The Consumer in the European Union

Contents

1. Objectives
2. 1 Introduction
3. 2 Economic developments
4. 2.1 Household income
5. 2.2 Inflation
6. 2.3 Unemployment
7. 2.4 Gross domestic product
8. 3 Demographic developments
9. 3.1 Population growth
10. 3.2 Ageing
11. 3–3 Number of households and household size
12. 3.4 Education
13. 3.5 Immigration
14. Will the appeal of the East reach the European High Street?
15. 4 Cultural developments
16. 4.1 Liberalization of women
17. 4.2 Health and environmental concerns
18. 4.3 Changes in values
19. 4.4 Consumer expectations
20. 5 Changes in consumer behaviour
21. Healthier eating
22. Discount junkies?
23. 6 Conclusions
24. 7 The future
25. Further reading
26. Discussion questions

Section: Customers, Markets, and Marketing Objectives

The objectives of this chapter are:

1.to give an overview and insights into developments in consumer behaviour at a macro level in the nations of the
European Union:
2.to suggest how economic, demographic, and cultural developments and changes in consumer behaviour will
evolve.

1 Introduction
CHANGES in consumer behaviour create opportunities and threats for the marketing managers of firms that
produce consumer goods and services. These changes in behaviour derive from a combination of economic,
demographic, and cultural developments. These developments are discussed in this chapter. The picture that
will be presented is that there are striking similarities between the nations of Europe, as well as interesting
differences, based upon their history and geographical location. Furthermore even within these individual
nations there are large differences, as, for instance, between the north and south of Italy. However, it is
suggested that there is more convergence than divergence between the nations, owing, in part, to the EU
policy of stimulating economic development in the same direction.

The economic, demographic, cultural, and consumer-behaviour developments are discussed. Using data from
the European Union (EU), fifteen propositions are presented.
2 Economic developments
THE economic developments that affect consumer behaviour can be described by data on household income,
inflation, unemployment, and gross domestic product (GDP).

2.1 Household income

Proposition 1. Household income is becoming more unevenly distributed and is creating a two-tier population
of wealthy and poor consumers.

Average income has gone up in most EU nations since the early 1990s, but the income distribution has become
less equal in most cases. Income polarization and a two-tier population of the rich and the poor are reported in
Belgium, France, Italy, the Netherlands, and the UK. In some countries-—for example, the Netherlands—the
lowering of the highest rates of tax has contributed to this development. It is generally accepted that this
uneven distribution is likely to remain a feature of the EU. Well-off consumers will expect to have access to
luxury products and prestigious brands, while poorer consumers need access to less expensive goods and
second-hand products. In general these two target groups are becoming more clearly separated.

2.2 Inflation

Proposition 2. Most EU nations, especially the EMU members, have inflation rates under control.

Much of the income increase apparently achieved in Belgium, Germany, Denmark, Greece, the Netherlands,
Portugal, and Spain was destroyed in the 1980s by inflation. During the last two decades of the twentieth
century, Greece had the highest inflation rate in the EU, with especially high rates during the first half of the
1980s. However, after 1985 the inflation rate decreased. Factors such as the increase in price competition in
the single European market, cost reductions caused by abolishing intra-EU trade barriers, relatively small
increases in labour costs, and the general increase in cost consciousness all combined to generate lower labour
costs (Leeflang and Pahud de Mortanges 1993). Most EU countries reduced their inflation rates to below 3 per
cent so that they could meet the criteria for admission to the European Monetary Union (EMU) and the single
European currency (the ‘Euro’). However, of those countries seeking admission to the EMU, only Greece did
not meet these criteria and was not admitted. The belief in the late 1990s is that most EU nations, especially
the EMU members, have inflation rates under control.

2.3 Unemployment

Proposition 3. Although the unemployment has gone down, the level of unemployment is still high in many
EU nations.

Unemployment rose at the beginning of the 1980s, but returned to the 1980 level in the latter part of the
decade. Unemployment, however, remains a major feature of the macro-marketing environment. 3.1 sets out
the unemployment figures for the EU nations and shows that, although in most nations the unemployment rate
decreased after 1988 but increased a little in 1991–3, in the period 1993–6 for most countries little change was
recorded. Exceptionally high rates existed through the 1990s in Finland, Ireland, Spain, and the south of Italy,
while Austria and Luxembourg had the lowest rates. Especially worrying have been the high levels of
unemployment among the young and the immigrant communities in many EU nations.

Except for Greece, Spain, and Ireland, where relatively few women have entered the labour force, the numbers
of women entering the labour market increased in the 1990s and led to an increase in demand for part-time
jobs. While the EU average of female participation in the labour market in 1995 was 39 per cent, in Spain the
figure was only 32 per cent (in comparison, the figure in Denmark was 46 per cent).

2.4 Gross domestic product

Proposition 4. GDP in most EU nations gradually increases over time.

The changes in gross domestic product (GDP) of the EU nations at current prices are shown in Table 3.2. Slow
growth and some decline in GDP can be observed in 1993, but some acceleration in growth was present in
1994 and 1995. The period previous to 1992 was one of recession in most EU countries. In Denmark, Greece,
and Italy, the informal or black economy grew considerably during this period. The informal economy is where
people have jobs that they do not register (and they therefore pay no tax, etc., on their earnings and may
indeed still be registered as unemployed). The GDP is thus understated and unemployment is overstated
where this occurs. Consumer reaction to a recession and the threat of unemployment is usually to curtail
expenditure in various ways–luxury goods in particular are affected by a decrease in demand (van Raaij and
Eilander 1983).

Economic and political developments are inevitably closely related. By the end of 1998 most EU nations had
made a political decision to implement economic policies that would enable them to reach the criteria for entry
to the EMU. In 1998 it was decided to admit Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy,
Luxembourg,Portugal, Spain, and the Netherlands to the EMU. Greece did not meet the criteria, and Denmark,
Sweden, and the UK decided not to join the EMU at that time.

3 Demographic developments
DEMOGRAPHIC developments refer to such matters as population growth, ageing, number of households and
household size, education, and immigration. Overall, the EU population increased at a net rate of 3.6 per cent
over the 1990s, with the highest growth rates being found in France, Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands,
and the south of Italy.

3.1 Population growth

In the late 1990s it was forecast that in the year 2000 the total EU population would be 375 million, but the
expectation was that it would decline to 337 million by 2050. In 1998 the GDP per capita in the EU was 15,000
ecus and this makes the market much larger than that of the USA (265 million inhabitants and a per capita
GDP of 19,000 ecus) or Japan (125 million inhabitants and a per capita GDP of 20,000 ecus). India (945 million
inhabitants) and China ( 1,225million inhabitants) have much larger populations but smaller per capita GDPs—
these being 550 and 430 ecus, respectively.

3.2 Ageing

Proposition 5. In the age distribution of the population, the proportion of elderly people is expected to
increase (‘greying’) and the proportion of young people to decrease.

In all of the EU countries, the average age is rising, as the population ‘greys’ while the proportion of young
people decreases. As women tend on average to live longer than men do, the proportion of females is
relatively high amongst senior citizens. It is estimated that, by 2000, 21.6 per cent of the EU population will be
over 60 and 23.4 per cent under 20. As Table 3.3 shows, by the year 2020 the figures will be 26.7 and 20.4
per cent respectively. Germany has the widest spread of ages and Ireland has a considerably younger
population than other EU nations.

The greying trend has enormous implications for pension plans and social-security schemes. Many marketing
opportunities will also arise in the fields of health care and recreation products and services directed at the
needs of older people.

3–3 Number of households and household size

Proposition 6. Household size is gradually decreasing in all EU nations.

The expectation is that the number of households in the EU will increase to 150 million by 2000. Furthermore,
because of the decreasing birth rate, young adults leaving home, older people remaining single after divorce,
more widows and widowers who remain single, and more people living on their own, the average household
size is decreasing throughout the EU. The proportions of oneperson and two-person households in the EU had
risen to 26 and 30 per cent respectively by 1998; the smallest households were found in Denmark (2.0
persons) and the largest in Spain (3.6 persons). It is predicted that by 2000 the average household size in the
EU will be 2.6 persons.

The trend towards smaller households is most noticeable in Northern Europe (except for Ireland), but in
Greece, Spain, and the south of Italy more households are larger than the EU average. Some of the marketing
implications of this development are a change in the type of housing required and an increase per head of
population in the number of brown durables (such as television sets and VCRs) and white durables (such as
washing machines and deep freezers) required.

3.4 Education

Proposition 7. The education level of the population is gradually increasing.

The level of education, as measured by length of time spent in education, has increased in all EU countries,
though at different rates in different countries. In the Nordic countries and Germany over 57 per cent of the
population continues education beyond the age of 18. In Spain, Switzerland, and the UK a smaller proportion
has continued beyond that age, as indicated in Table 3.4.

3.5 Immigration

Proposition 8. The proportion of non-EU immigrants is increasing. They form a considerable part of the
population in most EU nations, especially in the large cities.

There is a considerable amount of immigration from Eastern Europe, North Africa, Turkey, and the former
colonies of the individual EU nations, with the largest proportion of non-EU immigrants coming from Turkey
(23.5 per cent). As Table 3.5 shows, these non-EU immigrants live especially in Austria, Belgium, Germany,
France, the Netherlands, and Sweden. The immigrant communities in Germany, the UK, and other countries
typically live in large cities, where they add to cultural diversity and are considered as new targets for
marketing management (see Insert). Austria and Germany have the largest proportion of non-EU and EU
foreigners, while Luxembourg and Belgium have the largest proportion of EU foreigners (because of the EU
and NATO offices).

‘Marketers who understand how family situation affects consumers' buying requirements can capitalize by
designing marketing mixes to appeal to these differences.’ (Chapter 16, p. 386)

Will the appeal of the East reach the European High Street?

In 1998 the London Research Centre estimated that London's ethnic minorities would grow by 40 per cent in
the next fifteen years. In addition, there is a mixture of cultures by marriage, with a fifth of Asian males living
in the UK having partners from outside their ethnic group.

4 Cultural developments
CULTURAL developments will, for historical, geographical, and linguistic reasons, differ between the EU
nations. However, there are still several striking similarities in the cultural development of the EU nations
relating to the liberalization of women, concern for health and the environment, changes in values, and
consumer expectations.

4.1 Liberalization of women

Proposition 9. The liberalization of women leads to more women with a paid job outside the home.

The feminist movement and the greater acceptance of working women (especially mothers) together with new
gender role patterns have been very noticeable in the EU, though the lead seems to have been taken by the
northern nations. Opinions about the role of women are still quite conservative, as is shown in Table 3.6. Many
people still indicate that a woman's role is to be a housewife. They still support family values (Antonides and
van Raaij 1998). Nevertheless, as indicated earlier, there is a trend towards women participating more fully in
the labour market and for women to have a work-based career. The liberalization of women is more accepted
in the Nordic countries than it is elsewhere in Europe, especially southern Europe.

4.2 Health and environmental concerns

Proposition 10. Health and environmental concerns are increasing in all EU nations.

As Table 3.7 shows, there is a clear trend towards a greater concern about both health and environmental
issues with ‘health’ including physical fitness and general physical condition. Apart from Portugal, concern
about environmental issues was high throughout the EU in the period 1986–95. This concern seemed to
increase between 1986 and 1992, and, although it has decreased a little since 1992, it still remains high
relative to 1986.

4.3 Changes in values

Proposition 11. In the EU there is a gradual shift from materialistic to post-materialistic values.

Between 1981 and 1990 there was a gradual shift from materialistic to post-materialistic values that is a
change from a concern about ownership of products to a concern about the quality of life (see Table 3.8).
Such issues as ‘maintaining law and order’ and ‘fighting rising prices’ are materialistic issues, while ‘giving
people more say in government decisions’ and ‘protecting freedom of speech’ reflect post-materialistic values.
People with post-materialistic values tend to emphasize experience more than ‘ownership’, and for them sports
activities, recreation, and holiday trips become more important than product ownership and those durables
that are purchased are bought for their fun and expressive value rather than for their technical characteristics.
Most postmaterialistic consumers nevertheless own many products, but these may be of a different type from
those owned by a materialistic consumer.

4.4 Consumer expectations

Proposition 12. Consumer expectations in the EU nations are quite diverse.

There is a macro and a micro aspect to consumer expectations. The macro aspect is the consumers'confidence
in the economic development of their nation—its economic growth, its inflation, and its unemployment rates.
The micro aspect relates to the conditions of household and individual consumers and includes household
income, value of savings, and job security. The macro expectations influence micro expectations (van
Everdingen and van Raaij 1998), but both aspects can be summarized in the Index of Consumer Sentiment. A
positive score on the Index indicates that positive expectations prevail, which should lead to more discretionary
expenditure on durables, luxury services, and holidays. A negative score indicates that pessimistic expectations
are dominant, which would be expected to result in lower expenditure on luxury items and durables together
with the taking of less credit and an increase in savings. There were significant differences between the EU
nations in this scale during the period 1993–7. The Danes have been optimistic since 1994, while the Dutch
and Irish became optimistic in 1995 and since then their levels of optimism have continued to rise. The most
pessimistic were the Greeks and to a lesser extent the French, Italians, Portuguese, and Spaniards—though in
recent years the Portuguese and the Spaniards have become less pessimistic. Although the trend for the EU as
a whole is towards less pessimistic expectations, only the UK switched from a pessimistic to an optimistic score
during the 1990s (see Table 3.9).
Consumer expectations are related to life satisfaction (Eurobarometer 1994). Here in 1993 the Danes, Dutch,
and Irish scored highest on life satisfaction with scores of 63, 40, and 41 per cent very satisfied. The lowest
satisfaction scores were in East Germany, Greece, Italy, and Portugal, with 10, 15, 17, and 5 per cent very
satisfied respectively.

‘In 1994 total sales of medicines within the EU were 51,850 ecus, which accounted for nearly 25 per cent of
world output.’ (Chapter 5, p. 93)

5 Changes in consumer behaviour

THE economic, demographic, and cultural developments cause changes in consumer behaviour that result in
changes in the balance of demands for different goods and services.

Proposition 13. The consumption of services is increasing at the expense of durables.

Economic, demographic, and cultural developments cause changes in consumer behaviour. Marketing
managers have to be flexible to respond to these developments. Although total expenditure on durables
continues to increase, expenditure on services, including energy, holidays, leisure, tourism, travel, and medical
services, is increasing at a faster rate. In Denmark, Ireland, and the UK consumer expenditure on medical
services remains low because of the existence of the National Health Service or similar institutions (Saunders
and Saker 1994).

The consumption figures of the EU nations in 1994 are compared in Table 3.10. The table shows large
differences in expenditure between nations on specific product categories. In nearly every case the
expenditure on services was at that time higher than on durable consumption.

Proposition 14. The demand for health and green or ecological products is increasing.

A growth in the demand for health-related product is apparent in all countries (see Insert). European
consumers are also very concerned about the nutritional content of food. This is in line with the high level of
environmental concern, which reached its highest level in many countries in 1992 (see Table 3.7). After 1992
concern about environmental issues decreased a little, mainly because of an increased concern with matters
such as criminality and safety.

The increasing concerns of consumers regarding ecological issues explain the demand for green products.
These are products whose production, distribution, and/or consumption cause less environmental damage and
often use ‘sustainable’ resources. There are even green saving schemes that guarantee that savings are not
invested in environmentally harmful activities.

Within the food budget, expenditure on red meat, coffee, tobacco, and alcoholic drinks fell in the 1990s and
the demand for low calorie, light and diet dishes and drinks increased. All these changes are a reflection of
increased health consciousness, as is an increasing demand for private medicine and hospitals, products for
body care, and pharmaceutical products. Sports goods, together with health and sports centres, also benefit
from this trend.

Proposition 15. The demand for luxury, convenience, and fun products and services is increasing.

In many EU countries the demand for luxury goods grew during the 1990s, as did the demand for goods at
discounted prices. This polarization effect is also reflected in the structure of the retail trade, where there has
been an increase in the number of discount stores. Examples of luxury or fun goods are gourmet, exotic, and
ethnic foods (especially popular in Germany and Denmark), expensive motor vehicles such as four-wheel-drive
off-roaders and moderately priced two-seaters, and the strength of expensive international brands (e.g.
Porsche, Rolex, Cartier). The trends in demand suggest that European consumers behave more similarly with
regard to expensive products than with regard to more everyday products. However, the same brands are
increasingly appearing in everyday shopping baskets all across the EU, even though differences in national
tastes are still very considerable.
Proposition 16. Price sensitivity and price consciousness are increasing among European consumers.

The trend towards increasing price sensitivity still exists throughout the EU and the interest in discounted
products has become stronger. Consumers continue to show an increasing price consciousness and sensitivity
with regard to a wide range of goods such as food products, cosmetics, books, furniture, and clothing (see
Insert). In part this trend can be explained by the increased demand for luxury goods as purchasing products
at lower prices creates room in consumers' budgets for the acquisition of luxury products. The increased price
sensitivity and consciousness are not restricted to lower-income groups: ‘Poor people need low prices; rich
people love them.’ Furthermore, curtailment of expenditure on non-luxury products is reflected in tendencies to
buy less, to buy lower quality, to buy private label brands, or not to buy some goods at all (van Raaij and
Eilander 1983).

‘Understanding cultural differences is, therefore, an important task in international consumer-goods marketing.’
(Chapter 6, p. 127)

Healthier eating

Sales of organic food in the UK grew from £100 million in 1993 to over £350 million in 1998. The expectation
of supermarkets is that this growth will accelerate and they forecast sales of £1,100 million by 2002.

Discount junkies?

American studies have found that consumers exposed to repeated price cuts learn to ignore the ‘usual’ price
and wait for the next discount and then stockpile the product. They also require bigger and bigger discounts to
stimulate them to buy at all.

6 Conclusions
ALTHOUGH at the end of the twentieth century there were considerable cross-national differences in
consumption patterns within the EU, some common trends were clearly present. These trends have been
outlined for economic, demographic, and cultural aspects of consumer behaviour.

The economic developments in the EU are in general positive. Income for most consumers is increasing,
creating more discretionary income.

However, these sentiments are not identified in all of the EU countries by the Index of Consumer Sentiment.
Consumers in some nations (e.g. Denmark) are more optimistic than other consumers (e.g. the southern
European nations). Furthermore, income distribution is becoming less equal, and not all consumers, especially
the disabled and the unemployed, obtain a share in the favourable economic development. Some lowincome
groups have to curtail their expenditure on essentials. Inflation and interest rates are relatively low. Trust in
the economy is generally high and both saving and credit are stimulated by government activity.

Demographic developments in the EU point towards more diversity and variety amongst consumers: smaller
household sizes, higher education levels, and higher proportions of immigrants. The traditional family structure
of husband, wife, and children is becoming less common. Ethnic and racial variety is increasing. The proportion
of older people is increasing, while the proportion of younger people is decreasing.

Cultural developments show that consumers are becoming more individualistic and experience orientated
(‘kicks’ and ‘thrills’). The acceptance of the equality of men and women is becoming very apparent—especially
in the Nordic countries. Environmental concerns stay at a high level and peoples' health concerns appear to
grow. Postmaterialistic values seem to be replacing materialistic values. Optimism about the future appears to
be strong.
The major categories of change in consumer behaviour comprise an increasing expenditure on services, health,
luxury, and fun items and increasing price sensitivity. Most consumers expect and want ‘more for less’—high-
quality products for a low price.

7 The future
A number of propositions have been put forward in this chapter. Some will without doubt turn out not to be
correct, for the factors that determine what actually happens in the EU are numerous and interconnected in a
complex manner. For example, how will the move for greater political unification within the EU proceed? At the
end of the 1990s, some parts of the EU were pressing for more unification while others were uncertain and
some were opposed. Many aspects of the well-being of European consumers will be determined by how this
matter will be resolved. Similarly, whether or not to extend the EU to include some or all of the East European
states has not yet been determined.

However, some aspects of the future seem clear. There will be further deregulation of industry (for example, in
telecommunications and airlines), so that competition in a number of industries will increase. As, in general,
increased competition leads to lower prices, better service, and more product development, then increased
demand can be foreseen for such industries' products and services. Yet one of the most difficult aspects to
forecast is a feature that might disrupt many predictions. This is the risk of the continued growth of a type of
‘underclass’ in the EU, made up of the long-term unemployed people. Nobody seems to see a solution to this
problem and the risk of social unrest arising from it is a matter of great concern. It is not, as a consequence,
perhaps too cynical to suggest that one certain growth market is that for security services, and demand for its
products will surely continue to increase.

Further reading
Antonides, G., and van Raaij, W. F. (1998), Consumer Behaviour: A European Perspective (Chichester: John
Wiley&Sons).

‘The Changing Consumer in the European Union’, International Journal of Research in Marketing, 12/5 (Dec.
1995). This special issue contains eight papers.

‘A Single Currency in Europe’, Journal of Economic Psychology, 19/6 (Dec. 1998). This special issue contains
seven papers.

Discussion questions

1.What are the factors that are causing an increase in the demand for customized services?
2.It has been suggested that for the segment of a community for whom ‘time is money’ a rational approach to
purchasing is to accept that it is cheaper to make the wrong purchase than spend time on making the correct
one. What are the implications of this for consumption expenditure?
3.For which categories of consumer goods are demands likely to be strongly affected by the predicted changes in
the age structure of the population?
4.Does the increased consumption of convenience foods represent a threat or an opportunity to manufacturers of
domestic appliances?
5.In what ways would you predict that the falling size of the average household will impact on the demand for
housing?
6.Some of the member countries of the EU have relatively low GDPs per head of population. As these countries
‘catch up’, which categories of consumer products would you expect to benefit most?
7.Will the growth in the number of ‘house-husbands’ impact on consumer consumption patterns?

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© Oxford University Press 2000

Table 3.1 Unemployment rates, European Union, 1993–1996 (%)

Country 1993 1994 1995 1996

Austria 4.0 3.8 3.9 4.4

Belgium 8.9 10.0 9.9 9.8
Denmark 10.1 8.2 7.2 6.9
Finland 17.5 17.9 16.6 15.7
France 11.7 12.3 11.7 12.4
Germany 7.9 8.4 8.2 9.0
Greece 8.6 8.9 9.2 9.6
Italy 10.3 11.4 11.9 12.0
Ireland 15.6 14.3 12.3 11.8
Luxembourg 2.7 3.2 2.9 3.3
Portugal 5.7 7.0 7.3 7.3
Spain 22.8 24.1 22.9 22.1
Sweden 9.5 9.8 9.2 10.0
The Netherlands 6.6 7.1 6.9 6.3
United Kingdom 10.4 9.6 9.2 10.0
European Union 10.7 11.1 10.8 10.9

Source: Eurostat (1997b).

Table 3.2 GDP of nations, european Union, 1993–1995 (1990
ecu.bn)
Country 1992 1993 1994 1995
Austria 130.90 131.38 135.39 137.86
Belgium 157.63 155.50 159.14 162.22
Denmark 103.31 104.90 109.34 112.24
Finland 95.16 94.04 98.32 102.71
France 959.86 947.09 973.86 994.15
Germany 1,367.96 1,352.57 1,391.31 1,418.14
Greece 67.56 67.72 69.21 70.61
Italy 875.88 865.763 884.55 910.54
Ireland 38.53 39.94 42.87 47.47
Luxembourg 8.84 9.20 9.55 9.86
Portugal 55.67 54.79 55.18 56.20
Spain 399.00 394.22 402.58 413.76
Sweden 176.26 172.35 178.10 184.46
The Netherlands 233.11 234.89 242.85 248.05
United Kingdom 752.89 768.49 797.97 817.84
European Union 5,422.27 5,392.84 5,550.21 5,686.13
Source: Eurostat (1997b).
Table 3.3 Greying of the population, european Union,
1960–2020 (%)

Age 1960 1980 2000 2020

0–19 31.8 30.0 23.4 20.4
20–59 52.7 52.2 55.0 52.9
>60 15.5 17.8 21.6 26.7
Source: Eurostat (1992).
Table 3.4 Population continuing
education beyond thee age of 18,
European Union, 1991(%)
Denmark 71
Norway 68
Sweden 63
(West) Germany 59
Finland 57
Belgium 54
Netherlands 53
Greece 46
Austria 44
Luxenmburg 43
France 41
Ireland 34
Italy 34
Portugal 29
Spain 28
Switzerland 27
UK 24
Source: Eurobarometer (1994).
Table 3.5 Foreign population, European
Union, 1994 (%)
Country Non-EU foreigners EU foreigners
Austria[a] 5.6 1.0
Belgium 3.7 5.4
Denmark 2.8 0.8
Finland 0.8 0.2
France[a] 3.9 2.3
Germany 6.3 2.2
Greece 1.0 0.4
Ireland 0.3 2.0
Italy 0.9 0.2
Luxembourg 3.0 28.8
Netherlands 3.8 1.3
Portugal 1.2 0.4
Spain 0.6 0.5
Sweden 3.7 2.1
United Kingdom 2.1 1.4
European Union 3.2 1.5
a In 1992.
Source: Eurostat (1996).
Table 3.6 Opinions on role patterns in the
European Union
Survey statements Percentage
agreeing

A working mother can establish just as 68.5

warm and secure a relationship with
her children as a mother who does not
work.
A pre-school child is likely to suffer 60.7
if his or her mother works.
A job is alright, but what most women 55.4
really want is a home and children
Being a housewife is just as fulfilling as 60.6
working for pay.
Having a job is the best way for a 71.0
woman to be an independent person.
Both the husband and wife should 73.6
contribute to household income.
Sharing household chores is very 20.1
important for a successful marriage.
Source: World Values Study Group (1990).
Table 3.7 Indicators of environmental concern, European Union,
1986–1995
Indicator 1986 1988 1992 1995

Protection of the environment and 74 76 87 83

suppression of environmental
pollution is an immediate and
urgent problem (% agree)
Concern about (4=highly concerned):
extinction of plants 3.2 3.2 3.5 3.4
exhaustion of national resources 3.0 3.1 3.5 3.3
global warming 3.0 3.2 3.5 3.4
pollution of rivers and lakes 3.2 3.2 3.5 3.4
pollution of seas and coast 3.3 3.3 3.6 3.3
air pollution 3.1 3.2 3.5 3.4
industrial waste 3.2 3.3 3.6 3.4
Source: European Commission (1995).
Table 3.8 Materialistic versus
postmaterialistic values, European Union,
1981 and 1990 (% agreeing)

What is most important? 1981 1990

Maintaining order in the nation 63.7 51.4

Fighting rising prices 48.0 45.2
Giving people more say in
important government decisions 41.0 46.3
Protecting freedom of speech 35.8 48.6
Source: World Values Study Group (1990).
Table 3.9 Consumer expectations, European Union, 1993–1997
Country 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Average 1988–1997
Belgium -26 -15 -14 -23 -22 -13
Denmark -5 +8 +9 +4 +9 0
France -25 -17 -17 -28 -20 -19
Germany -28 -15 -9 -21 -19 -13
Greece -27 -22 -31 -27 -26 -25
Ireland -14 -1 +4 +11 +18 -4
Italy -32 -21 -21 -25 -22 -18
Netherlands-17 -7 +4 +3 +17 -1
Portugal -24 -26 -20 -18 -10 -12
Spain -34 -25 -20 -14 -3 -14
United
Kingdom -13 -12 -10 -5 +4 -12
European
Union -25 -17 -13 -17 -11 -14
Note: The figures are the net result of the proportions of
positive (optimistic) minus negative (pessimistic) expectations.
A negative score means that negative expectations are dominant.
A positive score means that positive expectations prevail.
Source: Eurostat (1998).
Legend for Chart:
A-Food
B-Rent, fuel and power
C-Transport and communication
D-Furniture
E-Entertainment and culture
F-Medical care and health expenses
G-Clothing and footware

Table 3.10 Consumption of households in categories of goods and

services, European Union, 1994 (%)
Country A B C D E F G

Austria 14.1 18.8 15.9 7.9 4.0 6.7 8.1

Belgium 13.4 18.0 13.0 10.0 1.6 12.3 7.2
Denmark 14.1 27.5 17.7 6.1 3.1 2.1 5.3
Finland 15.7 25.0 14.9 5.8 3.7 5.4 4.5
France 14.1 21.0 16.2 7.4 2.1 10.1 5.6
Germany 10.6 20.4 15.2 8.3 -- 15.6 6.7
Greece[a] 28.3 13.5 14.7 7.4 1.9 4.2 7.7
Ireland 17.3 12.0 13.6 6.5 2.4 4.1 6.6
Italy 16.6 17.5 11.9 9.2 2.6 6.9 9.1
Luxembourg 10.9[b] 19.8[c] 10.8[c] -- 7.3[c] 5.7[c]
Netherlands 11.1 19.5 12.9 6.6 3.2 12.9 6.3
Portugal 23.6[b] 7.0[c] 14.9[c] 8.3[c] -- 4.5[c] 9.3[c]
Spain 15.2[c] 13.1 15.7 6.2 1.6[c] 4.7 7.8
Sweden[a] 14.4 32.9 15.7 6.6 3.5 2.3 5.8
UK 10.6 19.6 17.4 6.6 3.2 1.7 5.9
EU 14.6[b] 18.0[c] 16.1[c] 7.8[c] -- 8.4[c] 7.3[c]
[a]In 1993.[b] In 1991.[c] In 1992.
Source: Eurostat (1996).

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By W.Fredvan Raaij; Peter Leeflang and Gerrit Antonides

Edited by Keith Blois

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