1.

Explain the difference between a population, gene pool and a species

A population is a group of individuals in the same place and time that are able
to interbreed. The gene pool is the alleles present within a population.
However, due to migration, alleles present in one population can be moved to
another population. The species is all populations in a given time period,
although some populations will be genetically isolated from other species.

2. Discuss what is meant by the term natural selection. Your answer must
include selection pressures, types of natural selection and examples

Natural selection is the change in a species over time in response to

environmental selection pressures. Selection pressures include both abiotic and
biotic factors. Abiotic factors such as ranges in factors like temperature mean
that there is a wide range of niches within an environment This means that
certain phenotypes are better able to exploit parts of these niches better than
others. This means that those individuals possessing these traits are more likely
to reach adulthood and reproduce. Because they have an increased chance to
pass on their alleles to the next generation, the next generation has an increased
proportion with those specific traits. This is known as differential reproductive
success. Biotic factors such as competition drive members to exploit new
niches in order to reduce the time and energy spent in acquiring resources.

As parts of the population moves into these new niches and the build up of
changes increases, there can be a decreased gene flow between the new group
and the parent population, If sufficient changes accumulate then the new group
will become a new species.

The types of natural selection are directional, disruptive and stabilising. The
type of natural selection that occurs depends on the selection pressures that are
present. Directional selection occurs when one phenotype conveys a higher
survival chance than the others. Examples include selection of feather colour in
birds and rabbits. Disruptive selection occurs when the two extreme phenotypes
allow individuals to exploit different aspects of the niches or different habitats
for example moth body colour. Disruptive selection is the most likely to result
in speciation. Stabilising selection only occurs during periods of environmental
stability.
3. Explain how four factors affect gene pools and result in changes over
time.
a. Migration: Individuals that leave a population take their alleles
with them. This reduces the alleles that are available to the next
generation. It is also possible to reduce that range of alleles present
especially if part of the population leave to exploit a new niche.
 Individuals that move into a population add their alleles to the gene
pool. This means that potentially new combinations of alleles can
become part of the gene pool and increase the variation within the
population.
b. Mutation: These are changes in the genetic information of an
individual. The effects of mutations range from being very
harmful, through to no effect through to very beneficial. Mutations
must occur in the gametic cells in order for them to be passed onto
the next generation. Mutations increase the genetic diversity of a
population.
c. Bottleneck: The reduction of a population to a few breeding pairs
after an event. This reduces genetic diversity as only a small range
of alleles are now present
d. Founder effect: The allele frequency that is present in the original
population will become distorted over time as the group responds
to selection pressures. The genetic composition of the founding
group will not be representational of the original population. Over
time, these changes can accumulate enough to form a new species.
e. Genetic drift: A group that founds a new population does not
necessarily have the same genetic composition as the original
population. Over time, this means that there will be change in
allele frequency that can occur by chance (ie these are not traits
that are being selected for by the environment). The smaller the
original population then the larger the founder effect will be.
f. Isolating mechanisms: These reduce the gene flow between
populations and result in genetic changes not being exchanged.
Over time this will lead to speciation. Named isolating
mechanisms should be explained.

4. Discuss how speciation occurs. Your answer must include both allopatric
and sympatric speciation, isolating mechanisms and examples

Speciation is the process by which a new species is developed over time from
an existing species. Speciation requires some form of isolating mechanism
preventing gene flow between two populations. By preventing gene flow, any
new alleles that result from mutations can’t be passed between populations.
This means that over time, there will be an increase in the differences between
the populations. This may result in the development of a new species.

Isolating mechanisms can be divided into pre-zygotic and post-zygotic

mechanisms. Pre-zygotic mechanisms range from geographical differences to
differences that prevent successful mating occurring. In order for gene flow to
occur between populations, there must be the ability to transfer information.
Isolating mechanisms restrict this from occurring. Allopatric speciation occurs
when a geographical barrier exists between populations and stops individuals
from moving between populations. This also stops gene flow and allows for the
genetic changes that occur through mutation to be restricted to one population.
As each population is also facing slightly different selection pressures, there
will be different likely hoods of traits conveying a reproductive advantage.
Over time this means that even if the barrier was removed, these two
populations will no longer be able to reproduce.

5. Explain the difference between gradualism and punctuated equilibrium.

Gradualism is the accumulation of small changes over a long period of
time the results in new species developing. Punctuated equilibrium
occurs when long periods of environmental stability are punctuated by
short periods of rapid change. The long periods of stability have very
little change in species composition. However, the short periods of rapid
change results in a large range of niches changing. Populations enter
these niches and adapt. Sufficient changes can occur to produce a rapid
explosion of species in a very short period of time. For example, the
increase in species present as ice ages end.

6. Explain what adaptive radiation is. This is when a species migrates into a
large number of different niches in a short period of time. These new
populations adapt to their new conditions and this can result in new
species being produced (Finches and Hebe)

7. Explain in detail how hebe has evolved over time. See page 281 in
Biozone.

8. Discuss the patterns of evolution. Your answer must include convergent,

divergent, parallel and co-evolution.

Convergent evolution occurs when organisms occupy the same ecological

niche in a similar environment. Over time they will develop adaptations
that are similar. E.g. sharks and dolphins
Divergent evolution occurs when species have the same ancestor but have
adapted to occupy different niches. For example, hebe
Parallel evolution is when two species adapt in a similar way but do so
independently of each other for example: Flightlessness in birds. NZ has
a wide range of birds that are flightless but each species evolved this trait
independently from the others.
Co-evolution is an extreme form of mutualism.. Two species are so
closely related that they influence how each other evolves. For example:
Acacia ants and acacia plants
9. Describe what is meant by extinction and explain why it will always
happen. Extinction is when a species dies out. It will always happen as
the abiotic factors in an environment change. When sufficient change
occurs then a species is no longer able to survive. So while extinction
will always occur, it is the rate of extinction due to human existence that
is the concern of conservation groups.

10. independent assortment, segregation and crossing over during meiosis

 Meiosis is reduction division

 It halves the number of chromosomes present in the cell
 A diploid (2n) organism will produce haploid (n) cells through meiosis
 Independent Assortment
The segregation of one pair of alleles does not affect the segregation of
another.
I.e. most genes are expressed independently of each other.
 Independent segregation
This is important because it means that the copy of a chromosome that ends
up in a gamete cell occurs by chance.
It also means that the combination of chromosomes inherited from the parents
is varied.
 Crossing over
This is the formation of genetically different chromosomes.
It occurs by the chromatids swapping sections of DNA
Crossing over results in the formation of chiasmata- the site on the DNA
where the information is swapped

11. monohybrid inheritance and dihhbrid inheritance and ratios.

 Dihybrid Inheritance
This looks at the inheritance of two genes
Always involves 2 genes
Test cross is usually aabb
Remember that gametes always have one allele from each gene.
 Ratio’s you need to know
Sex linkage (phenotype linked to sex)
Co-dominance (1 red :2 roan: 1 white)
Incomplete (1 red:2 pink:1 white)
Lethal alleles (1 dead: 2 dom: 1 rec)
Multiple alleles (IAIA, IAIB, IBIB, IAIo IOIB)
Linked genes e.g black eyes and grey wings in fruit flies (same chromosome)