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The next concept in the sequential statistical steps approach is calculating measures of
central tendency. Measures of central tendency represent some of the most simple forms of data
analysis. Each of the measures explained in this chapter are calculated in an effort to identify a
specific value that can be considered “representative” or “typical” of the entire distribution. In
everyday language, most people refer to this value as the average. Students are often presented
with information about national averages, class averages, and grade point averages. Statisticians
refer to this statistic as the mean ( ). Two additional measures of central tendency are
commonly employed by those working with statistics. These measures are the mode (Mo) and
the median (Mdn). This chapter provides an explanation of each of these measures and how
The mode (Mo) is the simplest measure of central tendency and is easy to derive. The
mode is observed rather than computed. The mode (Mo) of a distribution of values is the value
which occurs most often. Since all of the values in a distribution occur only once in a simple
distribution, there is no mode for a simple distribution. For the frequency distribution in Figure
3:1, the mode (Mo) is 60 because this value occurs more times than any of the other values.
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FIGURE 3:1
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION UNIMODAL POLYGON
X f
90 1
80 2
70 3
60 (Mo) 4
50 3
40 2
30 1
The distribution shown in Figure 3:1 is said to be unimodal because it has only one mode. Some
distributions may contain two or more modes. If two values in a distribution occur equally more
often than the other values, this distribution is referred to as bimodal. The distribution in Figure
FIGURE 3:2
X f
95 2
85 (Mo) 4
75 2
65 (Mo) 4
55 2
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This distribution has two modes, 65 and 85, because each of these values occur four times. For a
grouped frequency distribution, the mode is in the interval having the greatest frequency and is
called the modal interval. An example of a mode for a grouped frequency distribution is shown
in Figure 3:3.
FIGURE 3:3
FINDING THE MODE FOR GROUPED DATA1
X Midpoint f Cumulative
Frequency (cf)
20-22 21 2 24
17-19 18 3 22
14-16 15 (Mo) 7 19
11-13 12 6 12
8-10 9 4 6
5-7 6 2 2
N= 24
The information provided in the frequency column indicates that the modal interval for this
distribution is the 14-16 interval. The mode represents the midpoint of the modal interval (15).
The mode of a distribution is not always at the middle or center of a distribution. It can
be located at any point within the range of observations that make up the distribution examined.
The reasons for this are explained later in the chapter. The mode can provide a quick reference
point, but it does not always yield an accurate evaluation of the central tendency of a distribution
of values. The other measures of central tendency are generally more useful in this regard.
1
W hen data are grouped, the determ ination of m easures of central tendency will always be less
accurate.
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The second measure of central tendency is the median. In comparison to the mode, the
median (Mdn) is a slightly more complex and useful statistic. The median represents the middle
point of a distribution of data. It is the point at which exactly half of the observed values in the
distribution are higher and half of the observed values are lower. When determining the median
for a frequency distribution with an odd number of observations, the location of the median is
determined by multiplying the total number of observed values by (.5).2 Once the position is
calculated, determine the value of the observation in that position within the distribution. If the
median position is in between two positions in the distribution, the median is calculated by
averaging those two numbers together. Figure 3:4 provides an example of this process.
FIGURE 3:4
X f cf
70 2 25
60 3 23
50 4 20
40(Mdn) 7 16
30 4 9
20 3 5
10 2 2
N= 25
2
Be very careful. Please note that this calculation only determ ines the position and NOT the actual
m edian.
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The calculated value of 12.5 identifies the median is the 12.5th value. That position in the
seven observations represent the 10th, 11th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th, and 16th (cf) positions in the
distribution. Since the values for the 12th and 13th positions are both 40, the median of this
distribution is 40.
Finding the median for grouped frequency distributions is a more complex procedure.
The median for grouped data will not be explained at this point because it would divert our
attention from measures of central tendency. The median for grouped data, which is equivalent
The third and most widely used measure of central tendency is the mean( ).3 The mean
of a distribution of values is obtained by adding all of the values and dividing the sum by the
number (N or n) of values. When obtaining the mean for a simple distribution of sample data ,
The following are the explanations of the components of the formula for the mean.
the mean.
3
The sym bol for m ean is a bar over a capital X for a sam ple and the Greek letter m for a population.
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n = the number of values in the distribution.
Calculating the mean for simple distributions is not a difficult task. Suppose a researcher
obtained a simple distribution or set of scores on a civil service exam as follows: X = 70, 80, 50,
30, 90, 80, 75, 95, 100, 105. The mean would be determined by following two simple steps.
First, sum all the values of X. Then divide by the number of values in the distribution to
Step 2:
The mean civil service exam score is 77.5.4 The mean score is the typical performance level of
all the candidates taking the exam. Obtaining the mean for a frequency distribution is only
slightly more complicated. The formula for the mean of a frequency distribution is:
The following are the explanations of the symbols for this formula:
Mean
the frequency of each value of X times that value
The sum of all values of X multiplied by their frequency
4
Rounding in this text is always two places. For exam ple, 77.5033 is 77.50, 77.5453 is 77.55. The
decision is m ade at the third decim al place by rounding up if the digit is 5 or above and down if 4 or below.
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A hypothetical distribution is shown in Figure 3:6. The use of the frequency (f) and
cumulative frequency (cf) simplifies the calculations as well as the organization of the data. The
mean for this distribution is not equivalent to the value which occurs most often (Mo) or the
FIGURE 3:6
So far, the mean has been calculated for distributions of data which were not grouped. In
actual research situations, the data may not always be ungrouped or organized in a simple
frequency distribution. Suppose a researcher had data grouped into class intervals with a width
of ten. In such cases, the mean is calculated in a slightly different manner. The process begins
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with a determination of the midpoint for each class interval. this case, the mean must be
obtained by determining the midpoint of each interval. The midpoint is calculated by adding
the highest value included in the interval to the lowest value included in the interval and dividing
the sum by two . The value for the midpoint is then used to
calculate . Figure 3:7 provides an example of a grouped frequency distribution and the
FIGURE 3:7
DETERMINING MEAN
(Grouped Frequency Distribution)
X Midpoint f cf fX
90-99 94.5 2 24 189
80-89 84.5 3 22 253.5
70-79 74.5 7 19 521.5
60-69 64.5 6 12 387
50-59 54.5 4 6 218
40-49 44.5 2 2 89
n=24 1658
In comparing the mean, mode, and median, one concludes that the mean is a more precise
measure of central tendency for interval data. The mean is also used as a building block for
many subsequent statistical calculations and in statistical inference. One of the most useful
explanatory comparisons of the mode, median, and mean is related to the concept of symmetry
or shape of a distribution. In a unimodal symmetrical distribution, the mode, median, and mean
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are the same value. The shape of the distribution is a bell shaped curve with the mode, median,
and mean occurring at the peak of the distribution. The comparative location of these measures
of central tendency for a unimodal distribution is shown in Figure 3:8. If the distribution is
bimodal and symmetrical the mean and median will be the same value, and the modes will be at
FIGURE 3:8
SYMMETRICAL DISTRIBUTION
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FIGURE 3:9
BIMODAL DISTRIBUTION
The mode, median, and mean for a skewed distribution are also important. Any asymmetrical
frequency distribution with values spread out toward one direction more than the other is said to
be skewed. The mode, median, and the mean are not the same value in a skewed distribution.
The mean will always be located in the tail of a skewed distribution. In a positively skewed
distribution, outlying values on the right side of the distribution have the effect of pulling the
mean in that direction. The tail of the distribution will be on the right. The mean of a positively
skewed distribution will have a higher value than the median. The mode will have the lowest
value of the three measures These ideas are illustrated in Figure 3:10 for a positively skewed
distribution. The relative positions of the measures of central tendency are shown.
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FIGURE 3:10
POSITIVE SKEWED DISTRIBUTION
If the tail of the distribution is skewed to the left, the skew is said to be negative. In a negatively
skewed distribution, the mode is the largest value, the median in the center, and the mean is the
smallest of the three measures of central tendency. A negatively skewed distribution with the
relative positions of the mode, median, and mean is shown in Figure 3:11.
FIGURE 3:11
NEGATIVE SKEWED DISTRIBUTION
Since the measures of central tendency summarize distributions, these measures are an important
first step in data analysis. Sometimes it is sufficient to report only the most useful of the three
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measures of central tendency as a final interpretation of the data. For a hurried, rough estimate of
central tendency, the mode may be sufficient. When a distribution is highly skewed, the median
is the best measure of central tendency. Overall, the mean is generally the best measure of
central tendency since it is often an important first step for subsequent analyses. The objectives
of the research project and levels of measurement are probably the most important factors in
determining which measure of central tendency is appropriate. The mode may be used for
nominal, ordinal, and interval data. The median may be used with ordinal and interval. Interval
data are required for calculating a mean. For a review of the measures of central tendency, the
student should consult the sequential statistical steps at the end of this chapter.
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SEQUENTIAL STATISTICAL STEPS
CENTRAL TENDENCY ANALYSES
Step 1 What is the first step in calculating measures of central tendency?
Organize Data Create a frequency distribution.
Fifty percent of the values are above and below what value?
Step 4 Median Median
What is the sum of all the individual values? Add all of the
Step 5 values in a distribution including those that occur more than
once.
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EXERCISES - CHAPTER 3
(1) Find the mean, mode, and median for the following sets of data. Show all work and
organize in a solution matrix format.
(A) 10, 70, 40, 50, 10, 30, 30, 50, 60, 60, 50, 40, 30, 50, 40, 50, 40, 40, 40, 50, 50, 70,
80, 90, 60, 60, 60, 50, 10, 100, 60, 20, 20, 60
(B) 100, 90, 40, 50, 80, 70, 60, 50, 60, 70, 80, 70, 70, 90, 30, 30, 70, 40, 40, 40, 40,
70, 70, 20, 10, 15, 5, 70, 70
(C) 26, 32, 41, 58, 69, 73, 85, 97, 102, 114, 120, 130
(D) 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 36, 64, 72, 75, 90, 101
(2) For 1A and 1B, construct a frequency polygon and indicate the skew.
(3) Sixty-three students were asked to give their college GPA. Would calculating the median
GPA be the most useful measure of central tendency? If not, why not?
(4) For a unimodal distribution which has a severe positive skew, draw a frequency polygon
showing the positions of the mode and median relative to the mean.
(5) What is the mode of the following distribution? Find the mean and median.
X = 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 9, 9, 10, 10, 10, 10, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11
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(6) For the following distribution find the mean, mode, and median. Draw a frequency
polygon for this distribution.
X f
100 1
90 2
80 3
70 5
60 3
50 2
40 1
30 1
(7) For the following classes find the mean, median, and mode number of minutes studied for a
final exam. What is the skew for each class? On the average which class studied the most?
Which studied the least?
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(8) For the following data calculate the mean advertising dollars spent for both candidate A and
B.
(9) Using a grouped frequency distribution with intervals of 101 and beginning with 100
calculate the mean and mode for the following distribution of values.
100, 100, 100, 100, 110, 110, 110, 110, 123, 145, 500, 300, 120, 420, 620, 540, 186, 310,
200, 690, 695, 220, 210, 200, 210, 210 ,210, 418, 423, 419, 475, 500, 520, 530, 560, 700
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