Darren Wirth

May 7, 2006

Music and Self-Esteem

Is there a relationship between musical preference and self-esteem? It is generally

known and accepted that music can have a profound impact on the mind and body. Some

physiological responses to music include changes in galvanic skin response, respiration

rate, heart beat, blood pressure, muscle and postural tension, electrical activity of the

brain, papillary dilation, and the intensity and regularity of gastric contractions.1 The

growing body of literature surrounding this topic debates whether music has the power to

increase or influence self-esteem.

For the purpose of the discussion of self-esteem, Kalandyk’s definition may be

useful. She defines self-esteem as the combination of a sense of security, identity,

belonging, purpose, and competence.2

As suggested by Bailey, performing music can have a positive effect on mood and

self-esteem,3 but it can also produce some undesirable effects such as anxiety and stress.

Despite the negativity that can be associated with performing, there seems to be no lack

of individuals willing to expose themselves. This may be because the positive effects

outweigh the negative ones.

Singers have reported that performing for an audience produces positive

emotional effects including an increase in self-esteem and more extroverted social

behaviors. Results from a questionnaire indicated that members of a singing group felt it

1
Kalandyk, Jolanta. Music and the Self-Esteem of Young Children. Lanham, Md.: University
Press of America, 1996, 58.
2
Kalandyk, 72-73.
3
Bailey, Betty A. and Jane W. Davidson, “Effects of Group Singing and Performance for
Marginalized and Middle-Class Singers, Psychology of Music 33, no. 3 (2005): 269-303.
had a positive impact on emotional, social, spiritual, and physical health. Music provides

challenge, achievement, and the opportunity to escape the frustrations of everyday life. A

group setting provides friendship in an environment of shared interest.

While some singers have reported that singing makes them feel better, a study by

Murdock determined that there were no significant differences in perceived self-concept

and social support between high school choir members and non-music students. 4 The

study also tested if there were changes in self-concept from grades seven to twelve. The

results indicated that there are no significant differences between high school choir

members and non-music students in terms of self-concept and social support, but

significant grade level differences existed.

Other studies have also failed to document that music influences self-esteem.

Vaughn tested music’s ability to increase self-esteem and academic achievement and

lower anxiety on high school students identified as being at risk for failure. One group

took modified anxiety management training with music, one took modified anxiety

management training without music, and one group had no treatment. Students were

pretested with the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory and posttested three weeks later.

Significant differences were not found in levels of self-esteem.

Linch investigated the differences in the level of self-esteem and academic

achievement among 341 mid-western juniors in three categories: those who participate in

instrumental music, those who don’t participate, and those who have discontinued

participation.5 No significant differences in self-esteem were found.

4
Murdock, Mervin Charles, “An investigation of the relationship between seventh, tenth, and
twelfth-graders’ participation in school choir and their perceived levels of self-concept and social
support,” Ph.D. diss., University of North Texas, 1991.
5
Linch, Sheryl Ann, “Differences in Academic Achievement and Level of Self-Esteem Among
High School Participants in Instrumental Music, Non-Participants, and Students Who Discontinue
Instrumental Music Education.” D.M.E. diss., University of Northern Colorado, 1993.
 It is interesting to note at this point that Murdock, Vaughn, and Linch, who all

found no relationship between music and self-esteem, tested high schoolers. Age may be

a critical factor in determining what role music plays in influencing self-esteem. In fact,

“a number of researchers have stressed the importance of the early stages of children’s

development in the formation of a healthy self-esteem.”6

Kalandyk studied the self-esteem of 55 4- and 5-year-olds.7 One group attended

the music program with their parents for nine weeks, one group attended the music

program without parents, and one group did not participate in the music program. The

students were pre and posttested using the Joseph Preschool and Primary Self-Concept

Screening Test nine weeks apart. The results indicated that the first two groups improved

significantly on self-esteem. A small improvement was seen in the control group, which

might suggest that a rise in self-esteem is a normal developmental tendency in this age

range.

A study by Adams explored the effects of personalized and semi-personalized

music on the self-esteem of second grade students.8 The researcher of this study

composed original songs to communicate unconditional positive regard. One group of

the study was given songs with the child’s first name throughout the lyrical content. One

group’s songs did not have the children’s names. One group received no treatment. The

results showed a significant increase in self-esteem of the subjects exposed to the

personalized recordings.

6
Kalandyk, Jolanta. “Can We Improve the Self-Esteem of Young Children Through Music?”
Austrailian Journal of Music Education n1 (1997), 31.
7
Kalandyk, 31-41.
8
Adams, Lowell Walter, “An Experimental Study of the Efectiveness of the use of Personalized
and Semi-Personalized Musical Recordings as a Means of Improving the Self-Esteem of Young
Children,” Ph.D. diss., The Union for Experimenting Colleges and Universities, 1988.
 The results of Kalandyk’s and Adams’s studies, when compared with Murdock,

Vaughn, and Linch, affirm that age is in fact an important factor when attempting to

influence one’s self-esteem. Preschoolers and elementary school children seem to be

more susceptible to a change in self-esteem. Once in the late middle and high school

years however, self-esteem appears to me more resistant to change.

Stack and Grundlach studied music as affecting moods which can lead to suicide,

which can be viewed as resulting from low self-esteem.9 They note that “to the extent

that the audience of a particular type of music forms a subculture…the impact of music

on mood and behavior can be multiplied.”10 Country music, in particular may be

inherently suicidal. Such themes as disharmony between the sexes, especially marital

strife, dissolution, and social problems are prominent. Country music is generally

categorized as lonesome and often abusive.

Stack’s and Adams’s studies bring up the important point of lyrics. The words of

a song may be a very important factor on how it impacts one’s emotions. While pure

instrumental music may “speak” and stir the states of the soul, songs clearly speak more

directly and may produce a more intense result.

Music has been praised in the recent past for the positive contributions to

education in other areas. Although it has been argued that music improves cognitive

ability and may improve the performance of math tasks, no research has clearly

demonstrated this. While studies show that even passive listening to music improves

math and language scores, others fail to make that connection. And while there may be a

9
Stack, Steven and Jim Gundlach. “The Effect of Country Music on Suicide.” Social Forces 71,
no. 1 (1992): 211-218.
10
Stack, 212.
connection between academic achievement and music, one might argue that academic

achievers selectively engage themselves in music, while lower achievers do not.

Because participation in music and other arts may also have a positive effect on

self-esteem, music is used as a therapy for people categorized as having low self-esteem.

Jones emphasizes there is a need for developing a particular curriculum that promotes

personal self-esteem for troubled youth.11 Jones believes discovery learning is the best

way to promote self-esteem through art. “When the students realize their capabilities of

making positive decisions that influence the final outcome of their…assignment, they are

intrinsically rewarded with pride and a sense of accomplishment. In turn this leads to a

higher level of self-esteem.”12 There is, however, little information on the effect of music

on people with normal self-esteem. As with academic achievement, some studies found a

correlation, and some did not.

Cowan and Clover also noted increased self-esteem in Discipline Based Art

Education. Students involved in art manifest “positive self-statements, group

cohesiveness, and an air of respect for themselves and each other as artists.”13 While the

benefits to self-esteem may be the most obvious in children who are “hurting,” art

education has the potential to help anyone who participates learn about art in ways that

create affiliation, a sense of personal worth, security, and accomplishment.

Costa-Giomi tested the so-called Mozart Effect, which says there are cognitive

benefits of formal music instruction, and that even in the passive listening to music

11
Jones, Rick, “Using Art to Help Develop Self-Esteem for Troubled Youth,” Art Education 39, no.
1 (1986): 21-22.
12
Jones, 21.
13
Cowan, Marilee Mansfield and Faith M. Clover, “Enhancement of Self-Concept through
discipline-Based Art Education,” Art Education 44, no. 2 (1991): 38-45.
produces positive results.14 Throughout the three-year study, participants received weekly

piano lessons and took tests of self esteem, academic achievement, cognitive abilities,

musical abilities, and motor proficiency. The results indicated that piano lessons had a

positive impact on self-esteem but did not affect academic achievement as measured by

standardized tests.

There is an abundance of literature concerning how music may influence self-

esteem. Many times this is also linked to academic achievement and anxiety or stress.

Music is often used as a means to increase the self-esteem of “at-risk” subjects with low

self-esteem. Little of the research discussed identified genre as significant. It would be

interesting to see more research about the relationship between self-esteem and a

preference for a particular musical genre.

14
Costa-Giomi, Eugenia, “Effects of Three Years of Piano Instruction on Children’s Academic
Achievement, School Performance and Self-Esteem, Psychology of Music 32, no. 2 (April 2004):
139-152.
 Bibliography

Adams, Lowell Walter. “An Experimental Study of the Efectiveness of the use of
Personalized and Semi-Personalized Musical Recordings as a Means of
Improving the Self-Esteem of Young Children.” Ph.D. diss., The Union for
Experimenting Colleges and Universities, 1988.

Bailey, Betty A. and Jane W. Davidson. “Effects of Group Singing and Performance for
Marginalized and Middle-Class Singers. Psychology of Music 33, no. 3 (2005):
269-303.

Costa-Giomi, Eugenia. “Effects of Three Years of Piano Instruction on Children’s

Academic Achievement, School Performance and Self-Esteem. Psychology of
Music 32, no. 2 (April 2004): 139-152.

Cowan, Marilee Mansfield and Faith M. Clover. “Enhancement of Self-Concept through

discipline-Based Art Education.” Art Education 44, no. 2 (1991): 38-45.

Jones, Rick. “Using Art to Help Develop Self-Esteem for Troubled Youth.” Art
Education 39, no. 1 (1986): 21-22.

Kalandyk, Jolanta. “Can We Improve the Self-Esteem of Young Children Through

Music?” Austrailian Journal of Music Education n1 (1997), 31-41.

Kalandyk, Jolanta. Music and the Self-Esteem of Young Children. Lanham, Md.:
University Press of America, 1996.

Linch, Sheryl Ann, “Differences in Academic Achievement and Level of Self-Esteem

Among High School Participants in Instrumental Music, Non-Participants, and

Murdock, Mervin Charles. “An investigation of the relationship between seventh, tenth,
and twelfth-graders’ participation in school choir and their perceived levels of
self-concept and social support.” Ph.D. diss., University of North Texas, 1991.

Stack, Steven and Jim Gundlach. “The Effect of Country Music on Suicide.” Social
Forces 71, no. 1 (1992): 211-218.

Students Who Discontinue Instrumental Music Education.” D.M.E. diss., University of

Northern Colorado, 1993.