strain along which cone sheets may intrude with an upward-concave shape. Note that emplacement of cone sheets is not foreseen above the central part
of the magma chamber.
A. and B. Modified after Bailey et al. (1924) and Anderson (1936). C. Modified after Phillips (1974).

other sheet swarms in Iceland whose average dip is 34°. Farther south
there is the Thverfell centrally-inclined sheet swarm that was emplaced
mostly within almost isotropic hyaloclastite deposits (Pasquarè and
Tibaldi, 2007; Tibaldi et al., 2008c) (Fig. 14). Also in this case the sheets
do not show a systematic dip decrease outwards from the focus zone.
The Cuillin Igneous Complex in the Island of Skye (UK) represents
the deep core of a Tertiary, large basaltic volcano. It is composed of
coarse-grained layered and unlayered basic and ultrabasic huge intru-
sive bodies that are in turn intruded by centrally-inclined sheets. The
overlying succession that forms the original volcano, up to a thickness
of 2 km, has been eroded. Bell et al. (1994) stated that centrally-
inclined sheet magmas were generated by large degrees of partial melt-
ing of a depleted mantle source, combined with assimilation of Lewisian
gneisses, and fractional crystallisation that occurred in a magma cham-
ber subjacent to the final site of emplacement and undergoing periodic
replenishment. Also in this case, the about one thousand sheets mea-
sured do not show a systematic variation of dip angle with distance
from the focus zone (Tibaldi et al., 2011) as can be seen in Fig. 15. It is
98 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135

Fig. 12. Possible geometries of centrally-inclined sheet swarms resulting from internal excess magma pressure: A. radial planar sheets from a spherical magma chamber; B. concave-up-
ward (bowl-shaped) sheets from a spherical magma chamber; C. concave-downward (trumpet-shaped) sheets from a sill-shaped magma chamber; and D. planar parallel sheets from a
laccolith-like chamber.
A. After Chadwick and Dieterich (1995) and Gudmundsson (1998). B. After Chadwick and Dieterich (1995) and Gudmundsson (1998). C. After Phillips (1974) and Chadwick and Dieterich
(1995). D. After Bistacchi et al. (2012).

particularly worth noting the similarity of the average dip of the in-
clined sheets near the centre of the swarm with respect to those
cropping out at the periphery. This is also quantified by the distribution
of sheet dip measured along four transects across the whole swarm
(Fig. 16). Also at the Tejeda complex, in the island of Gran Canaria,
there is a centrally-inclined sheet swarm with homogeneous dip angles
measured across the whole swarm (Fig. 17). Schirnick et al. (1999)
interpreted this architecture of the centrally-inclined sheets as the effect
of magma forces exerted by an ellipsoidic magma chamber with a flat
upper surface. Also seismic observations (e.g., Barker and Malone,
1991; White et al., 2008) and geodetic inversions from active volcanic
areas (e.g., Newman et al., 2006) suggest an ellipsoidal shape for
magma chambers located at a few kilometres depth. At Ardnamurchan
(NW Scotland) there is a centrally-inclined sheet swarm with a

Fig. 13. A. Photo of the western centrally-dipping sheet swarm of the Lysuskard–Midhyrna intrusions. B. Graph of sheet dip angle vs. distance from the centre of each centrally-dipping
sheet swarm: box and circles represent the data of the two swarms; note that these sheets show no gradual variation in dip attitude with distance from the focus area, are rectilinear
in section view, and intrude with the same geometry the main intrusive bodies as well as the layered Tertiary lavas. Box shows the location.
A. Modified after Tibaldi et al. (2013).
 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135
Fig. 14. A. Photo of the western part of Thverfell (Iceland) centrally-inclined sheet swarm: note the constant dip angle of the sheets. B. Photo and C. sketch of part of the sheet swarm where
it is possible to observe that some of the intrusions cross the boundary between lava flows and the underlying hyaloclastite breccias. Box shows the location.
diameter of 18 km (Richey and Thomas, 1930; Emeleus, 2009). This ex-
ample has been recently used by Magee et al. (2012) to question the for-
mation of this sheet pattern by proposing an alternative model. These
authors claimed that the Ardnamurchan sheet swarm may be linked
to laterally propagating regional dykes, sourced from laterally adjacent
magmatic systems, which are deflected around a central complex by
stress field interference.
Since the geometry and location of centrally-inclined sheet
swarms is considered as mainly dependant from the geometry of the
overpressured magma chamber, it is important to quantify the maxi-
mum distance the sheets can reach. In fact, if the stress exerted by the
magma chamber overpressure on the surrounding rock guides the de-
velopment of these inclined sheets, we can estimate the distance by
which this stress dominates. I have collected most of the available
data on well exposed centrally-inclined sheet swarms in order to evalu-
ate their width (Fig. 18A). Here it is possible to see that most swarms
have diameters ranging from a minimum of 5 km to a maximum of
20 km, with an average value of 12.3 km. In order to quantify also
the typical thickness of centrally-inclined sheets, I collected data
from different locations in Iceland and in the British Isles and
summarised them in the graph of Fig. 18B. In this graph it is possible
to observe the distribution of dip angles and thickness for a population
of 2340 sheets, with the larger number of intrusions with dip angles in
the range of 20–65° and thickness of 0.2–1.8 m (largest thickness up
to 10–12 m). It has been shown that in some centrally-inclined sheet
swarms, shallower-dipping sheets are thinner than steeper-dipping
sheets (Gudmundsson, 2003), which is not consistent with the data pre-
sented above. This might be due to the fact that it has been carefully
avoided to include in the sheet population of Fig. 18B any steeply-
inclined sheets that might in reality represent regional dykes, which is
to say to intrusions that are not related to the central magma chamber.
Regional dykes, in fact, are much thicker in average than inclined sheets
linked to local magma chambers: In Iceland, for example, regional dykes
99
vary in thickness from a few centimetres to about 60 m, with a mean
thickness of 2–6 m (Gudmundsson et al., in press). The data of
Fig. 18B indicate that the average dip angle is 41° and the average thick-
ness is 0.93 m. The average inclined sheet dip angle in the British Isles
has been found at ~45° (Billings, 1972; Hills, 1972), and at Gran Canaria
at ~41° (Schirnick et al., 1999), and at some individual sheet swarms in
Iceland at 34° (Gudmundsson et al. 1996). The average sheet thickness
of 0.93 m found from the data of Fig. 18B is larger than the one found
in some individual swarm in Iceland, which is around 0.1 m
(Gudmundsson et al., 1996) but identical to the average thickness of
the 1128 sheets in the Thverartindur Central Volcano (Klausen, 2004).
These field examples indicate the effects of overpressured magma
chambers on the overlying host rock. These data can be compared
with numerical modelling that takes into account the variation in the
stress field around an overpressured magma chamber. This overpres-
sure can develop through a series of different causes that include injec-
tion of new magma from below into the chamber, volatile exsolution,
melting or solidification of wall rocks, and magmatic differentiation
(Tait et al., 1989; Folch and Martì, 1998; Annen and Sparks, 2002). The
overpressure considered large enough to produce fracture in the cham-
ber walls and propagation of intrusive sheets depends on the criterion
of rock rupture; Sartoris et al. (1990) considered a value of 1–10 MPa
large enough to exceed the tensile strength of the surrounding rocks
under a tensile mechanism of rupture, a value adopted also by other au-
thors (e.g. Atkinson and Meredith, 1987; Gudmundsson, 1988). Other
authors suggest that this is likely an underestimation (e.g. Karlstrom
et al., 2009) and proposed greater values (10–100 MPa) based on ther-
mal considerations of long-distance dyke propagation and on the com-
position and tectonic settings of the chamber (Rubin, 1995b; Jellinek
and DePaolo, 2003).
A pressurised magma chamber changes the overall stress pattern of
the host rock significantly, as shown by numerical and analogue model-
ling (e.g. McLeod and Tait, 1999). In the case of a pressurised spherical
100 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135

Fig. 15. Photos of the centrally-inclined sheets at the Cuillin Igneous Complex at the Isle of Skye (UK). Note that the sheets have the average dip angle both in the core of the swarm
(A) where the highest frequency of intrusion is observed, and in the peripheral part (C). B. Location of the photos.

magma chamber, boundary element results show – in the case of inter-
nal magmatic excess pressure of 5 MPa as the only loading – that the
trajectories of the greatest principal stress (σ1, ticks) depart at right
angle from the chamber walls, creating a radial pattern in section view
(Fig. 10B) (Gudmundsson, 1998). Based on the work of Anderson
(1951), it is commonly assumed that magma paths select the orienta-
tion of “least resistance” by opening along planes across which the
normal stress is the lowest. The consequence is that magma paths fol-
low and trace trajectories perpendicular to σ3 within the stress field oc-
curring before sheet propagation (Stevens, 1911; Anderson, 1936, 1938;
Odé, 1957). This conclusion has been questioned by McKenzie et al.
(1992) and Meriaux and Lister (2002) who pointed out that several
theoretical works ignored the fact that dykes radically alter the sur-
rounding stress field as they propagate. Meriaux and Lister (2002)
concluded that neglecting the dyke effect gives in any case good quali-
tative agreement in the pattern of principal-stress trajectories, but sub-
stantially different estimates of the stresses. Based on the above, it can
be assumed that magma escaping from the chamber walls should follow
the direction of less resistance giving rise to intrusive sheets that prop-
agate along planes that contain σ1 and σ2 (i.e. normal to σ3). Fig. 10C
shows the boundary element results of the stress field around a vertical
section of a spherical magma chamber subject to remote horizontal ten-
sile stress of 5 MPa as the only loading. The trajectories of the σ1 are
mostly vertical to sub-vertical suggesting that dykes departing from
the magma chamber have a vertical geometry at a short distance.
Fig. 10D presents the same setting as in Fig. 10A but with a flat
magma chamber (laccolith-like shape). Although we are aware of the
limitation of considering only magma overpressure as the acting stress,
 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135 101

Fig. 16. Distribution of the sheet dip angles measured along four transects across the whole centrally-inclined sheet swarm of the Cuillin Complex (Island of Skye, UK). Note the similarity
between the average dip angle of the inclined sheets near the centre of the swarm and those cropping out at the periphery.
Redrawn after Tibaldi et al. (2011).

this example is useful to discern the contribution of the magma cham-
ber force in dictating the intrusive sheets pattern. In this case in fact,
the trajectories of σ1 above the magma chamber are mostly parallel to
each other, due to the flat upper surface of the chamber, resulting in a
series of inclined sheets whose dip angle does not vary significantly.
As a matter of fact, the host rock is subject to further stresses of dif-
ferent origins, including the lithostatic component and the tectonic
component of the regional far field; Russo et al. (1996, 1997), Russo
and Giberti (2000), van Wyk de Vries and Matela (1998), Grosfils
(2007) and Martì and Geyer (2009) present numerical models where
the gravitational body force and tectonic boundary stresses are consid-
ered together with the stresses transmitted by the magma chamber.
Bistacchi et al. (2012), in particular, focused on the possible trajectories
of intrusive sheets modelled under a total stress field resulting from
three components of boundary forces (Ranalli, 1995): (1) the superpo-
sition of diverse magma overpressures in the magma chamber; (2) the
presence of different free topographic surfaces ranging from a flat to-
pography to a positive topography, simulating the load of a volcanic ed-
ifice, or to a negative surface corresponding to a caldera; (3) regional
tectonics with diverse remote stresses, plus a body force (4) corre-
sponding to gravitational acceleration. The analysis used a set of
quasi-static Finite Element Method mechanical models that showed
the configuration of the resulting stress field (Fig. 19) under diverse
pressures in an oblate magma chamber. With negative values, which
correspond to a deflating chamber, the trajectories of σ1 dip outwards
with respect to the magma chamber. Assuming the case of intrusive
sheets that follow paths corresponding to surfaces perpendicular to
σ3 (thus containing σ1 and σ2), this case corresponds to the forma-
tion of a ring dyke complex. When σ3 is low, the dip of ring dykes
at 2–3 km depth is 65–80°. Within a distance from the central axis
of about 1–1.2 diameters of the magma chamber, radial dykes are
favoured for intermediate overpressures, and centrally-inclined sheets
dominate in the axial domain for higher (≥10 MPa) overpressures.
The dip angles of centrally-inclined sheets are predicted in the
range 45–65° for overpressure ≥ 20 MPa. In all cases, radial dykes
dominate beyond the 1–1.2 diameter limit. By simulating different
depths of magma chamber in the range 2–3.5 km, the only difference
is that inclined stress trajectories consistent with centrally-inclined
sheets appear for lower overpressures in the case of a shallower
magma chamber. By using different possible shapes of topography,
results of stress trajectories at 2–3 km depth do not vary sensibly,
apart when there is a caldera depression that produces variation in
the trajectories. At shallower depths, the topography influence in-
creases. The effect of an increasing gravitational force or of an increas-
ing regional extensional tectonics is to steepen the sheets above the
magma chamber, whereas the effect of increasing magma overpres-
sure (in the case of a chamber with a lobate shape) or increasing re-
gional horizontal compression is to decrease the sheet dip angle.
In the field, it has been frequently observed that centrally-inclined
sheets are associated with radial dykes; this can be clearly seen, for

Fig. 17. Geological–structural section of the Tejeda complex, on the island of Gran Canaria, with a centrally-inclined sheet swarm that shows homogeneous dip angles across the whole
swarm. The authors interpreted the geometry of the centrally-inclined sheets as the effect of the magma force exerted by an ellipsoidic magma chamber with a flat upper surface.
Redrawn after Schirnic et al. (1999).
102 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135

Fig. 18. A. Graph of the diameter of well exposed centrally-inclined sheet swarms; it is possible to note that most swarms have a diameter that ranges from a minimum of 5 km to a max-
imum of 20 km, with an average value of 12.3 km. B. Graph of the distribution of dip angles (X axis) and thickness (Y axis) of 2340 sheets surveyed at the centrally-inclined sheet systems of
Iceland and British Islands (Ardnamurchan). Note the larger number of intrusions with dip angles in the range of 20–65° and thickness of 0.2–1.8 m.
B. Data after Magee et al. (2012).

example, at the Cuillin Complex centrally-inclined sheet swarm at Skye
Island (UK), where Tibaldi et al. (2011) recognised three zones with dif-
ferent characteristics: (1) a central zone in the core of the centrally-
inclined sheet swarm where inclined sheets dominate; (2) a more
external zone where inclined sheets coexist with vertical dykes; and
(3) an outer zone where dykes dominate (Fig. 20). In zone 2) several
generations of dykes are interleaved with generations of inclined sheets,
suggesting quick changes in the state of stress and consequent geome-
try of intrusion. These field data are consistent with the above described
numerical models in which the geometry of intrusions above a magma
chamber changes at a critical distance that depends on the state of stress
resulting from the combination of the various sources. In zone 1) the
paths of the intrusive sheets are controlled by the magma chamber
overpressure. In zone 2) the intrusive paths can rapidly change follow-
ing pulsations of the magma chamber: with large inflation the zone of
centrally-inclined sheets expand outwards, whereas with a decrease
of the overpressure, the magma chamber influence decreases and
dykes develop. In zone 3) the regional background stress dominates
and intrusive sheets departing form the same magma chamber assume
a dyke-like geometry. Galland et al. (2014), based on analogue models,
suggested that the shift from cone sheets to dykes is controlled by the
magma dynamics expressed by the ratio between the viscous stresses
in the flowing magma to the host rock strength; dykes form preferen-
tially when their magma source is deep compared to its size, or when
magma influx rate (or viscosity) is low, and vice-versa for cone sheets.
Some analogue models show that these cone sheets can depart from
dykes, although field data are necessary to confirm this hypothesis.
The importance of considering the possible effects of the velocity of
magma upwelling is reinforced by the fact that it is becoming clear
that very diverse values are possible for both mafic and felsic magmas;
values from 10− 4 to 10−2 m/s have been classically considered
(Huppert and Sparks, 1981; Sparks et al., 1984), although recent find-
ings show that values up to 11–17 m/s for basaltic magmas are possible
(Lloyd et al., 2014), as well as for andesitic magmas from 10− 3 to
10−2 m/s (Ruprecht and Plank, 2013) and up to 1 m/s even for rhyolitic
magmas (Castro and Dingwell, 2009).
All this description assumes that intrusive sheets follow planes of
fracturing that contain σ1 and σ2. Some field evidence shows another
possibility: at the Isle of Skye it has been observed that some inclined
sheet intruded along shear planes, although the great majority followed
fractures with an opening mode I (Fig. 21). Lower angle shear planes
show normal motions, whereas steeper planes have reverse motions
(Bistacchi et al., 2012). These planes form a conjugate set bisected by
the dominant dilational sheets, and are thus consistent with each
other. The frequently found scatter in centrally-inclined sheet dip angles
can thus be explained as the result of intrusions along both mode I frac-
ture planes and conjugate shear planes with a higher- or lower-than-
average dip angle. The presence of reverse shear planes has been
found also by Schirnick et al. (1999) in Gran Canaria and by Mathieu
and van Wyk de Vries (2009) at the Mull volcano in Scotland.
The centrally-inclined sheets contribute to magma transport up-
ward: the sheets located above the centre of the magma chamber may
be steeper and tend to transport magma vertically into the volcano,
whereas those located more externally tend to move magma laterally
with respect to the volcano, possibly contributing to lateral (eccentric)
eruptions at the volcano's foot. Anyway, only a small fraction of these
sheets is capable of bringing magma to the surface and most remain
trapped into the shallower crust. This might occur through bending or
stoping. As regards bending, inclined sheets and dykes can rotate
to a shallower dip angle and reach a sill-like configuration. An old
 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135 103

Fig. 19. Results of quasi-static Finite Element Method mechanical models showing the configuration of the stress field around an oblate magma chamber that incorporates: (1) diverse
magma overpressures; (2) the presence of different free topographic surfaces ranging from a flat topography to a positive topography, simulating the load of a volcanic edifice, or to a
negative surface corresponding to a caldera; (3) regional tectonics with different remote stress values, plus a body force (4) corresponding to gravitational acceleration. Results are
shown on a vertical cross-sectional symmetry plane of the 2D axial-symmetric model. Each figure corresponds to an increasing magma chamber pressure. Vector symbols show orienta-
tion of σ1 and σ2; σ3 is always perpendicular to the σ1–σ2 plane, σ2 axes plot as small dots in areas where they are perpendicular to the plane of the cross-section. Colour shows the values
of least compressive to tensional σ3 stress axis; red indicates the negative values, related to the emplacement of magma in tensional fissures.
Modified after Bistacchi et al. (2012).
104 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135

Fig. 20. At the Cuillin Complex cone sheet system (Skye Island, UK), there are three zones with different characteristics: (1) a central zone in the core of the cone sheet where inclined
sheets dominate; (2) a more external zone where inclined sheets coexist with vertical dykes; and (3) an outer zone where dykes dominate.
Modified after Tibaldi et al. (2011).

explanation for the dyke-sill transition was the effect of neutral buoyan-
cy forces (Corry, 1988). Nevertheless, much field evidence shows that
sheets were injected through host rock successions dominantly com-
posed of fragmented deposits, like hyaloclastites and breccias, the den-
sity of which is lower than magma density (Pasquarè and Tibaldi, 2007;
Tibaldi and Pasquarè, 2008; Tibaldi et al., 2008c), without any geomet-
rical change, so neutral buoyancy cannot be the main explanation.
Similarly, Thomson (2007) suggested that the presence of lithological
contrasts, particularly ductile horizons such as overpressured shales,
may guide sill formation at any depth below the neutrally buoyancy
level. Another explanation may be the intersection of the intrusive
sheet with an already existing horizontal, freely slipping joint
(Weertman, 1980) or in a similar way, the intersection between a
weak bedding plane and a steep normal fault at shallow depths
(Gaffney et al., 2007). The upward propagation of dykes and inclined
sheets can be diverted also due to the generation of stress barriers, i.e.
layers with local stresses unfavourable for the intrusion propagation
(Gretener, 1969; Gudmundsson, 1986, 1990; Parsons et al., 1992;
Gudmundsson, 2011). The deviation from a dyke to a sill has also been
reproduced experimentally by Kavanagh et al. (2006) at the interface
between upper, rigid layers overlaying lower, weaker layers. Valentine
and Krogh (2006) explained dyke bending in terms of local stress rota-
tion along 3-D variations on a normal fault plane. Finally, dykes can
bend into sills in the case of remote tectonic compression, as they adjust
their trajectory reaching a geometry parallel to the σ1–σ2 plane
(Menand et al., 2010). Among all these possibilities, field data suggest
that the further propagation of sheets is strongly influenced by litholog-
ic boundaries in the host rock. As an example, at the Thverfell eroded
volcano (SW Iceland), the centrally-inclined sheets bend and reach a
horizontal geometry as they approach the contact between a lava suc-
cession and the underlying hyaloclastites (Fig. 22A–B). As another ex-
ample, a dyke bends into a sill at a similar contact at the Stardalur
eroded volcano (SW Iceland) (Fig. 22C), and a similar configuration
can be seen also at Nysiros volcano (Greece), where a dyke bends into
a sill near a contact between hyaloclastites and lavas (Fig. 22D). This
field evidence suggests that dykes and inclined sheets can be diverted
or stopped at contacts between layers with lithologies having very dif-
ferent stiffness (Gudmundsson, 1986; Kavanagh et al., 2006).
Changes in intrusion geometry can also derive from dyke–dyke in-
teractions. Numerical and analogue simulations have been developed
to analyse how ascending dykes might interact, showing that their
self-induced stress field may locally be more significant than the region-
al stress field (Kühn and Dahm, 2008). Coeval ascending dykes may
converge towards regions of increased dyke densities and may lead to
the formation of sills; alternatively, they can change their dip and
magma paths by getting closer to each other, or they can merge crating
dykes with increasing magma flux (Ito and Martel, 2002; Canon-Tapia
and Merle, 2006), or they can have a higher probability of becoming
arrested (Jin and Johnson, 2008). The dyke–dyke interaction is greater
when the intrusion is more than some dyke lengths away from the
 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135 105

Fig. 21. Photos taken at the Cuillin cone sheet in the Skye Island (UK), showing examples of inclined sheets intruded along shear planes with reverse motion (R) and normal motion (N),
although most followed fractures with an opening mode I (extension normal to the fracture wall) (T). Lower angle shear planes show normal motions, whereas steeper planes have re-
verse motions, and both form a conjugate set bisected by the dominant dilational sheets (T), and are thus consistent with each other. The frequently found scatter in cone sheet dip angles
can thus be explained as the result of intrusions along both mode I fracture planes and conjugate shear planes with a higher- or lower-than-average dip angle.

feeding reservoir or the free surface, whereas the interaction is general-
ly small when the horizontal tensional stress is large compared to the
compressional stresses induced by the emplacement of a single dyke
(Kühn and Dahm, 2008).
Numerical and analogue models indicate that also the load exerted
by a volcano can influence the trajectory of the magma path below.
Pinel and Jaupart (2004) found, by numerical modelling, that if a volca-
no is present, at small distances from the axis, confining stresses due to
the volcano load hinder vertical magma propagation. This produces hor-
izontal dyke propagation and, in case the dyke reaches the surface, the
formation of a distal eruptive centre. They found also that, everything
else being equal, a decreasing magma supply rate or a decreasing
magma viscosity generate eruptive centres at increasing distances
from the focal area. Gaffney and Damjanac (2006) found a similar ten-
dency of magma flow to be diverted away from a highland zone (like
a volcano) towards the lowland. By analogue modelling, Kervyn et al.
(2009) showed that the local loading stress field, due to the presence
of a volcano, favours rising magma away from the volcano centre if a
central conduit is not established or is blocked. Experiments show that
the load compressive stress stops rising dykes as they approach the
cone stress field especially in the case of dykes with limited overpres-
sure and steep volcanic cones (Fig. 23). Dyke overpressure builds up
as intrusion continues and dykes extend laterally until their tips rise
vertically again, leading to eruptions. This might explain the presence
of volcanic centres located at the base of a volcano, whose distance
from the volcano's axis depends on volcano slope angle, magma over-
pressure and substratum thickness, whereas extensional processes fa-
vour magma propagation in the axial volcanic zone. Similar results
were obtained by Peltier et al. (2005) who, using seismic data, analysed
the direction and velocity of dyke propagation from a shallow reservoir
at a depth of 3 km at Piton de la Fournaise (Reunion Island) between
1998 and 2004. They found a change from vertical ascent to slower lat-
eral propagation when the dyke reached the Dolomieu cone base. This
change was attributed to the presence of a fractured zone as well as to
the effect of volcano load. The final geometry of a sheet is also a function
of the distribution of magma overpressure within the intrusion; dykes
with either uniform internal overpressure or with a simple viscous pres-
sure drop propagate across much greater distances than the corre-
sponding unpressurised cracks, and uniformly loaded dykes tend to
propagate with less curvature than those with a viscous pressure drop
(Meriaux and Lister, 2002).
Several field examples show that crosscutting relationships between
generations of intrusive sheets may give clues to the parameters
that control the geometry of magma conduits. For example, as already
introduced before, at the eroded Thverfell volcano (Iceland) the
centrally-inclined sheets bend until they become horizontal at the con-
tact between the lava succession and the underlying hyaloclastites
(Fig. 22A–B). The resulting sills stacked on top of each other and created
a laccolith-like body, showing the difficulty of magma uprising to the
surface (Tibaldi et al., 2008c). However, the stacked sills are crosscut
by a vertical dyke that affected all the exposed rock succession
(Fig. 24A–B). A similar situation can be seen at another site of the
same eroded Thverfell volcano, where inclined sheets intruded the
lava succession and are in turn cut by a series of parallel, sub-vertical
dykes (Fig. 24C–D). Both cases reflect a change in the geometry of
the plumbing system, that first favoured lateral magma transport
106 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135

Fig. 22. Examples suggesting that dykes and inclined sheets can be diverted at contacts between layers with lithologies characterised by very different stiffness. Photo (A) and sketch (B) at
the Thverfell eroded volcano (SW Iceland), showing centrally-inclined sheets that bend attaining a horizontal geometry as they approach the contact between a lava succession and the
underlying hyaloclastites. At the Stardalur eroded volcano (SW Iceland) (C), a dyke bends into a sill at a similar contact. At the Nysiros volcano (Greece) (D), a similar configuration can be
seen where a dyke bends into a sill nearby a contact hyaloclastite/lava.

(horizontal or inclined) and then vertical magma upwelling. This can be
explained in terms of a change in the stress state within the host rock,
induced by a rotation of the σ3 axis from vertical (sill case) or gentle-
dipping (inclined sheet) to horizontal. This change is the effect of a de-
crease of the horizontal far field stress, as supported by the fact that the
dykes that intruded the whole rock succession are perpendicular to the
orientation of the Icelandic Rift extension axis. If we consider that the
stacked sills and the centrally-inclined sheets of the Thverfell example
were located below the volcano, the successive dyke intrusions indicate
that extensional tectonics may favour upward magma propagation in
the axial volcanic zone, consistent with the modelling of Kervyn et al.
(2009). A similar situation was encountered at the Otoge Complex
(Japan), where field evidence shows a centrally-inclined sheet system
crosscut by a swarm of more recent parallel dykes (Geshi, 2005). Petro-
graphic analyses indicate that the centrally-inclined sheets have a less
fractionated character with little compositional variations, whereas
the dyke swarm has a fractionated character with wide compositional
variations. Geshi (2005) interpreted this compositional change by frac-
tional crystallisation due to the decline in the supply of less fractionated
hot magma into the reservoir. The change in the geometry of the plumb-
ing system from centrally-inclined sheets to dyke has thus been
interpreted as reflecting a change from conditions with large overpres-
sure and high magma supply, to conditions with pressure decrease in
the magma chamber and lower magma supply. During the decline of
magma replenishment into the reservoir, dykes reach an orientation
perpendicular to the tectonic σ3 (Geshi, 2005).
Most of the above described papers assume that sheets intrude along
planes containing σ1 and σ2. However, a sheet could propagate oblique
to this plane if it invades a preexisting fracture that is misaligned
with respect to the principal stress directions; sheets that occupy
faults or preexisting joints are described in several studies (Johnson,
1961; Curtie and Ferguson, 1970; Gudmundsson, 1983; Delaney and
 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135 107

Fig. 23. Analogue models showed that the local loading stress field, due to the presence of a volcano, favours magma ascent away from the volcano centre. Dyke overpressure builds up as
intrusion continues and dykes extend laterally until their tips rise vertically again, leading to eruption.
Modified after Kervyn et al. (2009).

Gartner, 1997). Ziv et al. (2000) presented a numerical model for sheet
intrusion into preexisting fractures that are oblique to the principal
stresses. They conclude that it appears to be very difficult for a sheet
to follow a preexisting fault unless one or more of the following condi-
tions are met: (1) the fracture is nearly perpendicular to σ3; (2) the re-
solved shear stress on the fracture is small compared to the excess
magma pressure; and (3) the effective ambient sheet-normal stress is
small compared to the rock tensile strength. The same authors suggest
that it may be quite difficult for sheets emerging from midcrustal to
lower crustal depths to follow faults that are oblique to σ3. One of the
main observations is related to the fact that rocks are usually fractured
medium with possible pervasive discontinuities. A preexisting fault
with a different orientation from the σ1–σ2 plane acting at the time of
sheet intrusion is usually surrounded and intersected by other faults
and joints of various lengths. Field data demonstrate in fact that
magma paths can change orientation at short distance when the rock
is densely fractured (e.g. Fig. 25). Thus the presence of these secondary
discontinuities makes it even more difficult for the magma to follow a
misaligned pre-existing fault (Ziv et al., 2000). In spite of this sugges-
tion, a recent work by García et al. (2014) demonstrated, by seismolog-
ical data and numerical modelling, that magma migrated several times
along very diverse paths during the seismo-volcanic crisis of 2011–
2013 at El Hierro (Canary Islands). Magma intruded southward and
then northward along a N–S-striking pre-existing fracture zone, and
successively migrated along an E–W-striking fracture zone. The differ-
ent intrusions were guided by a combination of two magma pressure
sources located at diverse position and depth, and the presence of the
discontinuities.
6. Plumbing system in the interior of volcanoes
As we look at the structural characteristics of plumbing systems
within volcanoes, we have to consider further parameters that play a
role in dictating the final configuration. As we have seen in the previous
chapters, the structure of magma conduits is essentially governed by the
combination of preexisting structures and the total state of stress of the
host rock. The latter results from several possible inputs, including far-
field tectonics, lithostatic loading and magma force, but as Earth's sur-
face is approached, topography contributes more sensibly to the total
stress field. In order to distinguish the various components of the stress
sources that contribute to the total stress field inside a volcanic edifice, I
will start analysing the tectonic component vs. the magma component.
108 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135

Fig. 24. Examples of changes in the geometry of magma plumbing system at shallow level at the eroded Thverfell volcano (Iceland). A. Sketch and B. photo of stacked sills crosscut by a
vertical dyke that affected all the exposed rock succession. C. Sketch and D. photo of centrally-inclined sheets intruded into the lava succession and, in turn, cut by a series of parallel, sub-
vertical dykes. Both settings reflect a change in the geometry of the plumbing system that first favoured lateral magma transport and then vertical magma upwelling. This can be explained
in terms of a change in the stress state in the host rock promoted by a rotation of the σ3 axis from vertical (sill case) or gentle-dipping (inclined sheet) to horizontal.

6.1. Tectonic vs. magmatic components
Field data show that the geometry of magma plumbing system in
volcanoes changes in different tectonic settings and with the variation
of the tectonic stress magnitude. To introduce these concepts, I will
use the examples of Alicudi and Stromboli volcanoes (Aeolian Arc,
southern Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy, Fig. 26): both volcanoes have an
age b 100 ka BP, lie above the same substratum, have a similar size
(rising about 2.5 km from sea bottom), and are mainly of basaltic and
basaltic–andesitic composition; however, they have different patterns
of dykes (or eruptive fissures that represent their homologous at the
surface). The evolution of the summit, emergent part of Alicudi has
been characterised by several main episodes of cone growth alternating
with lateral volcano-tectonic collapses directed southward (Tibaldi
et al., 2005). During the growth stages, dyking occurred with a radial
pattern, which can be defined as a group of dykes that have a similar
frequency in every direction with regard to the axis of the volcanic edi-
fice (Fig. 26A). Several dyke generations, suggested also by some
crosscutting relationships, show the persistence of radial dyking that re-
flects the stability over time of the plumbing system geometry. Oceano-
graphic studies by Calanchi et al. (1995) show that no large faults are
present beneath Alicudi volcano. Also the growth of Stromboli volcano
was repeatedly interrupted by caldera collapses and lateral collapses
(Pasquarè et al., 1993; Tibaldi, 1996, 2001). The plumbing system ac-
companying the various growth phases was strongly dominated by
dyking along a NE-trending weakness axial zone crossing the summit
of the volcano (Fig. 26B). Inside this zone, single dykes strike between
NNE and ENE. Relationships between the unconformity surfaces of the
various volcano growth phases and these dykes indicate that the NE-
trending weakness zone persisted over the entire history of the volcano
(Tibaldi, 1996, 2003).
These two volcanoes can thus be considered examples of end mem-
bers of the possible patterns of plumbing systems; all other conditions
being similar, Alicudi represents the end member where local magma
stress dominates in the volcano, whereas Stromboli reflects the control
of far-field tectonic stress. More in detail, Alicudi developed a radial pat-
tern of dykes that has been caused by a dominating magma force along a
central main conduit zone. Magma exerts an isotropic force on the sur-
rounding rocks that produces hydraulic fracturing followed by radial
dyking (Fig. 27A). In this case the magma flow direction should be hor-
izontal or sub-horizontal and outward-directed. Another explanation
for the radial pattern refers to the distribution of the gravitational
stresses due to the load of the edifice. The load controls the trajectories
of the σ1 that become subparallel to the volcano slopes while σ3 is tan-
gential (Dieterich, 1988). A third explanation is that radial dykes may be
fed from a deeper level of the magma plumbing system at the basement
of the volcano (Geshi, 2008) (Fig. 27). In this third case, the source may
be located beneath the centre of the radial dyke structure where a
pressurised magma chamber with a vertically elongated spindle shape
will induce a zone of compression in which the radial dykes can be
emplaced (Chadwick and Dieterich, 1995; Gudmundsson, 1998);
magma flow should be oriented vertically or obliquely and upward-
directed. This process will be encouraged when the central conduit is
solidified (Porreca et al., 2006). Other examples of radial dykes include
Fernandina volcano at the Galápagos islands (Chadwick and Dieterich,
1995), Summer Coon volcano in Colorado (Poland et al., 2004, 2008),
Kliuchevskoi volcano in Kamchatka (Takada, 1997) and Komochi volca-
no in Japan (Geshi, 2008).
On the contrary, Stromboli shows a main swarm of rectilinear paral-
lel dykes that crosscuts the summit zone of the volcano and has been ac-
tive since 100 ka BP. Another two minor zones of dyking have been
active at 85–20 ka BP (Corazzato et al., 2008) and b 13 ka BP (Tibaldi,
2001) and will be discussed later. Rectilinear dyke swarms and their
surface expression in the form of aligned volcanic centres and eruptive
fissures are defined as “volcano-tectonic rift zones” (VTRZ). VTRZ are
usually aligned with the regional tectonic stress field, i.e. perpendicular
to the σ3 and parallel to the horizontal greatest principal stress (σHmax),
which indicates a control on intrusion geometry exerted by far-field
 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135 109

Fig. 25. A. Photo and B. sketch of a dyke intruded in a rock affected by several preexisting
fractures with diverse orientations (Asja Peninsula, west Iceland). Note the sharp change
in dyke geometry along the intrusion path.

stresses. Other examples are Askja and Krafla in Iceland (Gudmundsson

and Nilsen, 2006), Erta Ale, Ale Bagu, Dabbahu and Gabho in Afar
(Barberi and Varet, 1970; Wright et al., 2006), Tongariro in New
Zealand (Nairn et al., 1998), Nyiragongo and Nyamuragira in Congo
(Komorowski, 2002). The interpretation of the radial pattern at Alicudi
and of the VTRZ pattern at Stromboli in terms of the control exerted by
magma forces vs. tectonic forces, respectively, is consistent with the
geodynamic setting of the Aeolian Volcanic Arc (Fig. 26C). The western
part of the arc has poorly developed faults and in the late Quaternary
has been subject to low tectonic loading or to compression (Neri et al.,
2003; Goes et al., 2004; Argnani et al., 2007; Di Roberto et al., 2008).
This situation is suitable for magma stress dominating over tectonic
stress. The eastern part of the arc, instead, has been subject to regional
extension with a NW–SE trend of σ3, creating suitable conditions for Fig. 26. Alicudi (A) and Stromboli (B) volcanoes (Aeolian Arc, southern Tyrrhenian Sea,
the development of the NE–SW rift at Stromboli. Italy) have an age b 100 ka BP, lie above the same substratum, have similar size and geo-
Between these two end-members there may be intermediate set- chemical characteristics, but have different dyke patterns. Alicudi shows a radial dyking
tings where both magma pressure and tectonic stresses can interact, pattern, whereas Stromboli has a main NE-striking rift zone active since 100 ka ago and
two minor zones of dyking (active at 64–36 ka BP and b13 ka BP). The two end-member
giving rise to more complex magma path patterns within volcanoes. A
dyke patterns reflect the effect of a hydraulic force exerted by magma in the case of
classical example is the dyke pattern at Spanish Peaks (Colorado, Alicudi, and a control exerted by regional tectonics at Stromboli. C. Shows the tectonic set-
USA), a site which has been studied for decades (Fig. 28A). Dykes are tings of the two volcanoes where it is possible to observe that Stromboli lies in an area af-
arranged radially around the Spanish Peaks stock and have been fected by extension normal to its rift zone.
interpreted to result from radial stresses caused by the pressurised Data of Alicudi and regional tectonics from Tibaldi et al. (2005); data of Stromboli from
Pasquarè et al. (1993) and Tibaldi, 1996, 2001).
stock (Odé, 1957). At larger distances from the stock, dykes gradually
bend until they reach an average N80° strike. All more recent works
agree that the overall dyke orientations result from the combination
110 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135
Fig. 27. Sketch of possible models of propagation of radial dykes in volcanoes. A. Magma
exerts an isotropic force along the central conduit walls that produces hydraulic fracturing
followed by radial dyking; this is favoured in the case of an open conduit. B. Radial dykes
may be fed from a deeper level of the magma plumbing system at the basement of the vol-
cano and propagate upward; this is more favoured in the case of a closed conduit.
B. Modified after Geshi (2008).
of radially distributed stresses and remotely applied regional tectonic
stresses (Muller and Pollard, 1977; Smith, 1987), although Muller
(1986) observed that there are four diverse dyke populations indicating
a rotation of the remote tectonic stress field. The remote stresses caused
the reorientation of the distal parts of dykes that reach a strike parallel
to σHmax. A similar pattern has also been obtained by Meriaux and
Lister (2002) by calculation of the trajectories of dyke paths following
mode I opening of fractures. When dykes intercept the volcano slopes,
they produce radial fissure eruptions and fractures in the central upper-
most part of the edifice, and parallel fractures, eruptive fissures and
aligned pyroclastic cones along two opposite volcano flanks (Fig. 28B)
(Nakamura, 1977; Nakamura et al., 1977; Meriaux and Lister, 2002,
and references therein).
6.2. Intrusive sheets and orientation of tectonic stress tensor
6.2.1. Vertical σ1
Regional tectonic stresses can propagate and dominate across a vol-
cano with the result that they can guide the geometry of magma paths.
Where the active regional tectonics is characterised by a vertical σ1, vol-
canoes are usually elongated perpendicularly to σ3 and show a volcano-
tectonic rift zone crossing the summit part of the cone or the entire
edifice as at Askja, Iceland (Gudmundsson and Nilsen, 2006) and Erta
Ale, Tat Ali and several other volcanoes in the Afar region (Barberi and
Varet, 1970; Acocella and Neri, 2009). Sometimes the rift zone may ex-
tend beyond the base of the volcano with dykes reaching as far as tens of
km from the volcano perimeter, such as at Krafla in Iceland and at sev-
eral volcanoes in the Afro-Arabian Rift (Gudmundsson, 1995; Ebinger
and Casey, 2001; Sigmundsson, 2006). This orientation of the regional
stress tensor with a vertical σ1 gives way to swarms of vertical, parallel
dykes inside the volcano, a percentage of which are capable of crossing
the summit part of the cone or its flanks, giving rise to aligned pyroclas-
tic cones and fissure eruptions. This situation is the simplest from a
point of view of the structure of the shallower magma feeding system,
although it may be complicated by the interaction with topography, as
we will see in the next chapter. Another complication is represented
by the possible development of sills also within volcanoes under an ex-
tensional stress field. In fact, sills have been observed, for example, in
extensional settings associated with active/recent volcanoes such as
Stromboli and Nysiros, and at eroded centres like in the Paiute Ridge
area (Nevada, USA) (Valentine and Krogh, 2006) and in the North Atlan-
tic Igneous Province (Hansen, 2006). It is worth noting that in general
these sills have been observed at lithological boundaries (Fig. 22D), sug-
gesting that their geometry has been controlled by differences in stiff-
ness within the rock succession (Gudmundsson, 1986), as already
mentioned.
6.2.2. Vertical σ3
Volcanoes can also overlie zones of active compression with hori-
zontal σ1 and σ2 (for a review see Tibaldi et al., 2010) and there are
some field and experimental data that indicate which planes are the
prime candidates to host magma paths in such contractional settings.
Magma migration along pre-existing faults is consistent with several
cases found in different geodynamic settings and spanning from evi-
dence at deep crustal level (e.g. Rosenberg, 2004), to near surface
level (e.g. Tibaldi et al., 2010). Below volcanoes, examples from different
contractional settings indicate that the control exerted by ramp and flat
structures can occur after the main collision event or during active
thrust movements (syn-kinematic). Examples of the first case are the
early Proterozoic Chilimanzi granites (Zimbabwe) that were emplaced
50 Ma after a continental collision event (Fig. 29A) (Dirks and Jelsma,
1998). These granites intruded the crust along sills coinciding with
sub-horizontal thrust and along inclined sheets corresponding to
ramp structures. In Nigeria, the Neoproterozoic Rahama monzogranite
pluton was emplaced 60 Ma after a collision event (Ferré et al., 1997,
2002). Magma was emplaced along reverse inclined shear zones
interpreted as thrust ramps with structures of the intrusive rocks sug-
gesting some late syn-kinematic deformations (Fig. 29B) (Ferré et al.,
2012). The Miocene tonalites of the Hidaka Belt (Japan) were emplaced
along both ramp and flat structures of a duplex system (Fig. 29C)
(Shimura, 1992; Toyoshima et al., 1994). Regarding examples of syn-
kinematic intrusions, the Palaeozoic Wyangala granites (Australia)
were emplaced shortly after a continental collision event (Paterson
et al., 1990; Tobisch and Paterson, 1990). In particular for the Yarra plu-
ton, the data of Tobisch and Paterson (1990) are consistent with magma
ascent along a ductile, reverse shear zone that was still moving during
magma cooling, and this attests to syn-kinematic emplacement
(Fig. 29D). Halliday et al. (1987) showed that alkaline magmas in NW
Scotland intruded along the Moine thrust zone and documented the
persistence of magmatism, over 30 Ma, in a belt shortened by thrusting.
Martí et al. (1992) found that the Cenozoic magmatism of the Valencia
trough (Spain) is characterised by a first cycle of Early to Middle Mio-
cene age with calc-alkaline rocks emplaced during thrust development
under a compressional regime. Mkweli et al. (1995) studied the Umlali
Thrust Zone between the granite–greenstone rocks of the Zimbabwe
craton and the granulite-facies rocks of the Limpopo Belt, demonstrat-
ing the syn- to post-kinematic intrusion of porphyritic granites.
 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135 111

Fig. 28. A. At Spanish Peaks (Colorado, USA) dykes (red lines) are arranged radially around the Spanish Peaks stock and have been interpreted as resulting from radial stresses caused by the
pressurised stock (Ode, 1957); at greater distances from the stock, dykes gradually bend and, in a distal position, assume a parallel strike that results from remotely applied regional tec-
tonic stresses (Muller and Pollard, 1977; Smith, 1987). Black lines here represent the calculated trajectories of dyke paths following mode I opening of fractures. B. When dykes intercept
the volcano slopes, they produce radial fissure eruptions and fractures in the central uppermost part of the edifice, and parallel fractures, eruptive fissures and aligned pyroclastic cones
along two opposite volcano flanks (Nakamura, 1977; Nakamura et al., 1977).
A. Modified after Meriaux and Lister (2002).

The analogue experiments carried out by Ferré et al. (2012) to sim- structures, similarly to the previously described field examples. They
ulate basic and felsic magma upwelling in a contractional setting show conclude that thrust ramp structures provide an inclined pathway for
that fluids of different viscosities can move along ramp and flat magma to ascend along pre-existing mechanical discontinuities. Ferrè

Fig. 29. Examples of control exerted by ramp and flat structures on magma intrusions. A. Early Proterozoic Chilimanzi granites (Zimbabwe) emplaced 50 Ma after a continental collision
event along ramp and flat structures (Dirks and Jelsma, 1998). B. Neoproterozoic Rahama monzogranite pluton emplaced 60 Ma after a collision event along ramp structures (Ferré et al.,
1997, 2002, 2012). C. Miocene tonalites of the Hidaka Belt (Japan) emplaced along both ramp and flat structures of a duplex system (Shimura, 1992; Toyoshima et al., 1994). D. Yarra pluton
of the Palaeozoic Wyangala granites (Australia) emplaced along a ductile, reverse shear zone that was still moving during magma cooling (Paterson et al., 1990; Tobisch and Paterson,
1990).
112 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135

et al. (2012) also suggest that additional room for magma can be provid-
ed by local dilational jogs along the thrust plane. Similar experiments
carried out by Galland et al. (2007a) (Fig. 30A), show that fluids can
move upwards along thrust planes at the leading edges of a plateau. In
the experiment, vertical tension fractures formed on the surface of the
plateau, in a direction almost parallel to the imposed shortening. This
situation has been attributed by Galland et al. (2007a) to superposition
of a local load, because of the uplifted area, on the regional stress field.
At a shallow depth, the stress field was mainly due to the load of the
uplifted area, so that the greatest stress was vertical, whereas at deeper
levels the stress was mainly due to regional compression, with a hori-
zontal greatest stress. In any case, the vertical tension fractures did not
act as conduits in these experiments.
As regards an example of volcanism and contractional tectonics at
shallow level, at Iwate volcano (NE-Japan) the focal mechanism analysis
of the M = 6.1, 1998 earthquake indicates reverse faulting with the hor-
izontal principal compressive stress axis in an E–W direction (http://
hakone.eri.u-tokyo.ac.jp/vrc/erup/iwate.html). N–S-striking reverse ac-
tive faults are present in this area: The activity of one of these, the
Nishine-fault, was estimated to be about 0.7 m/1000 years by the
Japan Active-Fault Research Group. GPS surveys showed a steady and
continuous extension between southern and northern sites of the volca-
no in 1998 (Miura et al., 2000). Based on these results, it has been sug-
gested that intrusion of an E–W-striking dyke occurred at around 10 km
of depth below the summit of the volcano, thus resulting in a magma
path parallel to the direction of σ1. At Tromen volcano (Chile, Galland
et al., 2007a), lying above the hanging wall of a coeval west-dipping
thrust fault, most of the eruptions have occurred in the upper part of
the edifice. In the central part of the volcano, the magmatic conduits
are in the form of subvertical andesitic dykes, striking almost E–W. On
the eastern and southern flanks, E–W trending alignments of volcanic
domes probably follow underlying fractures (Galland et al., 2007a,b).
Also in this case, dykes intruding the volcano are parallel to the direction
of σ1. At Guagua Pichincha volcano, Ecuador (Legrand et al., 2002),
and Miyakejima volcano, Japan (Fujita et al., 2004), where the tectonic
settings are also compressional, seismic data suggest subhorizontal
magma transport at depth, followed by subvertical transport nearer
the surface. Several geophysical data have been collected also at
Mt Redoubt in Alaska, during the 1989–90 and 2009 eruptions; Lahr
et al. (1994) showed that the location of an earthquake swarm of the
1989–90 eruption is consistent with a narrow conduit steeply dipping
to the NE (i.e. a NW–SE-striking dyke). The eruption of 2009 was imme-
diately preceded by a period marked by volcano-tectonic events indi-
cating a NE–SW-trending P-axis orientation corresponding to the
horizontal displacement of the conduit walls in the same direction
(Roman and Gardine, 2013), a finding that can be interpret as the possi-
ble effect of a NW–SE dyke. These NW–SE dykes are parallel to the direc-
tion of the horizontal, regional σ1 (Nakamura, 1977; Nakamura et al.,
1977, 1980; Koehler et al., 2012). A plexus of dykes and sills has also
been recognised beneath the northern flank of Mt Redoubt at deeper
level (Benz et al., 1996). At the active Trident volcano (Alaska),
Wallmann et al. (1990), based on the presence of a set of NW–SE fis-
sures crossing the margins of the 1912 Novarupta crater, local plate-
motion vectors and regional stress orientation, suggest that a NW–SE

Fig. 30. Examples of experiments where volcanoes in contractional settings have been modelled. In A, intrusion of magma in the shallower crust along thrust planes. In B, C and D, photos in
plan view (to the left) and fault traces (to the right) of experiments of volcanic cones lying above substrate reverse faults, dipping to the left, with different positions with respect to the
cone: B. cone summit located on the footwall block, C. cone summit located above the surface trace of the substrate fault, and D. cone summit located on the hanging-wall block; E. section
view of the deformation zone inside the cone of case C.
A. Modified after Galland et al. (2007a). E. Modified after Tibaldi (2008).
 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135 113

feeder dyke propagated from a reservoir beneath Trident volcano to the

Novarupta vent. Anyway, the contemporaneous formation of the Mt
Katmai caldera represents a possible magmatic connection between
the reservoir beneath Katmai and Trident; this connection has been
interpreted in terms of a propagating sill or the failure of septa between
NE-aligned batches of magma (Hildreth, 1987; Wallmann et al., 1990;
Lowenstern et al., 1991).
The experiments of Tibaldi (2008) were mostly aimed at simulating
deformation within a cone lying above a reverse fault, by varying the lo-
cation of the fault with respect to the cone (Fig. 30B–D). Fractures par-
allel to the contraction direction did not form, probably because the
reverse/thrust faults affecting the substrate are not arcuate in plan
view, as opposed to those simulated in the experiments by Galland
et al. (2007a). In Tibaldi's (2008) experiments, the propagation of the
rectilinear (in plan view) reverse faults from the substrate across the
volcanic cone results in the formation of a steep normal fault zone (F1
in Fig. 30C, D and E) and a reverse low angle fault (F2). This implies
the developing of a local extensional field with a horizontal σ3 parallel
to the general contraction direction in the summit part of the cone.
Summarising the above, all these data suggest that in contractional
tectonic settings, magma ascending can be partitioned between a
deeper transport by inclined sheets and a shallow transport by vertical
dykes. In the crust below a volcano, magma may migrate horizontally
along flat structures and upward along ramp structures. Not necessarily
this magma migration may lead to eruptions, but in any case it emerges
that pre-existing contractional discontinuities in the crust my act as pre-
ferred magma pathways upwards, even during active compressional
deformation. Inside a volcano, magma upwelling may occur along the
steeper-dipping fault zone F1 in case the reverse fault propagates
through the cone and splits upwards. This magma migration along the
steeper fault is facilitated by the very local extension and is corroborated
by field evidence of eruptive vents close to or along F1 zones, such as
at Trohunco caldera and Los Cardos–Centinela volcanic complex
(Argentina). In several other cases, dykes within the volcanic cone are
parallel to the regional σ1, and also sill emplacement seems to be a fre-
quent mechanism of intrusion.

6.2.3. Vertical σ2
As an example of magma paths in strike-slip tectonic settings
(vertical σ2), Pasquarè and Tibaldi (2003) studied by field and analogue
data several volcanoes of the Bicol Peninsula (Luzon, Philippines),
where transcurrent tectonics dominate; they concluded that at depth
magma most likely used the main NW-striking strike-slip regional
faults, whereas at shallower level, the dykes followed fractures sub-
parallel to σ1 and sub-perpendicular to σ3. A similar change in dyke ori-
entation with depth was also discovered in another transcurrent zone at
Galeras volcano (Colombia, Tibaldi and Romero, 2000). This volcano is
also characterised by the presence of a sector collapse towards the
east within which is the active crater zone (Fig. 31A). The orientation
of this collapse matches exactly the results obtained by means of
analogue modelling by Lagmay et al. (2000), who showed that sigmoi-
dal deformation zones form on the volcano flanks close to the underly-
ing fault, along the right side of a right-lateral strike-slip fault, or along
the left side of a left-lateral strike-slip fault. If we compare their ana-
logue model deformed above a right-lateral strike-slip fault, we observe
that the collapse of Galeras volcano occurred in the same position
and orientation (Fig. 31B–C). This deformation zone above a strike-slip
fault should be the most prone to develop failures, intrusions and Fig. 31. A. DEM of Galeras volcano (Colombia) with location of sector collapse and main
eruptions. right-lateral strike-slip faults affecting the cone; the sketch has been rotated for easier
comparison with the analogue model of B–C. B. Photo and C. interpretative sketch of ana-
Holohan et al. (2007), who analysed by analogue modelling the in- logue modelling of a volcano located above a right-lateral strike-slip fault. Note the
teractions between structures associated with regional tectonic strike- matching between the Galeras example and the experiment.
slip deformation and volcano-tectonic caldera subsidence, suggested a A. Modified after Tibaldi and Romero (2000). B–C. Modified after Lagmay et al. (2000).
similarity between the roof-dissecting Riedel shears and Y-shears
appearing in their models and the regional strike-slip faults that dissect inside pull-apart basins (Fig. 32A). According to Holohan et al. (2007),
the central floors of the Negra Muerta (Riller et al., 2001; Ramelow et al., these fault systems might be regarded as preferential pathways for
2006) and Hopong calderas, with indication of volcanoes developed the ascent of magma and other fluids before, during, or after caldera
114 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135
Fig. 32. In strike-slip fault zones, volcanism can occur at pull-apart basins (A); at releasing
bend structures (B); directly along rectilinear strike-slip faults (C); and at the tips of the
main strike-slip faults (horsetail structures (D). The most common dyke orientation inside
the volcanoes located within these diverse fault settings is represented by red lines. Stra-
tovolcanoes, shield volcanoes, pyroclastic cones and domes may occur at all the above
types of strike-slip fault structures, whereas calderas are preferentially located within
pull-apart basins.
formation. Busby and Bassett (2007) document that the intrabasinal
lithofacies of the Santa Rita Glance Conglomerate record repeated intru-
sion and emission of small volumes of magma emplaced along a main
strike-slip fault, as frequently found (Bellier and Sebrier, 1994; Bellier
et al., 1999), and along releasing fault bends (sketch in Fig. 32B).
Marra (2001), studying the Mid-Pleistocene volcanic activity in the
Alban Hills (Central Italy), documented that a local, clockwise block ro-
tation between parallel N–S strike-slip faults might have generated local
crustal decompression, enabling volatile-free magma to rise from deep
reservoirs beneath the Alban Hills and feeding fissure lava flows.
Chiarabba et al. (2004a), on the basis of a shallow seismic tomography
of Vulcano Island (Aeolian Arc, Italy) observe that at a depth N 0.5 km,
the rise of magma is controlled by NW–SE fractures associated with
the activity of the NW–SE-striking, right-lateral strike-slip to oblique-
slip, Tindari–Letojanni fault system (Fig. 32C) (Mazzuoli et al., 1995).
At shallower depth (i.e. b0.5 km), the plumbing system of the volcano
is mainly controlled by N–S-striking secondary faults, which are per-
pendicular to the regional σ3 and thus are not transcurrent faults but
rather extensional fractures. Also Aydin et al. (1990) observed that at
strike-slip fault zones, magma preferentially rises at the surface along
the associated secondary extensional structures rather than along the
main strike-slip fault segments (e.g. Fig. 32D). Scarrow et al. (1997)
found in Antarctica sets of shoshonitic dykes that were emplaced
along strike-slip faults in late Cretaceous times. Rossetti et al. (2000) il-
lustrate how the effusive and intrusive rocks belonging to the McMurdo
Volcanic Group (Antarctica) were fed by dykes along a crustal-scale,
non-coaxial transtensional shear zone where the strike-slip component
increased over time. By analogue modelling, Corti et al. (2001) showed
that magma is emplaced at depth along faults parallel to the main shear
zone but uprises to the surface along cracks that are orthogonal to the
orientation of the extension. Finally, Eriksson et al. (2014) studying
the Álftafjörður volcano (Iceland) by AMS techniques found that dykes
mostly propagated horizontally from a shallow magma chamber within
a transtensive shear zone. Although in other cases in the same Iceland,
AMS results show different directions of magma flow in dykes (Kissel
et al., 2010; Eriksson et al., 2011), the example of Álftafjörður shows
that most dykes conformed to an en-échelon pattern and were affected
by a right-lateral shear component along the intrusion planes during
propagation.
Summing up the above, data suggest that at volcanoes lying in
transcurrent settings, magma ascending can be partitioned at plumbing
systems that have a different structure depending on depth. The deeper
magma transport below a volcano can be dominated by dyking along
the main, rectilinear segment of a strike-slip fault zone, or at associated
releasing bends. The shallow magma transport within a volcanic cone
can occur along dykes oriented parallel to σ1 (T structures) or oblique
to σ1 (Riedel shears).
6.3. Topographic influence
As introduced before when discussing the Stromboli example, this
volcano shows other two zones of dyking (Fig. 26B). Between 85 and
20 ka BP, a N–S-trending magma feeding zone developed in the SSW
side of the island, interpreted as the effect of a possibly southward ex-
tension of the magma chamber (Corazzato et al., 2008). After 13 ka
BP, sheets injected in the NW side of the volcano and along its summit
part, depicting a horse-shoe shape in plan view, open northwestward
(i.e. towards the sea) (Tibaldi, 2001) (Fig. 26B). These sheets follow
the escarpments created by a series of nested sector collapses
(“circum-lateral collapse sheets”) that affected the northwest volcano
side (Fig. 33), and the most recent failure produced the present shape
of the Sciara del Fuoco depression. The sheets' strike and dip tend to ro-
tate along the margins of the sector collapse zone and their geometry is
rendered graphically in Fig. 34A, showing dyke attitude compared with
the local geometry of the collapse scarp as the angle between the two
dip directions. This indicates that all these dykes, with only two excep-
tions, intruded along planes striking parallel to the collapse scarp. More-
over, most dykes dip into the same direction as the collapse scarps, i.e.
towards the interior of the collapse depression. Along the uppermost
part of the collapse zone, the local orientation and location of the col-
lapse scarp coincides with the NE-trending volcano-tectonic rift zone
(red zone in Fig. 33A), and here the dykes strike NE–SW. It is also
worth noting that in a section perpendicular to the sector collapse
scarp, dyke frequency is maximum at the scarp and decreases outward,
with dykes finally disappearing at 500 m of distance (Fig. 33B). All
sheets have been sampled (Fig. 33A); the geochemical characteristics
of the sheets cropping out along the southern part of the Sciara del
Fuoco depression are represented in Fig. 34B, and those located along
the northern and eastern part of the Sciara del Fuoco in Fig. 34C
(Corazzato et al., 2008). A total of 33 sheets (triangles) have the same
characteristics of the lava deposits of the Neostromboli volcano growth
phase and thus can be regarded as the shallow feeding system of that
volcanic phase. These sheets were emplaced following the first huge
sector collapse towards NW that occurred about 13 ka BP. This sector
collapse clearly reflects a major change in the shape of the volcano;
huge morphological changes influence the orientation of the stress
due to the reorganisation of the gravity force following a new distribu-
tion of rock masses (Voight and Elsworth, 1997; Tibaldi, 2001). Rock
mass removal due to lateral failure produces: (1) debuttressing of the
cone flank; (2) new local directions of extension; (3) the formation of
a fracture pattern around the depression amphitheatre; and (4) the for-
mation of lithological boundaries. These aspects have deserved an
increasing attention in recent times, in terms of new field data, numer-
ical modelling and analogue experiments. Aspects 1) and 2) are related
to the influence of topography on dyke paths, whereas items 3) and
4) are more related to rock mechanics.
Regarding issues 1) and 2), results of finite difference numerical
modelling of the state of stress within the Stromboli volcano before
the first huge sector collapse towards NW and after the failure, show
important changes in terms of both orientation of stress tensor and
stress magnitude (Fig. 35) (Tibaldi et al., 2008b). In particular, a closer
view of the area of the sector collapse shows the marked reorientation
 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135 115

Fig. 33. A. Aerial oblique view of the Sciara del Fuoco depression at Stromboli (Italy) generated by a series of lateral collapses, with all the intrusive sheets (yellow, with relative number of
sample), emplaced along the scarps. The main NE–SW volcano tectonic rift is represented by the red zone. B. Photo taken along the coast of Stromboli showing a section view of the lateral
collapse escarpment and intrusive sheets; the diagram quantifies the frequency of dykes moving from the collapse depression outward.

of the stress tensors close to the collapse scarps, with the minimum
compressive stress reaching a trend normal to the collapse surface.
This local configuration favours the intrusion of sheets parallel to the
collapse scarps and dipping steeply towards the depression, consistent
also with field data summarised in Fig. 34A. Other examples of the influ-
ence of local cone slope on dyke geometry have been observed at
Mt. Etna, Italy, during historical dyke-fed eruptions (McGuire and
Pullen, 1989; McGuire et al., 1990, 1991; Tibaldi and Groppelli, 2002).
During the 1978–1979 and 1983 magmatic events, feeder dykes propa-
gated from the summit zone of Mt Etna towards the western wall of the
Valle del Bove. Geophysical data and structural data provided insights
into the changes in azimuth of feeder dykes at shallow depths, prior to
their intersection with the surface, as they deviated from an originally
southeasterly propagation direction, into a southerly one, parallel to
the western steep scarp of the Valle del Bove, at a distance of few tens
of meteres up to 500 m from the rock cliff (McGuire and Pullen, 1989;
McGuire et al., 1990, 1991). Also during the July–August 2001 magmatic
event, field data indicated a deviation of the strike of a shallow dyke that
followed the local topography (Tibaldi and Groppelli, 2002). A configu-
ration similar to Stromboli has also been observed for the dykes intrud-
ed along lateral collapse scarps at Tenerife, Canary Islands (Gottsmann
et al., 2008; Delcamp et al., 2012), Tahiti–Nui (French Polynesia)
(Hildenbrand et al., 2004), and Piton de la Fournaise (Reunion Island)
(Peltier et al., 2009). At Fogo Island (Cape Verde archipelago) a recent
N–S swarm of dykes, emplaced below an older collapse structure,
show an en-échelon geometry associated with a seaward displacement
of the eastern flank of the volcano (Day et al., 1999). In the presence of a
high scarp, such as the one between the top of Vesuvius and Mt Somma,
116 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135
Fig. 34. A. Geometry of intrusive sheets surveyed along the lateral collapse escarpments of
Stromboli volcano (Italy) around the Sciara del Fuoco depression, expressed as number of
dykes (Y axis) versus the angle between the dip direction of dyke and the dip direction of
the collapse scarp (X axis). B. Geochemical characteristics of the intrusive sheets cropping
out along the southern part of the Sciara del Fuoco depression, and C. along the northern
and eastern part of the Sciara del Fuoco depression. A total of 33 sheets (triangles) belong
to the Neostromboli volcano growth phase (label NEOSTR), 2 sheets belong to the previ-
ous Vancori growth phase and crop out far away from the Sciara del Fuoco depression
(see Vancori label in Fig. 32A for the location of these two sheets) and the other 3 sheets
were emplaced during post-Neostromboli growth phases.
A. Modified after Tibaldi (2003). C. Modified after Corazzato et al. (2008).
the difference in topography can create a zone of buttressing that hin-
ders lateral dyke propagation across the scarp under ordinary excess
magmatic pressures (Acocella et al., 2006).
Also several analogue models indicate the differences in sheet con-
figuration based on the volcano morphology, with the results shown
in Fig. 36. In the case of an intact cone, dykes propagate parallel to the
σHmax and perpendicular to the σHmin, which are radial and concentric,
respectively (Fig. 36, upper part) (McGuire and Pullen, 1989). If a lateral
collapse depression is cut into the cone, later intrusions follow
the scarps of the collapse depression if the initial intrusive source is lo-
cated near the scarps, interpreted as the effect of unbuttressing and the
consequent reorganisation of the local stress field (Fig. 36, middle)
(Acocella and Tibaldi, 2005). Similar results have been obtained for a
volcano with an unstable flank that has not collapsed yet (Walter and
Troll, 2003). If the initial intrusion is located below the collapse depres-
sion, the resulting dyke will propagate along the collapse axis, i.e. along
the mean points of the collapse in map view (Acocella and Tibaldi,
2005).
Regarding the other effects of the rock mass removal due to a lateral
failure, which are 3) the formation of a fracture pattern around the de-
pression amphitheatre and 4) the formation of lithological boundaries,
these favour the capture of propagating sheets due to higher permeabil-
ity and stoping effect, respectively. For example, a field analysis con-
ducted along the margins of the sector collapse that affected Ollague
volcano (Chile–Bolivia border) showed the very high density of frac-
tures formed along the collapse scarps (Figs. 37A–B) with respect to
the same lava deposits observed far away from the collapse zone
(Fig. 37C). These fractures may result from brittle deformation during
the sliding of the collapse blocks, as well as from debuttressing effect
due to rock mass removal. Preferential dyke intrusions along fractures
parallel to collapse scarps have been observed also at Piton de la
Fournaise (Reunion Island) by Letourneur et al. (2008). Once the
amphitheatre depression created by a sector collapse is infilled by suc-
cessive volcano growth, a major lithological boundary may form at the
interface between the pre- and post-collapse deposits. In the case of a
strong difference in rock stiffness at this interface, an ascending dyke
can be diverted and become parallel to the lithological/mechanical
boundary.
In the case of elongated volcanoes, topography can also play a funda-
mental role. In very large volcanoes like at the Hawaiian islands, it has
been proposed that gravity forces can control the orientation of rectilin-
ear dyke swarms that tend to be parallel to the volcano major axis (Fiske
and Jackson, 1972), once space for dyking is provided by slip of the vol-
cano flank along deep faults (Dieterich, 1988). At some elongated volca-
noes, anyway, the dyke pattern is represented by a central rectilinear
volcanic rift zone passing outwards into fan-shaped dyke systems at
the two opposite volcano flanks (Fig. 36, bottom part), defined as “di-
verging volcano-tectonic rifts” (Tibaldi et al., 2014). In their pioneering
analogue experiments, Fiske and Jackson (1972) suggested that this ge-
ometry might be linked to the elongated shape of a volcano. Better-
scaled models and field data recently suggested that the formation of
these diverging rifts is not specifically linked to substrate lithology and
mechanical behaviour. Volcanoes with diverging rifts have typical elon-
gation (major/minor axis) b 0.88 and V N 10 km3 (mostly N300 km3),
and the central rift zone is normal to the regional σHmin (Tibaldi et al.,
2014). If the regional σHmin is oblique to the volcano elongation axis,
dyke geometry in the edifice axial zone is controlled by elongation
and thus by local gravity σ3, but dyke strike becomes perpendicular to
σHmin when dykes intrude the more external areas of the volcano. If a
dyke is injected under volcano flanks with slope inclination b 50°, at
the edifice terminations magma paths diverge outwards and crosscut
slopes at high angle (Fig. 36). These authors point out the diverging vol-
canic rift system is an underestimated structural pattern that can be
more common than previously recognised. For example at Mt Etna the
diverging rift system is superimposed on other dyke patterns, like
the West rift, lying above hidden faults (Mattia et al., 2007) and the
 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135 117

Fig. 35. Results of finite difference numerical modelling by FLAC of the state of stress within the Stromboli volcano before the first huge sector collapse towards NW and after the failure,
computed along a NW-striking section. On the left, the sections show the complete pre- and post-collapse stress configurations (upper and lower sections respectively), in terms of both
vertical stress contours and principal stress tensors (negative values indicate compression). A strong reorganisation in the stress distribution occurs, in terms of both magnitude and ori-
entation. The right sections at a closer view show the marked reorientation of the stress tensors close to the collapse scarps, with the minimum compressive stress normal to the collapse
surface. This local configuration favours the intrusion of dykes parallel to the collapse scarps and dipping at high angles towards the depression, consistent also with field evidence.
Modified after Tibaldi et al. (2008b).

dykes surrounding the Valle del Bove depression, whose geometry is Mt Cameroon (Favalli et al., 2012), Miyakejima (Nakada et al., 2005)
interpreted to have been guided by the depression debuttressing and Fuji (Takada, 1997) in Japan, Kliuchevskoi in Russia (Ozerov et al.,
(McGuire and Pullen, 1989). More clear field examples of diverging 1997), Nyamuragira in Congo (Hayashi et al., 1992), and Newberry in
rifts can be seen at El Hierro (Canary Islands) (Gee et al., 2001), the USA (MacLeod et al., 1995).

Fig. 36. Sketch of the main configurations of intrusive sheets at volcanoes under the influence of topography and indication of the stress field guiding the geometry of magma paths. Upper
part of the figure: circular intact cone; middle part: circular cone with a sector collapse depression; lower part: elongated volcano.
118 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135

Fig. 37. Photos taken at the Ollague volcano (Chile–Bolivia border). A. Field view of the depression left by the Holocene sector collapse; B. photo taken close to the collapse scarp showing
the pervasive fracturing of the lava flows; C. photo of the same lava flows taken far away from the collapse depression.

The experiments of Tibaldi et al. (2014) also suggest that in the case
of steep slopes, the topography of a volcano exerts a dominant control
on magma path orientation, determining sheet rotation until they
become parallel to the local edifice slope. The steep slope actually repre-
sents a debuttressing that produces a local σ3 oriented perpendicularly
to the topography. Regarding the threshold value of slope steepness,
these experiments show that when sheets approach a slope dipping at
35°, they propagate perpendicularly to the slope. This has been observed
also with slopes as steep as 45° by Walter and Troll (2003). Hence, the
transition to slope-parallel sheets may occur with a slope angle N 45–
50°, but more research is needed to better constrain this value.
Walter et al. (2006) investigated the geometry of shallow magma
paths related to the deformation of large volcanic edifices built by the
coalescence of adjacent cones, by reproducing the spreading of an edi-
fice composed of overlapping volcanoes. Their results suggest that
spreading edifices of similar age that partially overlap tend to develop
a rift zone approximately perpendicular to the boundary of both volca-
noes, and this causes the two edifices to grow together and develop an
elongated topographic ridge. However, in the case of partially overlap-
ping volcanoes of different ages that spread at different rates, the
resulting rift will be parallel to their boundary, causing the two edifices
to structurally separate from each other.
Regarding general topographic effects, Gaffney and Damjanac
(2006) suggested that magma uprising along a fracture that runs from
a highland to an adjacent lowland, can be diverted away from the high-
land towards the lowland. This is in line with the results of Kervyn et al.

Fig. 38. Models of deformation of the surface topography above a shallow propagating dyke tip: A. uplift zones on each side of the dyke tip and no uplift above the dyke tip with propa-
gation of normal faults and fissures at the surface. B. Uplift of the zone above the dyke tip with propagation of reverse faults and fissures at the surface (Gudmundsson et al., 2008). C. Photo
and D. sketch of the dramatic effects caused by the very shallow intrusion of a dyke in northern Iceland during the Krafla “fires” of 1975–1984.
A. Modified after Mastin and Pollard (1988).
 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135 119

(2009) who investigated, by analogue modelling, the control of volcano to imprecise results on the geometry and depth of the dyke
load on magma ascent and vent location. Their results show that if a (Gudmundsson, 2003). Model 2) is valid only in the case of pre-
central conduit is blocked, the volcano loading stress favours eruption existing graben structures above a propagating dyke, and is more effec-
of rising magma away from the volcano summit. Folch et al. (2000) tive for layered host rocks. The effects of the intrusion are to open pre-
studied the numerical solutions of ground displacement caused by an existing normal faults and, later on, to close the lower sectors of the
overpressurised magma chamber, finding that correct calculation and faults and encourage reverse slip along them. If the magma front has
interpretation of displacements can be reached only taking into consid- propagated up into the graben, dyke emplacement uplifts the crustal
eration also topography. A recent paper by Maccaferri et al. (2014) de- block between the boundary faults, forming a horst (Gudmundsson
veloped numerical modelling of dyke propagation near the shoulders et al., 2008).
of rift valleys. They found that the location of the shallow magma path Sill emplacement also requires important deformation of the host
is governed by the competition between gravitational unloading pres- rock that depends on the stiffness of the rock succession and the thick-
sure and tectonic stretching. When gravitational unloading dominates, ness, velocity and structure of the intrusion. Frequently, sills are saucer-
ascending dykes are diverted towards the rift shoulders, whereas shaped and consist of an axis-symmetrical flat inner horizontal intru-
when tectonic stretching dominates, shallow dykes propagate within sion connected outward and upward to transgressive inclined sheets,
rift. This means that rifts with mild topographic expression may concen- ending in a flat outer sill (Planke et al., 2005; Polteau et al., 2008;
trate dyke paths within the graben valleys. Galland et al., 2009; Galerne et al., 2011; Gudmundsson and Løtveit,
2014). Some authors proposed that saucer-shaped sills form along the
7. Plumbing systems and surface deformation level of magma neutral buoyancy and the feeder dyke is located at one
side of the saucer structure (Fig. 39A) (Bradley, 1965; Francis, 1982;
Although it has been widely recognised that magma intrusion may
create regional uplift (McKenzie, 1984; Saunders et al., 2007; Ernst,
2014, and references therein), only recently the relations between shal-
low magma emplacement and local surface deformation field have be-
come clearer. Observations during episodes of dyke emplacement at
subaerial volcanic rift zones have shown the relation between dyking
and slip increment along existing faults and fissures and the formation
of new fissures (Abdallah et al., 1979; Bjornsson et al., 1979; Pollard
et al., 1983; Wright et al., 2006). More in detail, direct field observations
(Larsen et al., 1979) and continuously recording measurements
(Hauksson, 1983), confirmed by more recent studies (Belachew et al.,
2011, and references therein), showed that fault and fissure motions
at the surface are correlated in time with the arrival of the earthquake
swarm front, several hours after the initiation of dyke propagation.
This suggested that faulting and fissuring were triggered by dyke intru-
sion (Rubin and Pollard, 1988). Above the propagating dyke tip, stress
concentration induces compression in the surrounding host rock and
consequent faulting up to, or beyond, the dyke plane at depth; this in-
duces a typical deformation pattern at the surface given by: (1) uplift
of a region several kilometres across with a maximum value at the
edges of a central graben located above the dyke tip; (2) an abrupt tran-
sition from graben flank to graben floor; and (3) subsidence of a
concave-upward graben floor by one to several times the amount of
flank uplift (Rubin and Pollard, 1988). At the surface, near the dyke,
this process is expressed by two possible models: (1) uplift zones on
each side of the dyke tip and no uplift above the dyke tip (Fig. 38A)
(Pollard et al., 1983; Mastin and Pollard, 1988; Rubin and Pollard,
1988) and (2) uplift of the zone above the dyke tip (Fig. 38B)
(Gudmundsson et al., 2008; Abdelmalak et al., 2012). The effects can
be dramatic, causing heavy deformation as shown in a field example
(Figs. 38C–D) from northern Iceland, regarding one of the dyking and
rifting events that took place during the Krafla “fires” of 1975–1984. In
model 1) the stress is not transferred directly above the dyke tip but it
is concentrated at its two sides, creating two areas with vertical fissures
and normal faults dipping towards the dyke. Two maxima of surface
ground breaking may occur in the case of a vertical dyke, one on each
side of the dyke plane, and are separated by a distance roughly equal
to twice the depth of the dyke top (Mastin and Pollard, 1988). An in-
clined sheet would produce asymmetrical uplift of the two side zones. Fig. 39. Existing models of saucer-shaped sill and laccolith emplacement mechanisms:
A. sill emplacement controlled at the level of neutral buoyancy (LNB): Sills are fed laterally
Subsidence above the dyke tip is not explained by the dyke alone, but
from one part of the outer sill; B. sill emplacement along horizontal discontinuity: Sills are
it requires the development of a graben bounded by normal faults that fed radially from the central inner sill. C. Gilbert's (1877) model for laccolith intrusion with
extent down to the dyke tip level or even deeper. Once the propagating rigid strata and faulted periphery. D. Laccolith with continuous flexure of overburden stra-
crack in front of a dyke tip cuts the surface, the relative downward dis- ta. E. Model of symmetric laccolith-induced deformation about intrusive plane. F. Mixed
placement over the dyke changes to upward displacement (Pollard flexure-fault deformation at a laccolith periphery, inclined sheet climbing may initiate at
forced fold hinges or at a fault.
et al., 1983). For a layered crust with weak contacts, the stress magni- A. Modified after Bradley (1965) and Francis, 1982. B. Modified after Malthe-Sørenssen
tude and configuration above a propagating dyke may be more compli- et al. (2004). D. Modified after Koch et al. (1981). E. Modified after Koch et al. (1981).
cate and the straightforward inversion of geodetic surface data may lead F. Modified after Thomson (2007).
120 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135
Chevallier and Woodford, 1999; Goulty, 2005), whereas others claim
that the feeder dyke is located below the central part of the saucer struc-
ture (Fig. 39B) (Pollard and Johnson, 1973; Hansen et al., 2004; Galerne
et al., 2011 and references therein). In some large sill complexes it has
been observed that individual saucer-shaped sills are interconnected
to other overlying or underlying sills. These connections may represent
a model of plumbing system where magma does not migrate along ver-
tical feeder dykes but moves along horizontal layers until it breaches the
rock succession along inclined sheets, and then rotates again to reach
horizontal attitude (Muirhead et al., 2012): This pattern resembles the
“ramp and flat” structure of compressional tectonics. These magma
feeding structures have been named “interconnected sill-feeding-sill
networks” (Cartwright and Hansen, 2006). The first models of host
rock deformation were proposed for the gradual growth of a single sill
into a laccolith. In case of rigid strata below the intrusion plane, two
main models suggest asymmetric deformation of the host rock where
the intrusion is compensated by uplift of the overburden; in one case
peripheral continuous faults accommodate the intrusion (Fig. 39C)
(Gilbert, 1877), and in the other case the sill/laccolith emplacement is
accommodated by peripheral bending of strata (Fig. 39D) (Koch et al.,
1981). Another model shows a laccolith-induced deformation that is
symmetric about the intrusive plane (modified after Koch et al., 1981).
More recent studies consider a possible mixed mode of deformation
by flexural folding and faulting (Fig. 39E); the viscous dissipation of
magma along the length of sills may enable them to propagate faster
and induce non-elastic deformations in the surrounding rocks. This cre-
ates the conditions for faulting of the rock succession at the peripheral
zones of the sill and, eventually, inclined sheet climbing may initiate
at forced fold hinges or at a fault (Thomson, 2007). Since, in many in-
stances, field data indicate that laccoliths lack internal discontinuities,
suggesting that magma was injected as a single pulse or a series of
quickly coalescing pulses (Roni et al., 2014 and references therein), a
large amount of recent studies focused on the growth of a single sill
both by numerical computation (e.g.: Zenzri and Keer, 2001; Zhao
et al., 2008; Michaut, 2011 and references therein) and analogue exper-
iments (e.g.: Dixon and Simpson, 1987; Roman-Berdiel et al., 1995). An
interesting case is represented by the laccoliths of Elba Island (Italy) that
also grew without internal discontinuities, suggesting continuous feed-
ing of the magma (Westerman et al., 2015). These laccoliths are one
above the others but emplaced as separate sheets without coalescing.
They failed to form a composite pluton and instead gave rise to a
“Christmas tree geometry”, with each magma batch that created its
own room by lifting the rock overburden (Westerman et al., 2015).
Other recent field studies indicate that, instead of growing in thick-
ness or ramping upward, sills can give rise to stacked piles of horizontal
to sub-horizontal sheeted intrusions (Boudier et al., 1996; Menand,
2008; Tibaldi and Pasquarè, 2008; Annen, 2009). The first sill frequently
intrudes at a discontinuity given by the contact between two rock layers
with different stiffness, followed by a second sill that is emplaced at the
contact with the previous one. The multiple intrusion process may end,
as for example was the case at Maiden Creek (Horsman et al., 2005),
where a small intrusion was formed. However, if enough magma is
fed from below, the process may go on through the emplacement of
several stacked sills generating a sheeted laccolith (Menand, 2008;
Tibaldi and Pasquarè, 2008; Tibaldi et al., 2008c). In the case of a single
sill, some InSAR-based modelling indicates that the emplacement is ac-
companied at the surface by uplift of circular to elliptical areas. For ex-
ample, modelling of the 1994 unrest episode at Eyjafjallajokull
volcano (Iceland) suggests that a sill intrusion induced deformation
at the surface in the line of sight direction of the Radar satellite
(Pedersen and Sigmundsson, 2004). The interferometric fringes high-
light a circular deformation pattern (Fig. 40A) that is consistent with
the modelling of an about 0.36-m-thick sill source, intruded at a depth
of 4.5–6.0 km (Fig. 40B); however, the authors acknowledge that fur-
ther investigations are necessary to better constrain the data. At Yellow-
stone caldera (USA), since 1996 an expanding sill with a length of about
20 km intruded at a depth of 14–18 km and produced about 6 cm of up-
lift of an elliptical area in plan view with an axis of more than 20 km
(Fig. 40C) (Wicks et al., 2006). The modelling of interferometry and
GPS data suggests the presence of a sill gently dipping towards NNW
that explains the asymmetric shape in plan view (Fig. 40D). Anyway,
also in this case prudence should be used since, based on field examples
elsewhere, the large dimension of the sill in the horizontal plane does
not fit with the very small uplift.
8. Plumbing systems at calderas
The plumbing systems at calderas are here reviewed separately due
to the complex structure of calderas and their marked morphological,
structural and dynamic differences in comparison to intact volcanic
cones. Several studies have focused on calderas all over the world, and
a good number of review papers have been recently published dealing
with: the structure of the caldera (Cole et al., 2005; Acocella, 2007),
the tectonic settings (Hughes and Mahood, 2011), the petrographic
characteristics of the caldera magma reservoir (Cashman and
Giordano, 2014), the characteristics of the ring faults (Geyer and
Martí, 2014), and caldera subsidence in the specific extensional tectonic
setting (Carlino et al., 2014). Here I focus on the geometry of intrusions
at calderas.
Calderas can be essentially associated with basaltic, peralkaline, an-
desitic–dacitic and rhyolitic magmas. Basaltic calderas are linked to
shield volcanoes such as those at hotspots (e.g.: Hawaii and Galápagos
islands) (Simkin and Howard, 1970; Decker, 1987), or in other settings
such as convergent margins (e.g. Masaya Volcano in Nicaragua,
Williams and Stoiber, 1983). Peralkaline calderas are typically associat-
ed with zones of rifting (Cole et al., 2005) like at Pantelleria (Mahood,
and Hildreth, 1986) and Mayor Island, New Zealand (Cole, 1990). An-
desitic–dacitic calderas are mostly related to subduction zones like in
the case of Krakatau, Indonesia (Self and Rampino, 1981), and Santorini,
Greece (Druitt et al., 1999). Rhyolitic calderas are characterised by huge
volumes of erupted pyroclastic products and usually large collapse de-
pressions. Examples comprise the Valles caldera, New Mexico, USA
(Smith and Bailey, 1968), the Cerro Galan, Argentina (Francis et al.,
1978), and the Campi Flegrei, Italy (Barberi et al., 1991).
A caldera forms mainly after a sufficient amount of magma has been
withdrawn during an eruption, and the consequent underpressure in
the magma chamber causes its roof to collapse (Lipman, 1997). Another
possibility is that overpressure within the magma chamber induces first
doming and fracturing of the overburden, followed by magma migra-
tion and caldera collapse (Gudmundsson et al., 1997). Although the
first model has been applied to several cases, it has also been criticised
in view of the fact that the underpressure in the magma chamber should
hinder the continuation of the eruption until the critical value to trigger
the collapse has been reached; another factor is the inconsistency, at
some calderas, between the volume of erupted material and the col-
lapse volume, and the contradiction between the dip direction of the
theoretical caldera faults in comparison to field data (Gudmundsson
and Nilsen, 2006).
From the point of view of the possible structure of a caldera, this may
result from different evolutionary processes that involve single or mul-
tiple collapses, each with possible different geometries, and also possi-
ble phases of resurgence. A categorisation was attempted by Lipman
(1997) who suggested five end-member structural styles: Plate or pis-
ton, piecemeal, trapdoor, downsag and funnel (Fig. 41). Plate/piston col-
lapse involves the subsidence of a coherent block of rock along a ring
fault (Fig. 41A), like at Creede caldera (Steven and Lipman, 1976). The
piecemeal case refers to a caldera where the collapsing block is
subdivided into a series of discrete secondary blocks (Fig. 41B) such as
the Scafell caldera, U.K. (Branney and Kokelaar, 1994). The trapdoor
style corresponds to an asymmetric collapse with block subsidence on
one side where a ring fault develops, and tilting on the hinged other
side (Fig. 41 C). Examples of the above are the Valles caldera, U.S.
 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135 121

Fig. 40. A. Interferometric fringes of the deformation field from 06/09/1992 to 15/08/1995 that accompanied the 1994 unrest episode at Eyjafjallajokull volcano (Iceland) in the line of sight
direction of the Radar satellite, and B. artificial fringes obtained by modelling a sill source, about 0.36-m-thick intruded at a depth of 4.5–6.0 km. C. Interferometric fringes of the deforma-
tion field at Yellowstone caldera (USA) from the summer of 1996 to the summer of 2000 characterised by an expanding sill, and D. result of modelling of the source as a sill gently dipping
towards NNW.
B. Modified after Pedersen and Sigmundsson (2004). D. Modified after Wicks et al. (2006).

(Heiken et al., 1990), and Kumano caldera, Japan (Miura, 1999). the caldera floor dips gently towards the collapse centre. Bolsena
Downsagging takes place where ring faults do not form or do not (Italy) is an example of a downsag caldera (Walker, 1984), as well as
reach the surface (Fig. 41D), and the overburden deforms by bending the Gross Brukkaros system in Namibia (Stachel et al., 1994). Funnel cal-
without fracturing. In this case there are no distinct caldera walls and deras occur through the complete destruction of the caldera floor that is

Fig. 41. Different styles of caldera collapse. (A) Plate or piston, (B) piecemeal, (C) trapdoor, (D) downsag, (E) funnel with complete destruction, and (F) funnel with concentric ring faults.
See text for details.
Redrawn after Lipman (1997).
122 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135

Fig. 42. Relations between the size of magma chamber and of caldera. (A) In the case of caldera forming by overpressure, an expanding chamber with a sill-like shape (lower high/width
ratio) may induce steeply-dipping ring faults at the chamber edges that will guide the caldera collapse. The caldera and magma chamber size should correspond. (B) A laccolith-like shape
(higher H/W) can favour the nucleation of shear stress in correspondence of specific points of maximum curvature, inducing the development of ring faults. (C) An overpressurised magma
chamber with a laccolith-like shape may also produce arching of the overburden with development of local extension at the extrados and caldera occurrence. In cases (B) and (C) the
caldera width is much lower than the magma chamber size.
Redrawn after Aizawa et al. (2006).

Fig. 43. (A) Crater Lake caldera and (B) related model of magma propagation from the growing chamber through a series of steeply-dipping dykes diverging upward from the sides of the
magma chamber. (C) Toba caldera (northern Sumatra) and (D) related model of stacked sills linked by vertical dykes, superimposed on the distribution of the horizontally polarised shear
wave speed (shown above 20 km in depth), dashed line = the low-velocity area below the caldera that might have been affected by the super-eruption of 74 ka ago.
A. and B. After Karlstrom et al. (2015). C. and D. After Jaxybulatov et al. (2014).
 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135 123

broken into series of blocks that chaotically subside deeper towards the
collapse centre (Fig. 41E), or by blocks that are displaced downward
along concentric ring faults that become deeper towards the zone of
deepest collapse (Fig. 41F). An example of the latter type is the Guayabo
Caldera, Costa Rica (Halinan, 1993).
Although several publications have been dedicated to the study of
the structure and dynamics of calderas, a lot of work is still required to
clarify the geometry of their plumbing system. The necessity of further
investigations on the structure of sub-caldera magmatic systems is
even more important if we take into consideration the possible connec-
tion between location, dimension and shape of a magma chamber and
the related caldera; it has been shown that in the case of caldera forming
by underpressure of the magma chamber, the width of the caldera de-
pression is similar to the diameter of the underlying chamber (Aizawa
et al., 2006 and references therein). In the case of caldera forming by
overpressure, an expanding chamber with a sill-like shape, i.e. with a
lower high/width (H/W) ratio, may induce the development of
steeply-dipping ring faults above the chamber edge that will guide the
caldera collapse (Fig. 42A). As a consequence, also in this case the calde-
ra size and magma chamber size should correspond. In the case, instead,
of an overpressurised magma chamber with a laccolith-like shape
(higher H/W), the shape of the roof of the chamber may favour the nu-
cleation of shear stress in correspondence of specific points of maxi-
mum curvature, inducing the development of ring faults (Fig. 42B)
(Mandl, 1988). A laccolithic shape of the magma chamber may also re-
sult in the arching of the overburden with the development of local ex-
tension at the extrados; the combination of this extension with the
upward-directed magma push may lead to the development of a caldera
(Fig. 42C) (Aizawa et al., 2006). In both cases, the caldera width is much
smaller than the magma chamber size.
Field data are scarce in comparison to other plumbing systems and
are mostly collected at eroded ancient calderas, like for example Scafell
(Branney and Kokelaar, 1994; Kokelaar et al., 2007) and Glencoe in the
U.K. (Moore and Kokelaar, 1998; Troll et al., 2002), and at younger cal-
deras such as Rallier-du-Baty in Kerguelen Archipelago (Bonin et al.,
2004). At modern calderas, data are mostly of the geophysical and sub-
ordinately geological type, like at the Campi Flegrei (Piochi et al., 2014),
Miyakejima (Geshi et al., 2002; Geshi, 2009), Piton de la Fournaise
(Michon et al., 2007), Rabaul (Mori and McKee, 1987), Sierra Negra
(Jónsson, 2009), and Nyamulagira (Wauthier et al., 2013). Based on sev-
eral field and geophysical data, the classical model of caldera plumbing
system comprises a magma chamber and a system of transient conduits
that develop during caldera forming. This “Standard Model” as termed
by Gualda and Ghiorso (2013), is represented by a single, long-lived,
usually horizontally-elongated magma chamber, characterised by dom-
inating melt. This model has been recently applied, for example, to Mt
Mazama (Oregon Cascades, U.S.), a long-lived (400 ka) volcanic centre
whose activity culminated with the 50 km3 climactic eruption of
7.7 ka BP that produced the Crater Lake caldera (Fig. 43A) (Bacon and
Lanphere, 2006; Wright et al., 2012). Based on field data and numerical
work by Karlstrom et al. (2015), a centralised oblate spheroidal magma
chamber was responsible for the climactic eruption. The chamber
growth, fed by a deep magma influx, culminated in the caldera forma-
tion. Based on the distribution in space and time of the eruptive vents
preceding the Crater Lake caldera failure, Karlstrom et al. (2015) propose
that magma propagated from the growing chamber through a series of
steeply-dipping dykes diverging upward from the sides of the magma
chamber (Fig. 43B). This model, more related to silicic magmas, suggests
the focusing of dykes all around the perimetry of a growing magma
chamber, providing a plausible mechanism for clustering of eruptions
around the Mazama centre. The eruptions at the central main volcano
are fed by a vertical dyke that drains the chamber and releases accumu-
lated overpressure; once this central event has taken place, eruptions
could return to proximal areas as the effective chamber volume and re-
lated deviatoric stresses are reduced. This model differs from the geo-
metrical distribution of inclined sheets that propagate above a flat,

Fig. 44. A. Model proposed for the plumbing system of resurgent calderas where several inclined sheets propagated upward from the magma chamber, and most became arrested at layer
contacts with contrasting mechanical properties. A number of inclined sheets intersected the ring faults that have been previously developed during the caldera collapse, and became
deflected up along the fault to form multiple ring dykes. (B) Model of ring dykes directly linked with the underlying magma chamber.
A. After Browning and Gudmundsson (2015). B. After Saunders (2005).
124 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135

mafic magma chamber, as introduced in the previous sections (compare

with Figs. 10 and 17).
In recent years, there has been a growing evidence that sub-caldera
plumbing systems may be made of a series of superimposed sills inter-
connected by inclined sheets and vertical dykes. In particular, the exis-
tence of a complex magma storage region is postulated, where the
magma reservoir is composed of multiple melt lenses within a crystal
mush, or by multiple sills stacked into a completely crystalline rigid
framework (Cashman and Giordano, 2014). For example, in the deeply
eroded calderas of the southern Rocky Mountains, apart from the main
plutons, relatively minor intrusions near the calderas are characterised
by megadykes, up to some hundreds of metres wide, and tabular sill-
laccolith bodies (Lipman, 2007). In general, the presence of several
stacked tabular interconnected magma bodies can reconcile several ob-
servations of crystals, carried by the transporting melt, which have been
stored at a range of pressures and temperatures (Cashman and
Giordano, 2014). These crystals have been erupted when the tabular
bodies at different depths have been tapped. A modern example
comes from the felsic Toba caldera (northern Sumatra), which has
long been regarded as a supervolcano (Fig. 43C). Using ambient-noise
seismic tomography below the caldera, Jaxybulatov et al. (2014) ob-
serve an anisotropy that may reflect a fine-scale layering linked to the
presence of many partially molten sills in the crust below a depth of
7 km (Fig. 43D).
Another model has been proposed for the plumbing system of resur-
gent calderas (Browning and Gudmundsson, 2015). It has been derived
from field data, integrated with numerical modelling, at the eroded
Hafnarfjall volcano (western Iceland), an extinct stratovolcano with a
caldera of predominantly basaltic and subordinately andesitic composi-
tion. Here several inclined sheets propagated upward from the magma
chamber, and most became arrested at layer contacts with contrasting
mechanical properties (Fig. 44A). A number of inclined sheets
intersected the ring faults that have previously developed during calde-
ra collapse, and became deflected up along the fault to form multiple
ring dykes. This model differs from previous models of ring dykes,
which were directly linked with the underlying magma chamber (e.g.
Saunders, 2005) (Fig. 44B). Saunders (2005) also proposes that arching
of the caldera floor induces extension in the extrados, whereas in the in- Fig. 45. Sketch in section view of possible intrusive histories found in the western Penin-
trados compression is caused by both arching and the force exerted lat- sular Ranges Batholith (Mexico and U.S.) by Johnson et al. (2002). In the first stage (A), a
erally by the intruding ring dykes, preventing intrusions in the caldera set of conical fractures (black lines) above a rising magma chamber develops, with the
block. Several eroded calderas show that substantial amounts of possible emplacement of cone sheets (red lines). In the successive stage (B), the collapse
of a caldera along ring-faults is followed by intrusion of ring dykes and volcanism. In
magma are intruded along ring faults that channel the magma flow up-
(C) a nested intrusion develops with possible further cone sheets.
ward (Clough et al., 1909; Bailey and Maufe, 1960; McCall and Bristow,
1965; Smith and Bailey, 1968; Almond, 1977; Sparks, 1988; Miura,
1999; Johnson et al., 2002; Sewell et al., 2012). In some case, ring
dykes have been channelling magma for a long time, so as to favour
the mingling of felsic and basic magmas, as observed at the Ossipee
ring complex (New Hampshire, U.S.) (Kennedy and Stix, 2007). Not- complexes emplaced at depths of up to 18 km, suggesting that caldera
withstanding the frequent identification of this intrusion type, recent subsidence can extend to mid-crustal levels or that different processes
studies have attempted to suggest alternative geometries at some can produce ring dykes.
ring dyke complexes, although these cases remain controversial (e.g. As we have seen, several models have been introduced, reflecting
O'Driscoll et al., 2006; Stevenson et al., 2008). the possible variability of the structure of plumbing systems at calderas.
In a study of several intrusive bodies and calderas in the western This variability has been linked to the diverse size and geometry of
Peninsular Ranges Batholith (Mexico and U.S.), Johnson et al. (2002) in- magma chambers, and also to the possible structural style of the caldera
dividuated the widespread presence of ring dykes. They suggested block. Their interaction gives rise to different configurations of the
that development of subvolcanic ring complexes in the Peninsular plumbing system in the overburden that may be composed of inclined
Ranges Batholith involved a three-stage sequence: (1) a buoyant or sheets, stacked sills and dykes. A further complication may be due to
overpressured magma chamber induces fracturing of the overlying the interaction with regional tectonics. As an example, the Los Azufres
rocks, with the formation of inward-dipping conical fractures and caldera complex, in the central part of the Mexican Volcanic Belt, is a
cone sheets (Fig. 45A); (2) the successive loss of magma from the cham- sub-circular depression (27 × 26 km) that resulted from several nested
ber causes collapse of the roof by near-vertical ring faults and ring dyke collapses of latest Miocene–Pliocene age (Ferrari et al., 1991, 1993). The
intrusions (Fig. 45B); and (3) resurgence takes place due to chamber in- caldera depression is filled by a fluvio-lacustrine sequence and several
flation and/or intrusion of a nested pluton (Fig. 45C). A similar sequence volcanic domes of Pliocene–Pleistocene age, as well as cinder cones
was found also at the deeply eroded, felsic complex of the Vallehermoso and associated lava flows of Pleistocene age (Fig. 46A). Domes have a
Caldera (La Gomera, Canary Islands) by Rodríguez-Losada and dacitic to rhyolitic composition whereas cinder cones and lavas are ba-
Martinez-Frias (2004). Johnson et al. (2002) also found some ring saltic. Some of the younger deposits are offset by normal faults mainly
 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135 125

Fig. 46. A. Distribution of silicic volcanic domes, basaltic cinder cones and normal faults at the Los Azufres caldera complex (central Mexican Volcanic Belt), suggesting the control of re-
gional tectonics across the caldera depression. (B) The different cases of distribution of volcanoes with respect to a caldera give clues to the possible patterns of shallow magma plumbing
systems. See main text for details.
A. Redrawn after Ferrari et al. (1991). B. Taken from Walker (1984) and Geyer and Martí (2008).

striking E–W to WSW–ENE, whereas the oldest deposits are also affect-
ed by a series of slip planes of different orientations that should repre-
sent segments of caldera ring faults. Some of the E–W to WSW–ENE
faults show a very subordinate left-lateral strike-slip component, a ge-
ometry and kinematics consistent with the regional tectonics (Ferrari
et al., 1991). The distribution of vents and other data indicates that the
Los Azufres caldera complex was affected by post-caldera volcanism
with centres located both along the caldera rim and along regional faults
crossing the caldera depression (Fig. 46A). This interaction favoured the
presence of silicic centres in the middle of the caldera depression and
along the ring faults, whereas the new basaltic magmas within the cal-
dera were guided by regional faults. As a consequence, the plumbing
system in this example should be represented by silicic dykes emplaced
along ring faults and regional faults, with the possibility that these dykes
126 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135
are vertically connected with the felsic magma chamber, or might rep-
resent captured inclined sheets.
Regional tectonics can also have an influence on the development of
ring dykes. As shown by numerical simulations of Walter (2008), an in-
truding ring-dyke may follow pre-existing faults and thus abruptly stop
or change its direction. This is the case of the Erongo complex (Namibia),
where a ring dyke formed only to the northwest of a SW–NE-striking re-
gional fault passing through the caldera (Wigand et al., 2004).
The Los Azufres example is also consistent with other cases suggest-
ing that calderas are long-lasting volcanic complexes whose activity in
most cases does not end after caldera collapse: in fact, resurgence can
take place and/or volcanism can resume, guided by the development
of a plumbing system that can be different from the one that led to
the caldera-forming event. Geyer and Martí (2008), also integrating
data from Walker (1984), reviewed the distribution of post-caldera
vents at more than 160 Quaternary calderas in different geodynamic
settings, providing clues to the possible patterns of magma uprising.
They proposed nine categories of distribution of post-caldera volcanic
activity (surface distribution of vents in Fig. 46B). Assuming that the
shallow geometry of the plumbing system was mirrored by the different
distributions of volcanic centres, I suggest different magma paths in the
various cases (magma feeding systems in Fig. 46B): a single large or
small volcano can be located in different positions in the caldera, corre-
sponding to single main conduits (cases 1–4). Vents along the ring faults
may be linked to ring dykes (case 5), as took place for example at the
20 × 30 km wide Tondano caldera (Indonesia) in 1952 and 1971
where ring-dyke intrusions and eruptive activity occurred at two or
more ring vents (Lecuyer et al., 1997). A circular or elliptical distribution
of vents outside the caldera suggests the existence of inclined cone
sheets (case 6). A defined straight line of vents across the caldera sug-
gests a rectilinear dyke zone (case 7) or the control of regional faults
(case 8), as at the above-mentioned Los Azufres caldera, and at the
Rabaul caldera (Papua New Guinea) where eruptive activity simulta-
neously occurred at opposite sides in 1878 and 1937 (Mori and
McKee, 1987; Nairn et al., 1995). Finally, distributed vents inside the cal-
dera may suggest conduits and dykes of different geometries linked to a
highly-fractured caldera block (case 9), as for example at the resurgent
Ischia Island caldera (Italy) (Tibaldi and Vezzoli, 1998).
9. Conclusions
The data presented in this work indicate that several parameters can
influence the structure of a magma plumbing system. The classical
models of plumbing systems characterised by upward propagation of
magma by buoyancy forces have been questioned by more recent find-
ings that indicate magma overpressure as the main engine. The stress
field induced by local magma pressure sources, in turn, interacts with
the rheological boundaries represented by rock layers with large differ-
ences in stiffness, and with physical discontinuities such as bedding,
joints and faults. This interaction may occur at any depth, as suggested
for example by magma sources in the substratum that are in an offset
position from the volcano. This is reflected also in the available most
complete images of plumbing systems, as for example at Hawaii and
Mt Etna, which show complex arrays of vertical dykes, inclined sheets
and sills. Local isotropic stresses or time-frequent rotations of stress ten-
sors might lead to intricate assemblages of intrusions of various geome-
tries, as for example below Mt Redoubt volcano.
Most field and geophysical recent research indicates not only that
magma moves along planar sheets and that circular/elliptical conduits
(in section view) are extremely rare, but there is increasing evidence
that also laccoliths and magma chambers are composed by stacked
planar sill intrusions. Similarly, vertical sheeted intrusions may charac-
terise larger plutonic bodies. Sheets propagate by self-induced
hydrofracturing or by using pre-existent weakness planes, if these are
suitably oriented with respect to the stress field. Most field evidences
indicate that hydrofractures are primarily extension fractures whose
propagation can be modelled as mode I cracks, although field observa-
tions also indicate that, in a much lower number of cases, magma over-
pressure may induce shear faults along which magma intrusion can take
place. These findings open questions about the kinematics, geometry
and propagation modes of intrusive fractures; we have to admit that un-
certainty still exists about the factors that control the different modes of
growth of small magma chambers vs. large igneous bodies. Further
studies, which may couple field data and modelling, are required, espe-
cially integrated with a more in depth analysis of the influence of the
rates of magma transport and accumulation in relation to diverse tec-
tonic settings and fracture propagation at different depths. Moreover,
diapiric ascent is still recognised especially for granitic bodies, and
thus it is debatable how the deep distributed source region of melt-
filled pores is linked to the shallow sheeted plumbing system.
The presence of a shallow magma chamber is a prime candidate to
control the geometry of the sheets that typically display a circumferen-
tial pattern – in plan view – above the chamber, giving rise to centrally-
inclined sheet swarms. Their arrangement is dictated by the presence of
an oblique stress tensor (Fig. 47, upper apex of the triangle). The local
oblique orientation of the σ1 is a function of the shape and overpressure
of the chamber. The consequent σ1 trajectories condition the arrange-
ment of the intrusions that can range from radially-inclined sheets
(in vertical section view) diverging from a spherical chamber, to
centrally-inclined sheets with similar dip angle in the case of lobate
magma chambers. Above the central part of the chamber there is the
greatest chance to have subvertical to vertical conduits that drain
magma towards the axis of the volcano. This chance is increased by
the presence of a horizontal σ3 below the volcano axis (Fig. 47, right
apex of the triangle) that can be induced by regional extensional tecton-
ics or local deformation, for example due to volcano spreading (Borgia,
1994; van Wyk de Vries and Francis, 1997). With increasing distance
from the magma chamber, the effects of magma overpressure decrease
and the intrusive sheets can change their attitude from inclined sheets
to vertical dykes laterally with respect to the chamber. These dykes
can be parallel to each other, hence forming a swarm perpendicular to
the regional σ3, or can assume a radial pattern if the influence of region-
al tectonics is poor. Above the magma chamber, inclined sheets and
dykes can bend into a sill-like attitude following a re-orientation of
the stress tensor (Fig. 47, left apex of the triangle). This can be caused
by several situations that involve the presence of stress barriers and
major mechanical contrasts between different lithotypes (Menand,
2011). Centrally-inclined sheet swarms are more widespread at mafic
magma chambers, but have been also found at felsic bodies. Magma mi-
gration along sills and inclined sheets may occur at different scales,
going from tens of metres to tens of kilometres, with the potential of
producing eruptions in unexpected locations. Analysis of the literature
shows a great amount of works that use numerical or analogue model-
ling approaches to unravel these processes, but there is a comparative
lack of field data. For example, only seventeen field-based studies of
centrally-inclined sheet swarms are sufficiently detailed to obtain quan-
titative data. Anchoring the results of modelling to quantitative ground
truth is fundamental to establish the thresholds of zones of influence of
tectonic stresses versus other stress sources, and this might definitively
benefit from investigations at eroded volcanic centres and exhumed
plumbing systems. Besides, large field data sets should be integrated
in a more interdisciplinary way with geophysical and petro-chemical
data.
At shallower crustal levels, there may be a strong interference be-
tween tectonic stresses, the stresses related to volcano topography,
and the stresses exerted by magma overpressure. The tectonic stress
field may affect both plumbing systems within volcanoes and below
them; if extensional stresses dominate, a rectilinear volcano-tectonic
rift zone can guide magma upwelling below the volcano as well as
across the cone with the injection of a swarm of parallel dykes (lower
left part of the graph of Fig. 48). In the case of a transcurrent regime,
dykes can follow the main strike-slip fault zone and/or secondary
 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135 127

Fig. 47. Graph that summarises some of the main parameters that influence the upper part of a magma plumbing system. The apexes of the triangle are located in correspondence of stress
tensors with different orientations: the upper apex has oblique σ1, σ2 and σ3; under this stress field centrally-inclined sheets are favoured. The local oblique orientation of the σ1 is a func-
tion of the shape and overpressure of the chamber. The consequent σ1 trajectories condition the arrangement of the intrusions that can range from centrally-inclined sheets diverging from
a spherical chamber to centrally-inclined sheets with similar dip angle in the case of lobate magma chambers. With increasing distance form the magma chamber, or under an increasing
effect of σ3, dykes dominate as in the right apex of the triangle where σ2 and σ3 are horizontal. Above the magma chamber, inclined sheets and dykes can bend to reach a sill attitude
following a re-orientation of the stress tensor that locally has horizontal σ1 and σ2, as in the left apex of the triangle.

fractures. In the case of contractional tectonics, sheets may assume
more complex and variable geometries. Within a volcanic edifice, if
the stresses induced by magma overpressure along the main central
conduit zone are sufficiently high, a radial dyke pattern might develop.
The influence of the stresses related to topography increases ap-
proaching the volcano slopes with more probable effects at distances
b0.5 km (increasing influence towards the right side of the graph of
Fig. 48. Scheme of the most frequent sheet geometries as resulting from the interference
between different tectonic stress fields (stress tensors at Y axis) and the distribution of
the stresses related to topography (increasing influence towards the right side of the
graph). The debuttressing effect of topography is larger at b0.5 km from the volcano
slope and for slopes steeper than 40–50°; in these cases sheets might reach an attitude
parallel to the slope.
Fig. 48), as can be inferred from the Mt Etna and Stromboli data. For
slopes steeper than 40–50°, sheets may assume an attitude parallel to
the slope.
Based on the available literature, it appears that much more studies
are required to elucidate the characteristics of magma feeding systems
in contractional tectonic settings, especially with an interdisciplinary
approach. Similarly, the effects of slopes on the trajectories of magma
paths need further studies based on field data integrated with numeri-
cal and analogue modelling. Since eroded calderas are not very frequent
on Earth, the scarcity of field data on the structure of their plumbing sys-
tems is even more noticeable.
In conclusion, the data illustrated in the present work indicate that
several parameters can influence the structure and location of a
magma plumbing system, and that it is extremely difficult, if not impos-
sible, to assign a given model to a volcano without a detailed complete
knowledge of its geological, structural, petro-geochemical and geomor-
phological characteristics. The ultimate magma path is governed by the
inner volcano structure, and by the stress field in the host rock existing
prior to sheet emplacement and by changes in the stress field induced
by the emplacement itself. As the assessment of the possible magma
paths leading to a new eruptive centre is one of the main goals of volca-
nic hazard studies, it is very important to better understand how far a
stress field can be perturbed by the emplacement of previous sheets,
and why and when sheet propagation might be deviated or halted.
These questions should be better addressed by an integrated approach
that may combine natural examples with experimental works, and by
increasing the data sets on the distribution of mechanic properties in-
side volcanoes and of the active stress field in the substrate and within
a volcanic edifice. This knowledge can be achieved especially by desir-
able further geological and geophysical exploration and in-situ stress
measurements and observations that, coupled with numerical model-
ling and instrument monitoring of a volcano, can lead to a better under-
standing of these processes.
128 A. Tibaldi / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 298 (2015) 85–135
Acknowledgements
I thank the Editors Lionel Wilson and Joan Martì and the Managing
Editor Timothy Horscroft for requesting me to write this review, after
an invited talk I gave at the 2014 EGU Meeting in Vienna. My research
contribution to this review benefitted from extensive field work with
several colleagues, to mention Giorgio Pasquaré, Alberto Renzulli,
Derek Rust, Federico Pasquaré Mariotto, Claudia Corazzato, Fabio Bonali,
and many others. The research was carried out in the framework
of MIUR, FIRB, INGV and NATO projects, and under the aegis of the
International Lithosphere Program, Task Force II. F. Jim Cole and Agust
Gudmundsson are acknowledged for their useful comments on an ear-
lier version of this paper. Pasquaré Mariotto is also acknowledged for his
review of the English grammar.
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