PV Cell

Multi Pulse Inverter For PV Cell 2014
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERVIEW
Energy is critical, directly or indirectly, in the entire process of evolution, growth and
survival of all living beings and it plays a vital role in the socio-economic development
and human welfare of a country. Energy has come to be known as a `strategic
commodity’ and any uncertainty about its supply can threaten the functioning of the
economy, particularly in developing economies. Achieving energy security in this
strategic sense is of fundamental importance not only to India’s economic growth but
also for the human development objectives that aim at alleviation of poverty,
unemployment and meeting the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Holistic
planning for achieving these objectives requires quality energy statistics that is able to
address the issues related to energy demand, energy poverty and environmental effects
of energy growth.
Energy exists in many forms like heat energy, chemical energy, nuclear energy, solar
energy and so on. The availability and accessibility of sufficient amount of energy
accelerate individual’s and nation’s development. It is a well-established relationship
that countries having higher per capita annual energy consumption have higher GDP
growth, while countries having lower per capita energy consumption have lower GDP
growth. For instant, the per capita annual energy consumption in US is more than 12,000
KWh/year, while it is just over 600 KWh/year, in India [1].
The available non-renewable energy and fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural
gas on the earth have been extensively employed for thousands of years. After burning,
these fossil fuels produce excessive heat and result in severe environmental pollutions
such as air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution, and, hence, food pollution. Again
fast depletion of the fossil fuel may lead to shortage of ever increasing electrical energy
demand of the world in various domestic and industrial applications in near future. This
leads power engineers and researchers to think for alternative renewable resources such
as wind, photovoltaic (PV), fuel cells (FC), small hydro, bio-fuels etc.
A fuzzy logic based control strategy for Multi Pulse Inverter For PV Cell to improve
performance in power outputs and voltage , current stability and performance has been
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA Page 1

studied. The fuzzy logic approach provides a model-free method for multi pulse inverter
for pv cell control and can be effective over a wide range of renewable energy system
changes. Fuzzy logic approach allows the designer to incorporate experimental
knowledge in adjustment of controller parameters. Selection of proper control signals for
Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) is very important because controller design, system
response and sensitivity depend directly on it
1.1.1 RENEWABLE ENERGY
The term ‘renewable energy’ can be defined as ‘energy obtained from the continuous or
repetitive currents of energy recurring in the natural environment.’
Most renewable energy sources (renewable) are derived from solar radiation, including
the direct use of solar energy for heating or electricity generation, and indirect forms
such as energy from wind, waves and running water, and from plants and animals
(wood, straw, dung, and other plant wastes). Tidal source of energy result from
gravitational pull of the moon and sun, and geothermal energy comes from the heat
generated within the earth. Energy from wastes of all kinds is also often includes under
the heading of renewable.
In their technology development, the renewable range from technologies that is well
established and mature to those that need further research and development. The use of
renewable on a more significant scale than at present would at the very least replace a
further significant proportion of fossil and nuclear fuel use, thereby reducing the
associated environmental impacts [2]. In this scenario, whole world is focusing mainly
solar, wind and fuel cell type renewable energy source because of their advantages such
easy operation and maintenance, efficiency of generations, plant and availability of
resources. Therefore, in this thesis only effect of solar energy has been described.
1.1.2 Solar Photovoltaic Technology
Sunlight can be converted to electricity due to the photovoltaic effect discovered in 1839
by Edmund Becquerel, a French scientist. Sunlight is composed of photons or packets of
energy. These photons contain various amounts of energy corresponding to the different
wavelengths of light. When photons strike a solar cell, a semiconductor P-N junction
device, they may be reflected or absorbed, or they may be passing through the cell.

Absorption of a photon in a solar cell results in the generation of an electron–hole pair

(EHP). This EHP, when separated from each other, the current in an external circuit and,
therefore, power can be extracted from the solar cell, also referred to as photovoltaic
(PV) device.
However, during last 20 years there have been large improvements in the technology,
with the best confirmed cell efficiency being over 24%. Over recent years, good progress
has been made in transferring some of the corresponding design improvements into
commercial products with cell of 17%-18% efficiency now being commercially
available. Modeling of PV module and PV array is described in Chapter 2 in detail. PV
systems can be used as grid connected PV system, stand-alone PV system and hybrid PV
system [3].
1.1.3 Energy Scenario at International and National Level
Figure 1.1 signifies that among all the nations around the globe, Germany tops the list
for installing solar power plants. Also, as per the records of international organization for
energy and research the total capacity of solar power is 138.9 GW up to 2013.
Figure1.1 Cumulative installed photovoltaic capacity worldwide (in Gigawatts) [1]

1.1.4 Relevance of Renewable Energy in India
A projection in the Twelfth Plan document of the Planning Commission indicates that
total domestic energy production of 669.6 million tons of oil equivalent (MTOE) will be
reached by 2016-17 and 844 MTOE by 2021-22. This will meet around 71 per cent and
69 per cent of expected energy consumption, with the balance to be met from imports,
projected to be about 267.8 MTOE by 2016-17 and 375.6 MTOE by 2021-22. Hence it
is the need of hour to shift our focus on renewable energy.
India’s renewable energy targets are, Solar: 20 GW grid-connected solar by 2022; 2,000
MW off-grids by 2020; 20 million solar lighting systems by 2022; 14 GW (20 million
m2) solar thermal collector area by 2022. Installed Generation Capacity of India given
below in Figure 1.2 [1-3].
Figure 1.2 overview of installed capacity of India [1-3]
PV systems are usually used in three main fields:

i. Satellite applications, where the solar arrays provide power to satellites.
ii. Off-grid applications, where solar arrays are used to power remote loads that
are not connected to the electric grid.
iii. On-grid or grid connected applications, in which solar arrays are used to supply
energy to local loads as well as to the electric grid.

Grid-connected PV systems currently dominate the PV market, especially in Europe,

Japan and USA. For example, in 1990 only 27% of the cumulative installed PV
capacity was connected to the grid, but by the end of 2011 this percentage increased to
more than 90%. Grid-connected PV systems can be installed on the facades and
rooftops of buildings, on the shades of parking lots. They can also be installed as
power plants that aim to inject all their produced power into the grid. Table 1.1
shows a variety of grid-connected PV projects that have been recently installed or are
planned to be installed.
Table 1.1: Some Major Solar Power Plant in India [1-3]
DC PEAK
NAME OF PLANT POWER(MW) NOTES
Charanka solar park, Gujarat 221 Commissioned in 2012
Welspun energy, Rajasthan 50 Commissioned in 2013
Bitta solar plant, Gujarat 40 Commissioned in 2012
Dhirubai ambani solar 40 Commissioned in 2012
park,pokhran,rajasthan
Mosaer baer, Patan, Gujarat 30 Commissioned in 2011
Mithapur solar plant, Gujarat 25 Commissioned in 2012
1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY

A brief review of literature relevant to the issues investigated in this thesis is presented
below:
Photovoltaic system is designed to trap the solar energy and convert it to electrical
energy. But due to change in environmental conditions the efficiency of the whole
system reduces. The mathematical descriptions of current-voltage characteristics for
phot ovol t ai c cel l s are generally represented by a coupled nonlinear equation,
which is difficult to solve by analytical methods [4, 5]. Modeling process is proposed
to configure a computer simulation model, which is able to demonstrate the cell’s
output features in terms of environment changes in irradiance and temperature.
Based on a simplified single-diode model, the parameters are determined in the
sense of minimum model error and temperature effect [6, 7].
There exist an operating point on the P-V curve of PV cell at which the power will be
maximum; hence tracking the maximum power point (MPP) of a photovoltaic (PV)

array is usually an essential part of a PV system. When the solar irradiance on PV array
is identical, only one MPP is existed on the P-V characteristic curve of PV array.
However, because of the bypass diodes and the blocking diodes, numerous local
maximum power points (multiple local maxima) can be existed under partially shaded
condition. As such, many MPP tracking (MPPT) methods have been developed and
implemented. The methods vary in complexity, sensors required, convergence speed,
cost, range of effectiveness, implementation hardware, popularity, and in other respects.
They range from the almost obvious (but not necessarily ineffective) to the most creative
(not necessarily most effective). In fact, so many methods have been developed that it has
become difficult to adequately determine which method proposed or existing, is most
appropriate for a given PV system. Some common MPPT techniques are perturbation and
observation (P&O), incremental conductance (IC), hill climbing (HC), fuzzy logic,
fractional Voc, fractional Isc, RCC, neutral network etc . According to the comparisons of
the simulation results, it can be observed that efficiency of the IC technique (99.99%)
is slightly better than the P&O technique (99.95%). P&O MPPT algorithm possesses
fast dynamic response and well regulated PV output voltage than other algorithm [11].
The step size for the IC MPPT method can be fixed or variable. The power drawn from
the PV array with a larger step size contributes to faster dynamics but excessive steady
state oscillations, resulting in a comparatively low efficiency. This situation is reversed
while the MPPT is running with a smaller step size. Thus, the MPPT with fixed step size
should make a satisfactory trade-off between the dynamics and oscillations. In variable
step size incremental method a scaling factor (M) is introduced which determines the
duty cycle of DC-DC converter. As the value of scaling factor increases, dynamic
response increases, hence initially we operate at a large value of scaling factor and then
decrease it towards the MPPT point. In adaptive P&O method, we vary the duty cycle of
the converter, a comparison of previous and instant value is carried out and perturbation
is increased or decreased accordingly. Whereas, methods like fuzzy logic and neutral
network are more accurate than others but are complex and costlier to implement as they
involve the use of microprocessors and chips. Fractional Voc and Isc are the easiest to
implement and most cost effective but lacks accuracy hence they are rarely implemented
[12-18]. As is known to everyone, the traditional PI controller is widely used in
industrial applications for its simplicity and reliability. However, in practice, a

traditional PI controller with constant parameters may not be robust enough due to the
variations of design parameters. To improve the static and dynamic performances of the
multi pulse inverter with this improved strategy, fuzzy PI controller have been adopted
to separately regulate the dc-link voltage and maintain the voltages .
To satisfy the increasing demand of electricity by domestic and commercial consumers
we can connect the PV array to the grid. Before connecting to the grid the Dc output of
PV array should be converted into AC. This is done by using 12-pulse inverter which is
explained in this thesis.
1.3 MOTIVATION
India is a developing nation; hence demand of energy is increasing day by day. Almost
53% of electricity in India is coal based which is fast depleting and cause environmental
hazards. Hence we have to look towards renewable sources of energy, and solar energy
is a promising aspect for future if we can make it cost effective and easily available. The
main issue using solar technology is low output, low efficiency, changing environmental
conditions and costly set-up. There is a wide scope for research and development in this
topic as we have to deal with lot of constraints, modeling of various components,
interfacing of circuits, frequency matching, impedance matching etc.
1.4 OBJECTIVE OF THE DISSERTATION

The major objectives of the work reported in this dissertation are:
1. To analyse a PV Array model with Temperature (T) and Solar Radiation (S) as
variables.
2. To analyse a Pulse Inverter with different MPPT techniques to observe better
results and outputs
3. To analyse voltage, current and power characteristics of PV array at different
values of solar radiation (S) and Temperature (T).
4. To analyse voltage characteristics of Pulse inverter at different values of solar
radiation (S) and Temperature (T).

1.5 CHAPTER ORGANISATION

The dissertation has been organized in five chapters:
Chapter.1. Presents introduction for the thesis, objective of the present thesis work,
literature survey, outline of the present thesis work.
Chapter.2. presents the basic introduction of photovoltaic system, equivalent model of

PV cell and mathematical equation. Also, V-I and P-V curves at different conditions are
also analyzed.
Chapter.3.Presents the modeling, operation and control of DC-DC boost converter. It

also discusses the three phase inverter and operating principle.
Chapter.4.Various techniques of MPPT control, mathematical equations and

characteristics are discussed
Chapter.5. .Presents the modeling, operation and control of Pulse inverter
Chapter.6. presents the simulation diagram and results of the PV array with MPPT
control at different values of solar radiation(S) and cell temperature (T) with two
different strategies of MPPT.
Chapter.7. Main conclusion and contribution of this dissertation and suggests the scope
of future research on these issues.

CHAPTER 2
PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The PV systems are designed to supply power to electrical loads. The load may be
AC or DC type and depending upon the application, the load may require power during
the daytime or during the night-time or even for 24 hr. a day. Since a PV panel
generates power only during sunshine hours, some energy storage arrangement is
required to power the load during non-sunshine hours. This energy storage is usually
accomplished through batteries. During the non-sunshine hours, the load may also be
power by auxiliary power sources such as diesel generator, wind generator or by
connecting the PV system to the grid or some combination of these auxiliary sources.
PV system can be broadly divided into the following these categories as shown in
Figure 2.1 [3].
i. Stand-alone PV system
ii. Grid-connected PV system
iii. Hybrid PV system
A stand-alone system is the one which is not connected to the power grid. In contrast,
the PV systems connected to the grid are called grid connected PV system. Hybrid PV
system could be stand-alone or grid-connected type, but have one more source other
than PV. The main distinguishing factor between stand-alone and grid connected
systems is that in stand-alone systems the solar energy output is matched with the
load demand. Another difference comes from the energy storage feature, which is a
direct consequence of their connection (or absence of connection) with the grid. While
the stand-alone PV systems usually have a provision for energy storage, the grid
connected PV systems have none or rather they do not need one. The excess or deficit
energy produced by the PV source in grid connected system (difference of energy
produced by the PV source and the energy required by the load) is supplied to the grid
or drawn from the grid.
Whenever there is more than one type of power sources connected in a system, the
configuration is known as hybrid system. Factors such as resource (solar, wind, grid)

availability, initial cost of the system, criticality of the load etc. for instant, a PV-wind
hybrid configuration can be installed at a location where both solar and wind resources
are abundantly available.
Figure 2.1: Classification of PV systems. [3]
2.2 MODELING OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) SYSTEM

The major factors that affect the efficiency of a PV module are temperature and solar
radiation. The PV cell output voltage is a function of the photocurrent that is
determined by load current depending on the solar radiation level during operation.
Figure 2.2 (a)-(c) depicts the well-known equivalent circuit of a single solar cell
composed of a light-generated current source, a single diode representing the
nonlinear impedance of the p–n junction with Rs and Rp. Rs accounts for any resistance
in the current path through the semiconductor material, metal grid, contacts and current

collecting bus. The value of Rs is multiplied by the number of series- connected cells.
Rp (or shunt resistance) is a loss associated with a slight leakage current through a
parallel resistive path to the device. It is not noticeable as Rs because the effects are
minimal unless a number of PV modules are connected in parallel for a large system [4,
5].
2.3 PV Generator
A PV Generator is the whole assembly for solar cells, connections, protective parts,
supports etc. In this chapter, focus is on the following topics:
1. Solar cell
2. Modeling of Solar cell
3. PV Modules
2.3.1 Solar Cell

Solar cells consist of a p-n junction fabricated in a thin wafer or layer of
semiconductor. When light shines on a solar cell, photons with energy greater than the
band gap energy of the semiconductor are absorbed and a large number of electron-hole
pairs are created. Due to the generated holes tends to flow from N-side to P-side,
resulting in the separation of the charge carriers which can flow in the external circuit
delivering the work to the load in this way, use of P-N junction makes it possible to
convert light energy into electrical energy. Generated current from photons is
proportional to the incident radiation. When the cell is short circuited, this current flows
in the external circuit; when open circuited, this current is shunted internally by the
intrinsic p-n junction diode. The characteristic of this diode therefore sets the open
circuit voltage characteristics of the cell.
2.3.2 Modeling of Solar Cell

The simplest equivalent circuit of a solar cell is a current source in parallel with a diode.
The output of the current source is directly proportional to the light falling on the cell.
The diode determines the I-V characteristics of the cell. Equation of ideal solar cell,
which represents the ideal solar cell model, is [4, 6]:
𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝑅 [exp ( 𝐴𝑉 ) – 1] (2.1)
𝑖

Where:
“IL ” is photocurrent (A);
“IR ” is reverse saturation current(A);
“V ” is diode voltage(V);
“ Vi ” is thermal voltage,
“A” is diode ideality factor.
On the other hand, thermal voltage can be calculated in the following equation:
𝑘𝑇
𝑉𝑖 = (2.2)
𝑞
“ k ” is Boltzmann constant, 1.38 ×10-23 J / K ;

“T” is solar cell temperature (K);
“q ” is charge of electron, 1.6 ×10 -19 C .
The solar cell temperature as in (2.2) is described as:
𝑇 = 3.12 + 0.25 ∗ ( 𝑆⁄𝑆 ) + 0.899 𝑇𝑎 – 1.3𝑊𝑠 + 273 (2.3)

𝑟𝑒𝑓
Where
“S” is irradiance intensity (W / m2 );

“Sref ” is reference irradiance intensity, 1000W/ m2 ;
“Ta ” is ambient temperature;
“Ws ” is local wind speed (m / s )
The photocurrent (IL) in (2.1) depends on solar irradiance intensity and temperature
which is described as:
𝑆
𝐼𝐿 = [ 𝐼𝑠𝑐,𝑟𝑒𝑓 + 𝜇𝐼𝑠𝑐 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) ] (2.4)
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓
Where
“ Isc,ref ” is solar cell short –circuit current at reference condition.

“ μIsc ” is the solar cell short-circuit temperature coefficient.
On the other hand, the cell’s reverse saturation current is described as:
3
𝑇 𝐴
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅,𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑇 ) exp [qEg (1⁄𝑇 − 1⁄𝑇) /𝑘𝐴] (2.5)
𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓

𝑉
𝐼𝑅,𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐,𝑟𝑒𝑓 ⁄[𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( 𝑜𝑐,𝑟𝑒𝑓⁄𝐴𝑉 ) − 1] (2.6)
𝑖
Where
“Voc ref ” is solar cell open circuit voltage at reference condition;
“ Eg ” is band-gap energy in the solar cell, (1.12-1.15eV).
Increasing sophistication, accuracy and complexity can be introduced to the model by
adding in turn as shown in Figure.2.2 [7].
i. Temperature dependence of diode saturation current IR shown in equation (2.4).

ii. Temperature dependence of the photo current IL shown in equation (2.3).
iii. Series resistance Rse, which gives a more accurate shape between the maximum
power point and the open circuit voltage. Equivalent circuit is the For
Appropriate model, the I-V characteristic equation of solar cell can be described
as:
𝑉+𝐼𝑅𝑆𝑒
𝐼 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝑅 [exp ( ) – 1] (2.7)
𝐴𝑉𝑖
iv. Shunt resistance RSh in parallel with the diode. Equivalent circuit is now
General model. Modified voltage-current characteristic equation of solar cell is
given as:
𝑉+𝐼𝑅𝑆𝑒 𝑉+𝐼𝑅𝑆𝑒
𝐼 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝑅 [exp ( ) – 1] − (2.8)
𝐴𝑉𝑖 𝑅𝑆ℎ
(a) Simplified Model of solar cell

(b) Appropriate Model of solar cell
(c) General Model of solar cell
Figure 2.2: Equivalent circuit models of PV cell. [7]
2.3.3 PV Module
For the majority of applications multiple solar cells need to be connected in series or
in parallel to produce enough voltage and power. Individual cells are usually
connected into a series string of cells (typically 36 or 72) to achieve the desired output
voltage. The complete assembly is usually referred to as a module and manufacturers
basically sell modules to customers. The modules serves another function of protecting
individual cells from water, dust etc. as the solar cells are placed into an
encapsulation of single or double at glasses. Within a module the different cells
are connected electrically in series or in parallel although most modules have a
series connection. Figure 2.3 shows a typical connection of how 36 cells are connected
in series. In a series connection the same current flows through all the cells and the
voltage at the module terminals is the sum of the individual voltages of each cell. It is
therefore, very critical for the cells to be well matched in the series string so that

all cells operate at the maximum power points. When modules are connected in
parallel the current will be the sum of the individual cell currents and the output voltage
will equal that of a single cell.
Figure 2.3 Structure of a PV module with 36 cells connected in series. [8]
2.4 PV ARRAY
An array is a structure that consists of a number of PV modules, mounted on the same
plane with electrical connections to provide enough electrical power for a given
application. Arrays range in power capacity from a few hundred watts to hundreds of
kilowatts. The connection of modules in an array is similar to the connection of cells in
a single module. To increase the voltage, modules are connected in series and to
increase the current they are connected in parallel. Matching is again very important
for the overall performance of the array. The structure of an array is shown in Figure
2.4, which has 4 parallel connections of 4 module strings connected in series.
The voltage for n modules in series is given as:
V series = V1 + V2 + .......+ Vn for I > 0
The current and voltage for m modules in parallel is given as:
Iparallel = I1 + I2 + ......+ Im
Vparallel = V1 = V2 =..... Vm
For an array to perform well all the modules must not be shaded otherwise it will act as
a load resulting in heat that may cause damage. Bypass diodes are usually used to avoid
damage although they result in further increase in cost. Integration of bypass diodes in

some large modules during manufacturing is not uncommon and reduces the extra
wiring required. It must be pointed out though that it becomes very difficult to replace
the diode if it fails.
Figure 2.4 Structure of a PV Cell, Module, and Array [8]
2.5 PV CHARACTERISTICS
The I-V (current-voltage) curve of a PV string (or module) describes its energy
conversion capability at the existing conditions of irradiance (light level) and
temperature. Conceptually, the curve represents the combinations of current and
voltage at which the string could be operated or ‘loaded’, if the irradiance and cell
temperature could be held constant. Figure 2.5 shows a typical I-V curve, the power-
voltage or P-V curve that is computed from it, and key points on these curves. At
the ‘knee’ of a normal I-V curve is the maximum power point (Imp,Vmp), the point at
which the array generates maximum electrical power. In an operating PV system, one
of the jobs of the inverter is to constantly adjust the load, seeking out the particular
point on the I-V curve at which the array as a whole yields the greatest DC power. The
power delivered by a PV cell attains a maximum value at the points (Imp;Vmp) as
shown in Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5 The I-V and P-V curves of a photovoltaic device [7]

2.6 REALISATION OF BASIC SOLAR PV MODULE

CHARACTERISTICS
The power output of a solar PV module strongly depends on the solar irradiation
falling on it. The power of a module decreases with the decreases in intensity of solar
radiation. The output of solar PV module also depends on the temperature at which
the module is operating (basically temperature at which cells in modules are
operating). Waveforms obtained by varying the solar irradiations and temperatures
which are fed into the PV array model have been plotted as shown below.
2.6.1Photovoltaic Module I-V and P-V Curve at different
(a)I-V curve (b) P-V curve Figure
2.6: I-V and P-V curve for PV array for different Temperature [9]
From Figure 2.6, we observed that by increasing the temperature level at constant
irradiance, the voltage output from PV array decreases but current output increases
slightly with respect to Voltage and, hence the power output from PV array
decreases. As shown in Figure 2.5 PV cell represents nonlinear voltage-current
characteristics, and there is only one point that makes the PV generator generating its
maximum power under different environmental conditions.

2.6.2 Photovoltaic Module I-V and P-V Curve at different solar irradiance
(a) I-V curve (b) P-V curve

Figure 2.7: I-V and P-V curve for PV array different solar radiation [9]
From Figure 2.7, we observed that by increasing the solar radiation at constant temperature the
voltage and current output from PV array also increases. Hence at higher irradiance we can get
our required level voltage to increase power from PV array.
2.7 GRID-CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS
The building blocks of a grid-connected photovoltaic system are shown in Figure 2.8. The
system is mainly composed of a matrix of PV arrays, which converts the sunlight to DC power,
and a power conditioning unit that converts the DC power to AC power. The generated
AC power is injected into the grid and/or utilized by the local loads. In some cases, storage
devices are used to improve the availability of the power generated by the PV system. In the
following sub-sections, more details about different components of the PV system are
presented and the recent related research activities are discussed.
2.8 NEED OF MULTI PULSE INVERTER FOR PV CELL SYSTEM

Day by day the demand of electricity is increasing and that demand cannot be meet up by the
conventional power plants. So if we go for the renewable energy it will be better for our next

generation. Multi pulse (12 pulse inverter) inverter system is more reliable than other PV
system. Maximum power output reduces its capital cost so we go for the different techniques
or topology ted with multi pulse inverte r If generated solar energy is integrated to the
pulse inverter, dc voltage comes with maximum output which mean we can achieve the
maximum production of power by which we can further produce the max electricity .Which is
needful to satisfy demand of electricity.
2.9 CONCLUSION
PV cell is a non-linear device made of semiconductor materials. It is rated by its DC output
power (watt) and described by coupled non-linear equations. The output from a single PV cell
is as low as 12-17 volts, hence to increase that we connect them in different configurations like
series, parallel or combination of series and parallel. Its output is affected by various factors
like solar radiation(S), cell temperature (T), wind speed (Ws), energy gap (Eg), number of cells
in parallel (Np) and series (Ns). After observing the I-V and P-V characteristics we can conclude
that by increasing the cell temperature(T) at constant irradiance voltage, current and power
output decreases whereas they increases after increasing the solar radiation(S) at constant
temperature(T).

CHAPTER 3
CONVERTERS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
DC-DC converters can be used as switching mode regulators to convert an unregulated dc
voltage to a regulated dc output voltage. The regulation is normally achieved by PWM at a
fixed frequency and the switching device is generally BJT, MOSFET or IGBT. These
converters play a vital role in PV system where they are used as charge controllers, maximum
power point trackers and for interfacing the PV source with different types of loads. In DC to
DC converters, the output can be either higher or lower or both as compare to the input voltage.
Accordingly, the following three basic topologies are used [19]:
a) Boost type DC to DC converter(it step up the input voltage)
b) Buck type DC to DC converter(it step down the input voltage)
c) Buck boost type DC to DC converter (both step down and step up are
possible)
The DC to DC converters operates in two modes depending upon the nature of inductor
current, namely the continuous conduction mode (CCM) and discontinuous mode (DCM). In
CCM current through the inductor never falls to zero during a switching cycle. When the load
is light or duty cycle is small or inductor value is small, the inductor current may fall to zero
before the start of the next cycle, that mode is called discontinuous conduction mode.
3.2 BOOST CONVERTER

A boost converter (step-up converter) is a DC-to-DC power converter with an output
voltage greater than its input voltage. It is a class of switched-mode power supply (SMPS)
containing at least two semiconductor switches (a diode and a transistor) and at least one
energy storage element, a capacitor, inductor, or the two in combination. Filters made of
capacitors (sometimes in combination with inductors) are normally added to the output of the
converter to reduce output voltage ripple. The basic circuit diagram of boost converter shown in
Figure 3.1.

L D
L
O
Vdc SW A
D
Figure 3.1: The basic circuit of a boost converter. [19]

A boost converter is a DC to DC converter with an output voltage greater than the source
voltage. A boost converter is sometimes called a step-up converter since it “steps up” the
source voltage. Since power (P=VI) must be conserved, the output current is lower than the
source current.
For high efficiency, the SMPS switch must turn on and off quickly and have low losses. The
advent of a commercial semiconductor switch in the 1950s represented a major milestone that
made SMPSs such as the boost converter possible. The major DC to DC converters were
developed in the early 1960s when semiconductor switches had become available. The aerospace
industry’s need for small, lightweight, and efficient power converters led to the converters
rapid development.
3.2.1 Operating Principle

The key principle that drives the boost converter is the tendency of an inductor to resist
changes in current. In a boost converter, the output voltage is always higher than the input
voltage. A schematic of a boost power stage is shown in Figure 3.2[19].
(a) When the switch (BJT) is closed, as shown in Figure 3.2 (a) current flows through the
inductor in clockwise direction and the inductor stores the energy. Polarity of the left side of
the inductor is positive. During this interval, the diode remains reverse biased and the
voltage across the inductor VL (ON) is equal to VI.
(b) When the switch (BJT) is opened, shown in Figure 3.2(b) current will be reduced as
the impedance is higher. Therefore, change or reduction in current will be opposed by the
inductor. Thus the polarity will be reversed (means left side of inductor will be negative

now). As the inductor current must have a path, the diode is forward biased to release the
energy stored into the load. Therefore, voltage across inductor VL (OFF) =VI-VO.
If the switch is cycled fast enough, the inductor will not discharge fully in between
charging stages, and the load will always see a voltage greater than that of the input source
alone when the switch is opened. Also while the switch is opened, the capacitor in parallel with
the load is charged to this combined voltage. When the switch is then closed and the right
hand side is shorted out from the left hand side, the capacitor is therefore able to provide the
voltage and energy to the load. During this time, the blocking diode prevents the capacitor
from discharging through the switch. The switch must of course be opened again fast enough to
prevent the capacitor from discharging too much.
L D
IL ID
L
O
SW
Vi
A
D
V0
C
IS
(a)
L D
IL ID
L
O
SW
Vi C A
D
V0
IS
(b)
Figure 3.2: The two configurations of a boost converter, depending on the state of the switch.

3.2.2 Mode 1 Continuous Mode

When a boost converter operates in continuous mode, the current through the inductor (IL) never
falls to zero. Figure 3.3 shows the typical waveforms of currents and voltages in a converter
operating in this mode.
Figure 3.3: Waveforms of current and voltage in a boost converter operating in

continuous mode
During the On-state, the switch S is closed, which makes the input voltage (Vi) appear across
the inductor, which causes a change in current (IL) flowing through the inductor during a time
period (t) by the formula:
I L Vi (3.1)

t L
At the end of the On-state, the increase of IL is therefore:
DT
1 DTVi
I Lon   Vi dt 
L commutation
D is the duty cycle. It represents the fraction of the 0
L period T during which the
switch is on. Therefore D ranges between 0 (S is never on) and 1 (S is always on). During the

Off-state, the switch S is open, so the inductor current flows through the load. If we consider
zero voltage drops in the diode, and a capacitor large enough for its voltage to remain constant,
the evolution of IL is
dI L
Vi  V0  L (3.3)
dt
Therefore, the variation of IL during the Off-period is:

(V  V0 )(1  D)T
T
1
I Loff  
L DT
(Vi V0 )dt  i
L
(3.4)
As we consider that the converter operates in steady-state conditions, the amount of energy
stored in each of its components has to be the same at the beginning and at the end of a
commutation cycle. In particular, the energy stored in the inductor is given by:
1
E LI L 2 (3.5)
2
So, the inductor current has to be the same at the start and end of the commutation cycle. This
means the overall change in the current (the sum of the changes) is zero:
I Lon  I Loff  0 (3.6)
Substituting ∆ILon and ∆ILoff in equation (3.6) by their expressions in equations (3.2) and (3.4)
Vi DT (Vi  V0 )(1  D)T

I Lon  I Loff   0 (3.7)
L L
This can be written as:
VO 1
 (3.8)
Vi 1  D
Vi
D  1 (3.9)
VO
The above expression shows that the output voltage is always higher than the input voltage (as
the duty cycle goes from 0 to 1), and that it increases with D, theoretically to infinity as D
approaches 1. This is why this converter is sometimes referred to as a step-up converter.

3.2.3Mode2DiscontinuousMode
Figure 3.4: Waveforms of current and voltage in a boost converter operating in discontinuous
mode.
If the ripple amplitude of the current is too high, the inductor may be completely
discharged before the end of a whole commutation cycle. This commonly occurs under light
loads. In this case, the current through the inductor falls to zero during part of the period (see
waveforms in Figure 3.4). Although slight, the difference has a strong effect on the output
voltage equation. It can be calculated as follows:
As the inductor current at the beginning of the cycle is zero, its maximum ILmax value at
(t =DT) is
Vi DT
I L max  (3.10)
L
During the off-period, IL falls to zero after δt
(Vi  V0 ) T
I L max  0 (3.11)
L
Using the two previous equations, (3.10) and (3.11) δ is:
Vi D

Vi  V0

The load current Io is equal to the average diode current (ID). As it can be seen on Figure 3.4, the
diode current is equal to the inductor current during the off-state. Therefore the output current
can be written as:
I L max
Io  I D  (3.13)
2
Put the value of δ and ILmax using eq. (3.10) and (3.12) in eq. (3.13), therefore
 V DT   Vi D  Vi 2 D 2T
Io   i   V  V   2L(V  V ) (3.14)
 2L  O i  i 0
Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as follows:
VO Vi D 2T
 1 (3.15)
Vi 2 LI O
Compared to the expression of the output voltage for the continuous mode, this expression is
much more complicated. Furthermore, in discontinuous operation, the output voltage gain not
only depends on the duty cycle, but also on the inductor value, the input voltage, the switching
frequency, and the output current.
3.2.4 Applications
Battery powered systems often stack cells in series to achieve higher voltage. However,
sufficient stacking of cells is not possible in many high voltage applications due to lack of
space. Boost converters can increase the voltage and reduce the number of cells .Two battery-
powered applications that use boost converters are hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) and lighting
systems. Boost converters also power devices at smaller scale applications, such as portable
lighting systems. A white LED typically requires 3.3 V to emit light, and a boost converter
can step up the voltage from a single 1.5 V alkaline cell to power the lamp. Boost
converters can also produce higher voltages to operate cold cathode fluorescent tubes
(CCFL) in devices such as LCD backlights and some flashlights. A boost converter is used as

the voltage increase mechanism in the circuit known as the 'Joule thief'. This circuit topology
is used with low power battery applications, and is aimed at the ability of a boost converter
to 'steal' the remaining energy in a battery. This energy would otherwise be wasted since the
low voltage of a nearly depleted battery makes it unusable for a normal load.
3.3 BUCK CONVERTER
A buck converter is a step-down DC to DC converter. Its design is similar to the step-up boost
converter, and like the boost converter it is a switched-mode power supply that uses two switches
(a transistor and a diode), an inductor and a capacitor. Buck converters, on the other hand, can be
remarkably efficient (95% or higher for integrated circuits), making them useful for tasks such as
converting the main voltage in a computer (12 V in a desktop, 12-24 V in a laptop) down to the
0.8-1.8 volts needed by the processor. The basic circuit diagram of a buck converter shown in
Figure 3.5. The transistor is a controllable device such as BJT, IGBT, Power MOSFET, etc [21].
Figure 3.5: The basic circuit of a buck converter.
3.4 Operating Principle
The basic operation of the buck converter has the current in an inductor controlled by two
switches (usually a transistor and a diode). In the idealized converter, all the components are
considered to be perfect. Specifically, the switch and the diode have zero voltage drop when on
and zero current flow when off and the inductor has zero series resistance. Further, it is assumed

that the input and output voltages do not change over the course of a cycle (this would imply the
output capacitance as being infinite), depending upon the switch is close or open the circuit
assume two states shown in Figure 3.6.
(a) ON state: In this state, the switch (BJT) is ON and connects the input voltage and inductor as
shown in Figure 3.6(a). Diode is reverse biased during this mode so no conduction take place
through its (open circuit).thus, energy is transferred from voltage source to the load and both the
inductor and capacitor store energy. The voltage across the inductor is VL (ON) =VI-VO.
(b) OFF state: In this state, the BJT is switched OFF to disconnect the voltage source from the
circuit as shown in Figure 3.6(b). As the inductor current cannot be disrupted suddenly, the
inductor uses its stored energy to forward bias the diode and causes current in the output section.
In this mode, the voltage across the inductor is
VL (OFF) = -VO.
The conceptual model of the buck converter is best understood in terms of an inductor's
"reluctance" to allow a change in current. Beginning with the switch open (in the "off" position),
the current in the circuit is 0. When the switch is first closed, the current will begin to increase,
but the inductor doesn't want it to change from 0, so it will attempt to fight the increase by
dropping a voltage. This voltage drop counteracts the voltage of the source and therefore reduces
the net voltage across the load. Over time, the inductor will allow the current to increase slowly
by decreasing the voltage it drops and therefore increasing the net voltage seen by the load.
During this time, the inductor is storing energy in the form of a magnetic field.
If the switch is opened before the inductor has fully charged (i.e., before it has allowed all of the
current to pass through by reducing its own voltage drop to 0), then there will always be a
voltage drop across it, so the net voltage seen by the load will always be less than the input
voltage source. When the switch is opened again, the voltage source will be removed from the
circuit, so the current will try to drop. Again, the inductor will try to fight against it changing,
which it does by reversing the direction of its voltage and acting like a voltage source.

L
SW
L
VD O
A
Vi D V0
C
(a)
SW L
L
VD O
A
Vi D V0
C
(b)
Figure 3.6: The two configurations of a buck converter, depending on the state of the switch [23]
3.5 BUCK BOOST CONVERTER

The buck–boost converter is a type of DC-to-DC converter that has an output voltage magnitude
that is either greater than or less than the input voltage magnitude. Two different topologies are
called buck–boost converter. Both of them can produce a range of output voltages, from an
output voltage much larger (in absolute magnitude) than the input voltage, down to almost zero
as shown in Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7 Buck Boost Converter

3.6 VSI INVERTER
Inverters convert direct current to alternating current, which may be single or Multi-phase.
Several topologies exist for both single phase and multi-phase inverters. Three-phase
counterparts of the single-phase half and full bridge voltage source inverters are shown in
Figures 3.8 and 3.9. Single-phase VSIs cover low-range power applications and three-phase
VSIs cover medium to high power applications [23, 24].
Figure 3.8: Three-Phase Half Bridge Inverter
Figure 3.9: Three-phase Full –Bridge Inverter

3.7 Sinusoidal PWM in Three-Phase Voltage Source Inverters
As in the single phase voltage source inverters PWM technique can be used in three-phase
inverters, in which three sine waves phase shifted by 120° with the frequency of the desired
output voltage is compared with a very high frequency carrier triangle, the two signals are mixed
in a comparator whose output is high when the sine wave is greater than the triangle and the
comparator output is low when the sine wave or typically called the modulation signal is smaller
than the triangle. This phenomenon is shown in Figure 3.10. As is explained the output voltage
from the inverter is not smooth but is a discrete waveform and so it is more likely than the output
wave consists of harmonics, which are not usually desirable since they deteriorate the
performance of the load, to which these voltages are applied.
(a) Sine-triangle comparison
(b). Switching pulses

Figure 3.10: PWM illustration by the sine-triangle comparison method [23, 24]

3.8 CONCLUSION
The output from MPPT block is of small magnitude; hence to increase its level we connect a
DC-DC boost converter. It has two operating modes continuous and discontinuous modes
depending on the switch position. The output of DC-DC boost converter is fed to 12-Pulse
inverter which converts DC to AC to integrate with grid system.

CHAPTER 4
MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING ALGORITHMS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
For commercially available PV systems, individual solar cells are connected in series and
parallel to form modules to deliver desired levels of DC power. It is necessary to use inverters if
AC power, such as grid-tied system, is needed. Voltage and current changes are expected at the
DC side of the inverter. The current from the PV generator changes with the solar radiation and
temperature conditions and PV modules present a non-linear current–voltage curve, so for each
solar radiation and temperature conditions there exists an optimum working load which leads to
extract the maximum power from the PV modules. Tracking the maximum power point of a PV
module is an essential task in a PV control system because it maximizes the power output of the
PV system for a given set of conditions. As such, many MPP tracking (MPPT) methods have
been developed and implemented. The methods vary in complexity, sensors required,
convergence speed, cost, range of effectiveness, implementation hardware, popularity, and in
other respects. They range from the almost obvious (but not necessarily ineffective) to the most
creative (not necessarily most effective). In fact, so many methods have been developed that it
has become difficult to adequately determine which method, newly proposed or existing, is most
appropriate for a given PV system.
Since solar radiation falling on PV module varies throughout the day, the operating point of the
module also changes throughout the day. As an example, the operating point of a PV module
and resistive load for different time shown in Figure 4.1 denoted by a, b, and c. ideally
under all operating condition, we would like to transfer maximum Power to the load. In
Figure 4.1, the trajectory of a point at which the solar PV module will gives maximum
power is also shown. Thus, for maximum power transfer, instead of operating at a, b and c
the module should operate at points a’, b’ and c’. In order to insure the operation of PV
module for maximum power transfer, a special method called Maximum power point tracking
(MPPT) is employed in PV system. It is very important to have an effective and appropriate
maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithm for the photovoltaic system. If there is a

good irradiance condition, the photovoltaic system can generate maximum power efficiently
while an effective MPPT algorithm is used with the system [9-10].
Figure 4.1: I-V curve at different solar radiation [10]
4.2 AN OVERVIEW OF COMMON MPPT TECHNIQUES

There are different techniques used to track the maximum power point. Few of the most
popular techniques are [11]:
a) Perturbation and Observation Method/ Hill Climbing method
b) Incremental conductance method
c) Fuzzy logic
d) Fractional open circuit voltage
e) Fractional short circuit current
f) RCC algorithm
The choice of the algorithm depends on the time, complexity, implementation cost and the
ease of implementation. Accordingly the appropriate technique is implemented.

4.2.1 Perturbation and Observation Method/ Hill climbing method

P&O method is the most frequently used algorithm to track the maximum power due to its
simple structure and fewer required parameters. This method finds the maximum power point of
PV modules by means of iteratively perturbing, observing and comparing the power generated
by the PV modules. It is widely applied to the maximum power point tracker of the photovoltaic
system for its features of simplicity and convenience. In this we use only one sensor, that is the
voltage sensor, to sense the PV array voltage and so the cost of implementation is less and hence
easy to implement. Hill climbing involves a perturbation in the duty ratio of the power converter,
and P&O a perturbation in the operating voltage of the PV array. In the case of a PV array
connected to a power converter, perturbing the duty ratio of power converter perturbs the PV
array current and consequently perturbs the PV array voltage. Hill climbing and P&O methods
are different ways to envision the same fundamental method [12-13].
Figure 4.2: Characteristic PV array power curve. [12]
From Figure 4.2, it can be seen that incrementing (decrementing) the voltage increases
(decreases) the power when operating on the left of the MPP and decreases (increases) the power
when on the right of the MPP. Therefore, if there is an increase in power, the subsequent
perturbation should be kept the same to reach the MPP and if there is a decrease in power, the
perturbation should be reversed.

Table 4.1: Summary of hill climbing and P&O algorithm [11-13]
Perturbation Change in power Next Perturbation
Positive Positive Positive

Positive Negative Negative
Negative Positive Negative
Negative Negative Positive
The process is repeated periodically until the MPP is reached. The system then oscillates about
the MPP. The oscillation can be minimized by reducing the perturbation step size. However, a
smaller perturbation size slows down the MPPT.
Figure.4.3 Divergence of hill climbing/P&O from MPP [12]
Hill climbing and P&O methods can fail under rapidly changing atmospheric conditions as
illustrated in Figure.4.3. Starting from an operating point A, if atmospheric conditions stay
approximately constant, a perturbation ΔV in the PV voltage V will bring the operating point to B
and the perturbation will be reversed due to a decrease in power. However, if the irradiance
increases and shifts the power curve from P1 to P2 within one sampling period, the operating
point will move from A to C. This represents an increase in power and the perturbation is kept

the same. Consequently, the operating point diverges from the MPP and will keep diverging if
the irradiance steadily increases.
4.2.2 Incremental Conductance Method

The theory of the incremental conductance method is to determine the variation direction of the
terminal voltage for PV modules by measuring and comparing the incremental conductance and
instantaneous conductance of PV modules. It is based on the fact that the slope of the PV array
power curve in Figure 4.2 is zero at the MPP, positive on the left of the MPP, and negative on
the right. This method can be classified according to the size of step size:-
A). Fixed Step Size
This method works by using the slope of the derivative of the current with respect to the voltage
so as to obtain the maximum power point. The equations are described under:-
𝑑𝑃/𝑑𝑉 = 0, at MPP (4.1)
𝑑𝑃/𝑑𝑉 > 0, left of MPP (4.2)
𝑑𝑃/𝑑𝑉 < 0, right of MPP (4.3)
Since
𝑑𝑃 𝑑(𝐼 𝑉) 𝑑𝐼 ∆𝐼
= = 𝐼 + 𝑉(𝑑𝑉) = 𝐼 + 𝑉 (∆𝑉) (4.4)
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
Above equation can be rewritten as:
𝛥𝐼/𝛥𝑉 = −𝐼/𝑉, at MPP (4.5)

𝛥𝐼/𝛥𝑉 > − 𝐼/𝑉, left of MPP (4.6)
𝛥𝐼/𝛥𝑉 < − 𝐼/𝑉, right of MPP (4.7)
The MPP can thus be tracked by comparing the instantaneous conductance (I/V) to the
incremental conductance (ΔI/ΔV) as shown in equation no 4.5-4.7. Vref is the reference voltage at
which the PV array is forced to operate. At the MPP, Vref equals to Vmp. Once the MPP is
reached, the operation of the PV array is maintained at this point unless a change in ΔI is noted,
indicating a change in atmospheric conditions and the MPP .The algorithm decrements or
increments Vref to track the new MPP. The main difference between incremental conductance
and P&O algorithms is the judgment on determining the direction of voltage perturbation. Figure

4.4 [15] is the operating flow diagram of the incremental conductance algorithm. The increment
size determines how fast the MPP is tracked. Fast tracking can be achieved with bigger
increments but the system might not operate exactly at the MPP and oscillate about it instead; so
there is a trade-off. By proper control of the power converter, the initial operating point is set to
match a load resistance proportional to the ratio of the open-circuit voltage (Voc) to the short-
circuit current (Isc) of the PV array. Measurement of the instantaneous PV array voltage and
current require two sensors. This method lends itself well to DSP and microcontroller control,
which can easily keep track of previous values of voltage and current.
Inputs: V(t), I(t)
∆I=I(t)-I(t-∆t)
∆V=V(t)-V(t-∆t)
yes
∆V=0
no
yes yes
∆I/∆V = -I/V ∆I=0
no no
yes yes
∆I/∆V > -I/V ∆I > 0
no no
Increment Decrement Decrement Increment

Vref Vref Vref Vref
I(t-∆t) = ∆I
V(t-∆t) = V(t)
Return
Figure 4.4: The flow diagram of the Incremental Conductance Method

B) Variable Step Size
The step size for the IC MPPT method is generally fixed. The power drawn from the PV array
with a lager step size contributes to faster dynamics but excessive steady state oscillations,
resulting in a comparatively low efficiency. This situation is reversed while the MPPT is running
with a smaller step size. Such design dilemma can be solved with variable step size iteration
modified variable step size algorithm for the IC MPPT method which is dedicated to find a
simple and effective way to improve tracking accuracy as well as tracking dynamics are used.
The equations are described under:-
D(m) = D(m-1) ± M * ‫ ׀‬dv/dp ‫׀‬ )4.8(
Where coefficient M is the scaling factor which is tuned at the design time to adjust the step size.
To ensure the convergence of the MPPT update rule, the variable step rule must obey the
following:
M * ‫ ׀‬dv/dp ‫ ׀‬fixed step < ∆Dmax (4.9)

M < ∆Dmax/ ‫ ׀‬dv/dp ‫ ׀‬fixed step = ∆Dmax (4.10)
If the above equation cannot be satisfied, the variable step size IC MPPT will be working with a
fixed step size of the previously set upper limiter ∆Dmax. Above equation provides a simple
guidance to determine the scaling factor M of the variable step size IC MPPT algorithm. With
the satisfaction of above equation, larger M exhibits a comparatively faster response than a
smaller M. The step size will become tiny as dP/dV becomes very small [14, 15].
FUZZY CONTROLLED MPPT
4.2.3 Introduction
Fuzzy is a new control approach with great potential for real time applications. The Fuzzy Logic
being rule based controller, where a set of rules represents a control decision mechanism. Error
and its rate generated by Sending–End reactive power and Receiving- End reactive power are
taken as inputs to fuzzy system, or input signals can be selected as current, voltage or impedance,

according to the type of control. The output of fuzzy controller is given as the dc control signal
and the pulse generator provides synchronous firing pluses to VSC. In order to achieve better
control action, the five linguistic variables expressed by fuzzy sets defined on their respective
universes of discourse. Table shows the suggested membership function and gives open loop
operation compensation parameters which can help in framing the rule. For framing the rule;
open loop compensation parameters shown in Table 4.2 can be utilized; or based on practical
experiences, simulations and also from the behavior of system around its stable/unstable
equilibrium points rules can be generated
Table 4.2 Rules for Fuzzy Controller for output
Error output
N N
Z Z
P P
Fig.4.5 Membership functions for the error vs output of the fuzzy logic controllers
a) Draw backs of conventional controllers:
(1) Their installations have to be supplemented with filters as they inject harmonics into the
network.
(2) They exhibit poor dynamic performance, under voltage variations.
(3) They do not support the system under low voltage conditions

Fuzzy logic can be used to control household appliances such as washing machines (which sense
load size and detergent concentration and adjust their wash cycles accordingly) and refrigerators.
A basic application might characterize sub-ranges of a continuous variable. For instance, a

temperature measurement for anti-lock brakes might have several separate membership functions
defining particular temperature ranges needed to control the brakes properly. Each function maps
the same temperature value to a truth value in the 0 to 1 range. These truth values can then be
used to determine how the brakes should be controlled.
Fig.4.6 Membership functions for the output vs error of the fuzzy logic controllers
b) How fuzzy logic is applied

Fuzzy logic usually uses IF/THEN rules, or constructs that are equivalent, such as fuzzy
associative matrices.
Rules are usually expressed in the form:
IF variable IS set THEN action
For example, an extremely simple temperature regulator that uses a fan might look like this:
IF temperature IS very cold THEN stop fan
IF temperature IS cold THEN turn down fan

IF temperature IS normal THEN maintain level
IF temperature IS hot THEN speed up fan
Notice there is no "ELSE". All of the rules are evaluated, because the temperature might be
"cold" and "normal" at the same time to differing degrees.
The AND, OR, and NOT operators of Boolean logic exist in fuzzy logic, usually defined as the
minimum, maximum, and complement; when they are defined this way, they are called the
Zadeh operators, because they were first defined as such in Zadeh's original papers. So for the
fuzzy variables x and y:
NOT x = (1 - truth(x))
x AND y = minimum(truth(x), truth(y))
x OR y = maximum(truth(x), truth(y))
There are also other operators, more linguistic in nature, called hedges that can be applied. These
are generally adverbs such as "very", or "somewhat", which modify the meaning of a set using a
mathematical formula. In application, the programming language Prolog is well geared to
implementing fuzzy logic with its facilities to setup a database of "rules" which are queried to
deduct logic. This sort of programming is known as logic programming.
Fig.4.7 Membership functions for the output vs error of the fuzzy logic controllers

Fig.4.8 Membership functions for the error vs. output of the fuzzy logic controllers
The main components which are used in fuzzy logic based MPPT controller are fuzzification,
rule-base, and inference and defuzzification. The input variables to the controller are the change
in PV array power (𝜕Ppv) and change in voltage (𝜕Vpv) whereas the output of the controller is
the step change of boost converter Voltage reference (𝜕Vref). This is used to drive the boost
converter to maximize the output from solar PV panel. Structure of Fuzzy Logic Controller, The
variation of power (𝜕Ppv) will be in positive or in the negative direction. The value of (𝜕Ppv)
can also be small or large. To increase the power Ppv The reference photovoltaic voltage
variation (𝜕Vpv,ref) is increased or decreased in a small or respectively large way in the
direction. The control rules are indicated in Table 4.2
4.2.4 Fractional Open-Circuit Voltage
The near linear relationship between Vmp and Voc of the PV array, under varying irradiance and
temperature levels, has given rise to the fractional Voc method.
𝑉𝑚𝑝 ≈ 𝑘1 𝑉𝑜𝑐 (4.11)

Where k1 is a constant of proportionality.
Since k1 is dependent on the characteristics of the PV array being used, it usually has to be
computed beforehand by empirically determining Vmp and Voc for the specific PV array at

different irradiance and temperature levels. The factor k1 has been reported to be between 0.71
and 0.78. Once k1 is known, Vmp can be computed using with Voc measured periodically by
momentarily shutting down the power converter. However, this incurs some disadvantages,
including temporary loss of power. To prevent this, uses pilot cells from which Voc can be
obtained. These pilot cells must be carefully chosen to closely represent the characteristics of the
PV array. In, it is claimed that the voltage generated by pn-junction diodes is approximately 75%
of Voc. This eliminates the need for measuring Voc and computing Vmp. Once Vmp has been
approximated, a closed-loop control on the array power converter can be used to asymptotically
reach this desired voltage. Even if fractional Voc is not a true MPPT technique, it is very easy and
cheap to implement as it does not necessarily require DSP or microcontroller.
4.2.5 Fractional Short Circuit Current

Fractional Isc results from the fact that, under varying atmospheric conditions, Imp is
approximately linearly related to the Isc of the PV array as
𝐼𝑚𝑝 ≈ 𝑘2 I𝑠𝑐 (4.12)
Where k2 is proportionality constant. Just like in the fractional Voc technique, k2 has to be
determined according to the PV array in use. The constant k2 is generally found to be between
0.78 and 0.92. Measuring Isc during operation is problematic. An additional switch usually has to
be added to the power converter to periodically short the PV array so that Isc can be measured
using a current sensor. This increases the number of components and cost. A boost converter is
used, where the switch in the converter itself can be used to short the PV array. Power output is
not only reduced when finding Isc but also because the MPP is never perfectly matched [11].
4.2.6 RCC Algorithm

Ripple correlation control (RCC), is a recently proposed and attractive MPPT technique that is
currently under research to track the maximum power of a single array. The main advantages
of RCC include the asymptotic convergence to the MPP and the utilization of the ripple
available in the power electronic converter instead of using external perturbation. The main

operation concept of the RCC is that it correlates the time varying PV array power with the
time varying PV array current or voltage.
4.3 SUMMARY OF COMMON MPPT TECHNIQUES
Table 4.10: Major characteristics of MPPT techniques

MPPT PV Array True Convergence Implementa Sensed
Technique Dependent MPPT Speed -tion Parameters
Complexity
Hill No Yes Varies Low Voltage,
climbing/P&O Current
Incremental No Yes Varies Medium Voltage,
conductance current
Fractional Voc Yes No Medium Low Voltage
Fractional Isc Yes No Medium Medium Current
Fuzzy logic Yes Yes Fast High Varies
Neutral Yes Yes Fast High Varies
network
RCC No Yes Fast Low Voltage,
current
Current sweep Yes Yes Slow High Voltage,
current
In Table 4.10, major characteristics of MPPT techniques are shown, which gives a clear
comparison to implement suitable technique according to the problem.
4.4 CONCLUSION
MPPT is a closed loop control technique necessary to operate PV array at optimum operating
point. There are quite a few techniques which are implemented according to circuit requirement
and conditions. We have implemented fixed step incremental conductance method of MPPT
control & Fuzzy logic control as it is accurate, relatively fast and less complex to implement.
These method continuously tracks the output parameters of PV array and compares the change
in voltage/current value with the instantaneous value of voltage/current and when both values
are equal, that point is the operating point. Also by the use of MPPT the output waveform

contains less harmonics and ripples and it becomes constant in nature according to dynamic and
steady state response .The output from MPPT is connected to DC-DC converter which raises
the level of output parameters.

CHAPTER 5
INVERTERS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
A power inverter, or inverter, is an electronic device or circuitry that changes direct current (DC)
to alternating current (AC).The input voltage, output voltage and frequency, and
overall power handling depend on the design of the specific device or circuitry. The inverter does
not produce any power; the power is provided by the DC source. A power inverter can be
entirely electronic or may be a combination of mechanical effects (such as a rotary apparatus)
and electronic circuitry. Static inverters do not use moving parts in the conversion process.
5.2 INPUT AND OUTPUT
5.2.1 Input voltage

A typical power inverter device or circuit requires a relatively stable DC power source capable
of supplying enough current for the intended power demands of the system. The input voltage
depends on the design and purpose of the inverter. Examples include:
 12 VDC, for smaller consumer and commercial inverters that typically run from a
rechargeable 12V lead acid battery.
 24 and 48 VDC, which are common standards for home energy systems.
 200 to 400 VDC, when power is from photovoltaic solar panels.
 300 to 450 VDC, when power is from electric vehicle battery packs in vehicle-to-grid
systems.
 Hundreds of thousands of volts, where the inverter is part of a High voltage direct
current power transmission system.
5.2.2Output waveform
An inverter can produce a square wave, modified sine wave, pulsed sine wave, or sine wave
depending on circuit design. The two dominant commercialized waveform types of inverters as

of 2007 are modified sine wave and sine wave. There are two basic designs for producing
household plug-in voltage from a lower-voltage DC source, the first of which uses a
switching boost converter to produce a higher-voltage DC and then converts to AC. The second
method converts DC to AC at battery level and uses a line-frequency transformer to create the
output voltage.
Fig .5.1 square wave
5.2.2.1Square wave
This is one of the simplest waveforms an inverter design can produce and is useful for some
applications.
Fig .5.2 Sine wave
5.2.2.2 Sine wave
A power inverter device which produces a multiple step sinusoidal AC waveform is referred to
as a sine wave inverter. To more clearly distinguish the inverters with outputs of much less
distortion than the "modified sine wave" (three step) inverter designs, the manufacturers often
use the phrase pure sine wave inverter. Almost all consumer grade inverters that are sold as a
"pure sine wave inverter" do not produce a smooth sine wave output at all, just a less choppy
output than the square wave (one step) and modified sine wave (three step) inverters. In this
sense, the phrases "Pure sine wave" or "sine wave inverter" are misleading to the consumer.

However, this is not critical for most electronics as they deal with the output quite well. Where
power inverter devices substitute for standard line power, a sine wave output is desirable because
many electrical products are engineered to work best with a sine wave ac power source. The
standard electric utility power attempts to provide a power source that is a good approximation
of a sine wave. Sine wave inverters with more than three steps in the wave output are more
complex and have significantly higher cost than a modified sine wave, with only three steps, or
square wave, (one step), types of the same power handling. Switch-mode power supply (SMPS)
devices, such as personal computers or DVD players, function on quality modified sine wave
power. AC motors directly operated on non-sinusoidal power may produce extra heat, may have
different speed-torque characteristics, or may produce more audible noise than when running on
sinusoidal power.
5.2.2.3 Modified sine wave
A "modified sine wave" inverter has a non-square waveform that is a useful rough
approximation of a sine wave for power translation purposes. The waveform in commercially
available modified-sine-wave inverters is a square wave with a pause before the polarity
transition, which only needs to cycle through a three-position switch that outputs forward, off,
and reverse output at the pre-determined frequency. Switching states are developed for positive,
negative and zero voltages as per the patterns given in the switching Table 2.The peak voltage
to RMS voltage do not maintain the same relationship as for a sine wave. The DC bus voltage
may be actively regulated or the "on" and "off" times can be modified to maintain the same RMS
value output up to the DC bus voltage to compensate for DC bus voltage variation. The ratio of
on to off time can be adjusted to vary the RMS voltage while maintaining a constant frequency
with a technique called PWM. The generated gate pulses are given to each switch in accordance
with the developed pattern and thus the output is obtained. Harmonic spectrum in the output
depends on the width of the pulses and the modulation frequency. When operating induction
motors, voltage harmonics are not of great concern; however, harmonic distortion in the current
waveform introduces additional heating and can produce pulsating torques. Numerous electric
equipment will operate quite well on modified sine wave power inverter devices, especially any
load that is resistive in nature such as a traditional incandescent light bulb. Most AC motors will

run on MSW inverters with an efficiency reduction of about 20% due to the harmonic content.
However, they may be quite noisy. A series LC filter tuned to the fundamental frequency may
help.
5.3 Other waveforms

By definition there is no restriction on the type of AC waveform an inverter might produce that
would find use in a specific or special application.
5.3.1Output frequency
The AC output frequency of a power inverter device is usually the same as standard power line
frequency, 50 or 60 hertz If the output of the device or circuit is to be further conditioned (for
example stepped up) then the frequency may be much higher for good transformer efficiency.
5.3.2 Output voltage

The AC output voltage of a power inverter device is often the same as the standard power line
voltage, such as household 120VAC or 240VAC. This allows the inverter to power numerous
types of equipment designed to operate off the standard line power. The designed-for output
voltage is often provided as a regulated output. That is, changes in the load the inverter is driving
will not result in an output voltage change from the inverter. In a sophisticated inverter, the
output voltage may be selectable or even continuously variable.
5.3.3 Output power

A power inverter will often have an overall power rating expressed in watts or kilowatts. This
describes the power that will be available to the device the inverter is driving and, indirectly, the
power that will be needed from the DC source. Smaller popular consumer and commercial
devices designed to mimic line power typically range from 150 to 3000 watts. Not all inverter
applications are primarily concerned with brute power delivery; in some cases the frequency and
or waveform properties are used by the follow-on circuit or device.
5.4 Basic Design

In one simple inverter circuit, DC power is connected to a transformer through the center tap of
the primary winding. A switch is rapidly switched back and forth to allow current to flow back to
the DC source following two alternate paths through one end of the primary winding and then
the other. The alternation of the direction of current in the primary winding of the transformer
produces alternating current (AC) in the secondary circuit. The electromechanical version of the
switching device includes two stationary contacts and a spring supported moving contact. The
spring holds the movable contact against one of the stationary contacts and an electromagnet
pulls the movable contact to the opposite stationary contact. The current in the electromagnet is
interrupted by the action of the switch so that the switch continually switches rapidly back and
forth. This type of electromechanical inverter switch, called a vibrator or buzzer, was once used
in vacuum tube automobile radios. A similar mechanism has been used in door bells, buzzers
and tattoo machines. As they became available with adequate power ratings, transistors and
various other types of semiconductor switches have been incorporated into inverter circuit
designs. Certain ratings, especially for large systems (many kilowatts) use thyristors (SCR).
SCRS provide large power handling capability in a semiconductor device, and can readily be
controlled over a variable firing range. The switch in the simple inverter described above, when
not coupled to an output transformer, produces a square voltage waveform due to its simple off
and on nature as opposed to the sinusoidal waveform that is the usual waveform of an AC power
supply. Using Fourier analysis, periodic waveforms are represented as the sum of an infinite
series of sine waves. The sine wave that has the same frequency as the original waveform is
called the fundamental component. The other sine waves, called harmonic s, that are included in
the series have frequencies that are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency.
Fourier analysis can be used to calculate the total harmonic distortion (THD). The total harmonic
distortion (THD) is the square root of the sum of the squares of the harmonic voltages divided by
the fundamental voltage:

Advanced designs
Fig.5.3. H bridge inverter circuit with transistor switches and anti-parallel diodes
There are many different power circuit topologies and control strategies used in inverter designs.
Different design approaches address various issues that may be more or less important depending
on the way that the inverter is intended to be used. The issue of waveform quality can be
addressed in many ways. Capacitors and inductors can be used to filter the waveform. If the
design includes a transformer, filtering can be applied to the primary or the secondary side of the
transformer or to both sides. Low-pass filters are applied to allow the fundamental component of
the waveform to pass to the output while limiting the passage of the harmonic components. If the
inverter is designed to provide power at a fixed frequency, a resonant filter can be used. For an
adjustable frequency inverter, the filter must be tuned to a frequency that is above the maximum
fundamental frequency. Since most loads contain inductance, feedback rectifiers or anti-
parallel diodes are often connected across each semiconductor switch to provide a path for the
peak inductive load current when the switch is turned off. The anti-parallel diodes are somewhat
similar to the freewheeling diodes used in AC/DC converter circuits.
signal
harmonics harmonics System
waveform transitions THD
eliminated amplified Description
per period
2-level
2 - - square ~45%[7]
wave

3-level
"modified >
4 3, 9, 27,... -
square 23.8%[7]
wave"
5-level
"modified >
8
square 6.5%[7]
wave"
2-level
10 3, 5, 9, 27 7, 11,... very slow
PWM
3-level
12 3, 5, 9, 27 7, 11,... very slow
PWM
Fig.5.4 PWM comparison chart to obtain harmonics & THD
Fourier analysis reveals that a waveform, like a square wave, that is anti-symmetrical about the
180 degree point contains only odd harmonics, the 3rd, 5th, 7th, etc. Waveforms that have steps
of certain widths and heights can attenuate certain lower harmonics at the expense of amplifying
higher harmonics. For example, by inserting a zero-voltage step between the positive and
negative sections of the square-wave, all of the harmonics that are divisible by three (3rd and 9th,
etc.) can be eliminated. That leaves only the 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th etc. The required width of the
steps is one third of the period for each of the positive and negative steps and one sixth of the
period for each of the zero-voltage steps. Changing the square wave as described above is an
example of pulse-width modulation (PWM). Modulating, or regulating the width of a square-

wave pulse is often used as a method of regulating or adjusting an inverter's output voltage.
When voltage control is not required, a fixed pulse width can be selected to reduce or eliminate
selected harmonics. Harmonic elimination techniques are generally applied to the lowest
harmonics because filtering is much more practical at high frequencies, where the filter
components can be much smaller and less expensive. Multiple pulse-width or carrier
based PWM control schemes produce waveforms that are composed of many narrow pulses. The
frequency represented by the number of narrow pulses per second is called the switching
frequency or carrier frequency. These control schemes are often used in variable-frequency
motor control inverters because they allow a wide range of output voltage and frequency
adjustment while also improving the quality of the waveform. Multilevel inverters provide
another approach to harmonic cancellation. Multilevel inverters provide an output waveform that
exhibits multiple steps at several voltage levels. For example, it is possible to produce a more
sinusoidal wave by having split-rail direct current inputs at two voltages, or positive and negative
inputs with a central ground. By connecting the inverter output terminals in sequence between
the positive rail and ground, the positive rail and the negative rail, the ground rail and the
negative rail, then both to the ground rail, a stepped waveform is generated at the inverter output.
This is an example of a three level inverter: the two voltages and ground.
5.5 More on achieving a sine wave
Resonant inverters produce sine waves with LC circuits to remove the harmonics from a simple
square wave. Typically there are several series- and parallel-resonant LC circuits, each tuned to a
different harmonic of the power line frequency. This simplifies the electronics, but the inductors
and capacitors tend to be large and heavy. Its high efficiency makes this approach popular in
large uninterruptible power supplies in data centers that run the inverter continuously in an
"online" mode to avoid any switchover transient when power is lost. (See related: Resonant
inverter)A closely related approach uses a Ferro resonant transformer, also known as a constant
voltage transformer, to remove harmonics and to store enough energy to sustain the load for a
few AC cycles. This property makes them useful in standby power supplies to eliminate the
switchover transient that otherwise occurs during a power failure while the normally idle inverter
starts and the mechanical relays are switching to its output.

5.6 Enhanced quantization
A proposal suggested in Power Electronics magazine utilizes two voltages as an improvement

over the common commercialized technology which can only apply DC bus voltage in either
directions or turn it off. The proposal adds an additional voltage to this design. Each cycle
consists of sequence as: v1, v2, v1, off/pause, -v1, -v2, -v1.
5.7 Three-phase inverters
Fig 5.5 Three-phase inverters

Three-phase inverters are used for variable-frequency drive applications and for high power
applications such as HVDC power transmission. A basic three-phase inverter consists of three
single-phase inverter switches each connected to one of the three load terminals. For the most
basic control scheme, the operation of the three switches is coordinated so that one switch
operates at each 60 degree point of the fundamental output waveform. This creates a line-to-line
output waveform that has six steps. The six-step waveform has a zero-voltage step between the
positive and negative sections of the square-wave such that the harmonics that are multiples of
three are eliminated as described above. When carrier-based PWM techniques are applied to six-
step waveforms, the basic overall shape, or envelope, of the waveform is retained so that the 3rd
harmonic and its multiples are cancelled.
3-phase inverter switching circuit showing 6-step switching sequence and waveform of voltage
between terminals A and C (23-2 states)To construct inverters with higher power ratings, two
six-step three-phase inverters can be connected in parallel for a higher current rating or in series
for a higher voltage rating. In either case, the output waveforms are phase shifted to obtain a 12-
step waveform. If additional inverters are combined, an 18-step inverter is obtained with three
inverters etc. Although inverters are usually combined for the purpose of achieving increased
voltage or current ratings, the quality of the waveform is improved as well.

5.8 Early Inverters
From the late nineteenth century through the middle of the twentieth century, DC-to-AC power
conversion was accomplished using rotary converters or motor-generator sets (M-G sets). In the
early twentieth century, vacuum tubes and gas filled tubes began to be used as switches in
inverter circuits. The most widely used type of tube was the thyratron. The origins of
electromechanical inverters explain the source of the term inverter. Early AC-to-DC converters
used an induction or synchronous AC motor direct-connected to a generator (dynamo) so that the
generator's commutator reversed its connections at exactly the right moments to produce DC. A
later development is the synchronous converter, in which the motor and generator windings are
combined into one armature, with slip rings at one end and a commutator at the other and only
one field frame. The result with either is AC-in, DC-out. With an M-G set, the DC can be
considered to be separately generated from the AC; with a synchronous converter, in a certain
sense it can be considered to be "mechanically rectified AC". Given the right auxiliary and
control equipment, an M-G set or rotary converter can be "run backwards", converting DC to
AC. Hence an inverter is an inverted converter.
5.9 Controlled rectifier inverters
Since early transistors were not available with sufficient voltage and current ratings for most
inverter applications, it was the 1957 introduction of the thyristor silicon-controlled
rectifier (SCR) that initiated the transition to solid state inverter circuits.
Fig.5.7 Controlled rectifier inverters

5.10 12-pulse line-commutated inverter
The commutation requirements of SCRs are a key consideration in SCR circuit designs. SCRs do
not turn off or commutate automatically when the gate control signal is shut off. They only turn
off when the forward current is reduced to below the minimum holding current, which varies
with each kind of SCR, through some external process. For SCRs connected to an AC power
source, commutation occurs naturally every time the polarity of the source voltage reverses.
SCRs connected to a DC power source usually require a means of forced commutation that
forces the current to zero when commutation is required. The least complicated SCR circuits
employ natural commutation rather than forced commutation. With the addition of forced
commutation circuits, SCRs have been used in the types of inverter circuits described above.In
applications where inverters transfer power from a DC power source to an AC power source, it is
possible to use AC-to-DC controlled rectifier circuits operating in the inversion mode. In the
inversion mode, a controlled rectifier circuit operates as a line commutated inverter. This type of
operation can be used in HVDC power transmission systems and in regenerative
braking operation of motor control systems. Another type of SCR inverter circuit is the current
source input (CSI) inverter. A CSI inverter is the dual of a six-step voltage source inverter. With
a current source inverter, the DC power supply is configured as a current source rather than
a voltage source. The inverter SCR s are switched in a six-step sequence to direct the current to a
three-phase AC load as a stepped current waveform. CSI inverter commutation methods include
load commutation and parallel capacitor commutation. With both methods, the input current
regulation assists the commutation. With load commutation, the load is a synchronous motor
operated at a leading power factor. As they have become available in higher voltage and current
ratings, semiconductors such as transistors or IGBTs that can be turned off by means of control
signals have become the preferred switching components for use in inverter circuits.
5.11 Rectifier and inverter pulse numbers
Rectifier circuits are often classified by the number of current pulses that flow to the DC side of
the rectifier per cycle of AC input voltage. A single-phase half-wave rectifier is a one-pulse
circuit and a single-phase full-wave rectifier is a two-pulse circuit. A three-phase half-wave

rectifier is a three-pulse circuit and a three-phase full-wave rectifier is a six-pulse circuit. With
three-phase rectifiers, two or more rectifiers are sometimes connected in series or parallel to
obtain higher voltage or current ratings. The rectifier inputs are supplied from special
transformers that provide phase shifted outputs. This has the effect of phase multiplication. Six
phases are obtained from two transformers, twelve phases from three transformers and so on.
The associated rectifier circuits are 12-pulse rectifiers, 18-pulse rectifiers and so on... When
controlled rectifier circuits are operated in the inversion mode, they would be classified by pulse
number also. Rectifier circuits that have a higher pulse number have reduced harmonic content in
the AC input current and reduced ripple in the DC output voltage. In the inversion mode, circuits
that have a higher pulse number have lower harmonic content in the AC output voltage
waveform.
5.12 Other Notes

The large switching devices for power transmission applications installed until 1970
predominantly used mercury-arc valves. Modern inverters are usually solid state (static
inverters). A modern design method features components arranged in an H bridge configuration.
This design is also quite popular with smaller-scale consumer device

CHAPTER 6
SIMULATION MODELLING
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Photovoltaic cell is the building block of solar photovoltaic panel that transform light, usually
sunlight into electric energy. Basic modelling of grid connected PV system is done to realize the
basic characteristics of PV cell. The model is developed using basic circuit of PV cell including
the effects of solar irradiation and temperature changes. Effect of various parameters on PV
array including operating temperature and solar irradiation level has also been studied. System
modelling is done by connecting PV array to grid through power electronic converters. In this
dissertation simulation and modelling of the system has been carried out in MATLAB-
SIMULINK GUI environment .In Figure 5.4 when light falling (solar irradiation) on PV array,
produce DC voltage.12 pulse inverter is used to convert the voltage from DC to AC which is fed
to the grid.
6.2 MODELING OF PV ARRAY
PV arrays are built up with combined series/parallel combinations of PV solar cells, which are
usually represented by a simplified equivalent circuit model such as the one given in Fig. 1
and/or by an equation as in (1)
Fig.6.1. Simplified-equivalent circuit of photovoltaic cell
The PV cell output voltage is a function of the photocurrent that mainly determined by load
current depending on the solar irradiation level during the operation.

𝐴𝐾𝑇𝑐 𝐼𝑝ℎ+𝐼𝑜−𝐼𝑐
𝑉𝐶 = 𝐸
log( 𝐼𝑜 )-𝑅𝑆 𝐼𝐶 (6.1)
Where the symbols are defined as follows:
e: electron charge (1.602 × 10−19 C).
K: Boltzmann constant (1.38 × 10−23J/oK).
𝐼𝐶 : Cell output current, A.
𝐼𝑝ℎ : Photo current, function of irradiation level and junction temperature (5 A).
𝐼𝑂 : Reverse saturation current of diode (0.0002 A).
𝑅𝑠 : Series resistance of cell (0.001 Ω).
𝑇𝐶 : Reference cell operating temperature (20 °C).
𝑉𝐶 : Cell output voltage, V.
Both k and 𝑇𝐶 should have the same temperature unit, either Kelvin or Celsius. The curve fitting
factor A is used to adjust the I-V characteristics of the cell obtained from (6.1) to the actual
characteristics obtained by testing. Eq. (6.1) gives the voltage of a single solar cell which is then
multiplied by the number of the cells connected in series to calculate the full array voltage. Since
the array current is the sum of the currents flowing through the cells in parallel branches, the cell
current 𝐼𝐶 is obtained by dividing the array current by the number of the cells connected in
parallel before being used in (6.1), which is only valid for a certain cell operating temperature
𝑇𝐶 with its corresponding solar irradiation level𝑆𝐶 . If the temperature and solar irradiation levels
change, the voltage and current outputs of the PV array will follow this change. Hence, the
effects of the changes in temperature and solar irradiation levels should also be included in the
final PV array model. A method to include these effects in the PV array modeling is given by
Buresch . According to his method, for a known temperature and a known solar irradiation level,
a model is obtained and then this model is modified to handle different cases of temperature and

irradiation levels. Let (6.1) be the benchmark model for the known operating temperature Tc and
known solar irradiation level Sc as given in the specification. When the ambient temperature and
irradiation levels change, the cell operating temperature also changes, resulting in a new output
voltage and a new photocurrent value. The solar cell operating temperature varies as a function
of solar irradiation level and ambient temperature. The variable ambient temperature Ta affects
the cell output voltage and cell photocurrent. These effects are represented in the model by the
temperature coefficients CTV and CTI for cell output voltage and cell photocurrent, respectively,
as
𝐶𝑇𝑉 =1+𝛽𝑇 (𝑇𝑎 -𝑇𝑥 ) (6.2)
𝛾
𝐶𝑇1 =1+ 𝑆𝑇 ( 𝑇𝑥 − 𝑇𝑎 ) (6.3)
𝑐
Where, 𝛽𝑇 = 0.004 and 𝛾𝑇 = 0.06 for the cell used and Ta=20 C is the ambient temperature
during the cell testing. This is used to obtain the modified model of the cell for another ambient
temperature𝑇𝑋 . Even if the ambient temperature does not change significantly during the
daytime, the solar irradiation level changes depending on the amount of sunlight and clouds. A
change in solar irradiation level causes a change in the cell photocurrent and operating
temperature, which in turn affects the cell output voltage. If the solar irradiation level increases
from 𝑆𝑋1 to𝑆𝑋2 , the cell operating temperature and the photocurrent will also increase from 𝑇𝑋1 to
𝑇𝑋2 and from 𝐼𝑝ℎ1 to𝐼𝑝ℎ2 , respectively. Thus the change in the operating temperature and in the
photocurrent due to variation in the solar irradiation level can be expressed via two constants,
𝐶𝑆𝑉 and𝐶𝑆𝐼 , which are the correction factors for changes in cell output voltage 𝑉𝐶 and photo
current𝐼𝑝ℎ , respectively:
𝐶𝑠𝑣 = 1 + 𝛽𝑇 𝛼𝑠 (𝑆𝑥 − 𝑆𝑐 ) (6.4)

1
𝐶 𝑆𝐼 = 1 + 𝑆 (𝑆𝑋 − 𝑆𝐶 ) (6.5)
𝐶
Where 𝑆𝐶 is the benchmark reference solar irradiation level during the cell testing to obtain the
modified cell model𝑆𝑋 is the new level of the solar irradiation. The temperature change, Δ𝑇𝐶 ,
occurs due to the change in the solar irradiation level and is obtained using
∆𝑇𝐶 = 𝛼𝑆 (𝑆𝑋 − 𝑆𝐶 ) (6.6)
The constant 𝛼𝑆 represents the slope of the change in the cell operating temperature due to a
change in the solar irradiation level [1] and is equal to 0.2 for the solar cells used. Using
correction factors,𝐶𝑇𝑉 𝐶𝑇𝐼 ,𝐶𝑆𝑉 and 𝐶𝑆𝐼 , the new values of the cell output voltage 𝑉𝐶𝑋 and
photocurrent 𝐼𝑝ℎ𝑥 are obtained for the new temperature 𝑇𝑋 and solar irradiation 𝑆𝑋 as follows
𝑉𝐶𝑋 = 𝐶𝑇𝑉 𝐶𝑆𝑉 𝑉𝐶 (6.7)
𝐼𝑝ℎ𝑥 = 𝐶𝑇𝐼 𝐶𝑆𝐼 𝐼𝑝ℎ (6.8)
𝑉𝐶 & 𝐼𝑝ℎ are the benchmark reference cell output voltage and reference cell photocurrent,
respectively. The resulting I-V and PV curves for various temperature and solar irradiation levels
were discussed and shown in [6, 8,9] therefore they are not going to be given here again.
6.3 PVA MODEL FOR SIMULINK
A general block diagram of the PVA model for GUI environment of Simulink is given in Fig.6. 2
along with filter and load models. The block called PVA model for GUI is the last stage of the
model. This block contains the sub models that are connected to build the final model. A diode
(D1) is connected in series with the load circuit to prevent the reverse current flow. A filter is
connected before the load to maintain a stable voltage. The filter contains a series R-L and

parallel C elements. The PVA consists of 8 PV cells all connected in series to have a desired
voltage output. Depending on the load
Power required, the number of parallel branches can be increased to 2 or more. The effects of the
temperature and solar irradiation levels are represented by two variables gains. They can be
changed by dragging the slider gain adjustments of these blocks named as variable temperature
and variable solar irradiation.
Fig.6.2. PVA MODEL FOR SIMULINK
6.4 .MODEL OF 12 PULSE INVERTER

At present time, the most popular solutions are high frequency switch-mode PWM inverters and
low frequency six-pulse inverters. Inverters from the first class, contrary to the inverters from the
second class, are able to meet all requirements concerning low harmonics of the AC current, but
are more expensive, less reliable and cause much higher EMI noise. Six-pulse inverters are very

attractive because of their simplicity, reliability and low cost, but low harmonics are achievable
only with additional harmonic filters. The novel 12-pulse inverter presented in this paper
preserves all advantages of the six-pulse inverter and in addition has low harmonics without help
+
v
-
Continuous
+
v
-
A a
B b
g
C
C c
C
E
a3 A+
E
B+
E
C+
b3
A-
B-
c3 C-
g
g
C
C
+
g
v
-
E
E
E
+
v
-
+
v
-
g
A
B
C
g
Three-Phase
Series RLC Load
E
a3 A+
E
B+
C+
b3
A-
B-
c3 C-
g
g
C
C
g
[A]
E
E
E
Goto
Fig6.3.simulink model of 12 pulse inverter
Of any filters. Achievable level of current harmonics is similar to well known 12-pulse rectifiers
6.5. SIMULINK MODEL OF 12 PULSE INVERTER WITH PV ARRAY,

BOOST CONVERTER WITHOUT MPPT
Fig.6.4.simulink model of 12 pulse inverter with pv array, boost converter without MPPT

6.6.SIMULINK MODEL OF 12 PULSE INVERTER WITH PV

ARRAY,BOOST CONVERTER WITH MPPT(INCREMENTAL &
CONDUCTANCE METHOD)
Fig 6.5.Simulink model of 12 pulse inverter with pv array, boost converter with
MPPT(incremental & conductance method)

6.6.1SIMULINK MODEL OF INCREMENTAL & CONDUCTANCE

METHOD MPPT
Fig.6.6.simulink model of incremental & conductance method MPPT
6.7. MODEL OF 12 PULSE INVERTER WITH PV ARRAY,BOOST

CONVERTER WITH MPPT(FUZZY LOGIC METHOD)
Fig 6.7.simulink model of 12 pulse inverter with PV array, boost converter with
MPPT (FUZZY logic method)

6.7.1. SIMULINK MODEL OF FUZZY LOGIC METHOD MPPT
Fig.6.8.simulink model of FUZZY logic method

CHAPTER 7
SIMULATION RESULTS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
After successful execution of simulink model following results are obtained which are sufficient
to prove satisfactory working of our model.
7.2 Output ac voltage of 12 pulse inverter without MPPT
In this simulation results (fig 7.1) we observe the output ac voltage of pulse inverter without
MPPT by which we can see after 3 sec the output is decreases from 200 volt to 180 volt or
comparatively decrease more than other which is effect of MPPT.
250
ac voltage without MPPT
200
150
100
voltage in volt
50
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
time in sec
Fig 7.1.Output ac voltage of 12 pulse inverter without MPPT

7.3. Output ac voltage of 12 pulse inverter with MPPT (incremental &

conductance method)
In this simulation results (fig 7.2) we observe the output ac voltage of pulse inverter with MPPT
(incremental & conductance method) by which we can see after 3 sec the output is decreases
from 220 volt to 195 volt or comparatively decrease more than FUZZY logic control MPPT.
250 ac voltage with MPPT(inc. conductance)
200
150
100
voltage in volt
50
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
time in sec
Fig 7.2.Output ac voltage of 12 pulse inverter with MPPT (incremental &

conductance method)

7.4. Output ac voltage of 12 pulse inverter with MPPT (FUZZY logic method)
In this simulation results (fig 7.3) we observe the output ac voltage of pulse inverter with MPPT
(FUZZY logic method) by which we can see after 3 sec the output is decreases but not more than
others and stable after very less decay which is needful to achieve the maximum power from the
PV Array. The voltage decay is 220 volt to 215 or 210 volt which is comparatively less decay
from others.
250 ac voltage with MPPT (FUZZY Logic)
200
150
100
voltage in volt
50
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
time in sec
Fig 7.3.Output ac voltage of 12 pulse inverter with MPPT (FUZZY logic method)

7.5. Output voltage comparison after boost converter with MPPT (FUZZY
logic method, Incremental & conductance method) & without MPPT
In this simulation results (fig 7.4) we observe the Output voltage comparison after boost
converter with MPPT (FUZZY logic method, Incremental & conductance method) & without
MPPT by which we can see after 3 sec the output is decreases but if we compare the results we
can see that the output voltage after fuzzy logic MPPT is very less decreases in comparison of
other MPPT technique (Incremental & conductance method) & without MPPT which shows that
the FUZZY logic MPPT is better than other (Incremental & conductance method) MPPT.
600
500
400
voltage in volt
300
200
100 output voltage without MPPT

output voltage with MPPT(inc. cound)
output voltage with MPPT(FUZZY logic)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
time in sec
Fig 7.4.Output voltage comparison after boost converter with MPPT (FUZZY
logic method, Incremental & conductance method) & without MPPT

7.6Output power comparison after boost converter with MPPT (FUZZY logic
method, Incremental & conductance method) & without MPPT
In this simulation results (fig 7.5) we observe the Output power comparison after boost converter
with MPPT (FUZZY logic method, Incremental & conductance method) & without MPPT by
which we can see after 3 sec the output is decreases but if we compare the results we can see that
the output power after fuzzy logic MPPT is very less decreases in comparison of other MPPT
technique (Incremental & conductance method) & without MPPT which shows that the FUZZY
logic MPPT is better than other (Incremental & conductance method) MPPT.
700
600
500
power in watt
400
300
200
output power without MPPT

100 output power with MPPT(inc. conductance)
output power with MPPT(FUZZY logic )
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
time in sec
Fig 7.5.Output power comparison after boost converter with MPPT (FUZZY logic
method, Incremental & conductance method) & without MPPT

7.7 Irradiance &Temperature profile

The figure of irradiance & temperature profile shows that the irradiance & temperature which is
taken for PV Array for simulations.
Fig.7.6. Irradiance profile
Fig.7.7.Temprature profile

CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
6.1 CONCLUSION
In this dissertation, the intelligent control techniques for the tracking of MPP were investigated
in order to improve the efficiency of PV systems, under different temperature and irradiance
conditions. The design and simulation of a fuzzy logic based MPPT controller was proposed
using MATLAB. The proposed method has very good performances, fast responses with no
overshoot and less fluctuation in the steady state, for rapid irradiance and temperature variations.
These controllers are able to maintain very rapidly and the operating point of the PV systems at
the maximum power point hence improving the amount of energy effectively extracted from the
PV modules, i.e. increasing the efficiency of the PV system As a future work, the proposed
intelligent methods will be tested with hardware applications in order to obtain better points of
comparison between controlled and uncontrolled MPP trackers. In order to develop an optimal
green generation option, another topic that should be taken into account is the combination and
coordination with other controllers involved in PV systems, like the DC-AC inverter control in
grid – connected mode applications.
6.2 FUTURE SCOPE

In this dissertation, we have implemented the simulation model for photovoltaic arrays (PVA) to
be used in Matlab-Simulink GUI environment in this method of Pulse Inverter With PV cell , in
future we can implement other techniques PV power generator along with wind, fuel cells and
small hydro system by establishing proper interfacing and controllers. As a future work, the
proposed intelligent methods may be used for hardware applications in order to obtain practical
results. In order to develop an optimal green generation option, another topic that should be
taken into account is the combination and coordination with other controllers involved in PV
systems, like the DC-AC inverter control in grid – connected mode applications

PUBLICATION
1. Gaurav Tyagi,Anil Kumar Dahiya “Pulse Inverter with PV CELL” published in

International conference NCNIT-2014, National Institute Of Technology
Kurukshetra,India
2. Gaurav Tyagi,Anil Kumar Dahiya “12-Pulse Inverter with PV CELL(MPPT)” published

in International conference (2013),Faculty Of Engineering & Technology Gurukul
Kangri University Haridwar, India
3. Gaurav Tyagi,Anil Kumar Dahiya “Simulation of Photovoltaic Array In Power GUI

Environment with 12-Pulse Inverter” accepted in International Conference
on“Optimization and Parametric Modeling”,NationalInstitute of Technology, Hamirpur,
India

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Multi Pulse Inverter For PV Cell 2014

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA Page 1

1.1.1 RENEWABLE ENERGY

1.1.2 Solar Photovoltaic Technology

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA Page 2

Absorption of a photon in a solar cell results in the generation of an electron–hole pair

1.1.3 Energy Scenario at International and National Level

Figure1.1 Cumulative installed photovoltaic capacity worldwide (in Gigawatts) [1]

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA Page 3

1.1.4 Relevance of Renewable Energy in India

Figure 1.2 overview of installed capacity of India [1-3]

PV systems are usually used in three main fields:

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA Page 4

Grid-connected PV systems currently dominate the PV market, especially in Europe,

1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA Page 5

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA Page 6

1.4 OBJECTIVE OF THE DISSERTATION

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA Page 7

1.5 CHAPTER ORGANISATION

Chapter.2. presents the basic introduction of photovoltaic system, equivalent model of

Chapter.3.Presents the modeling, operation and control of DC-DC boost converter. It

Chapter.4.Various techniques of MPPT control, mathematical equations and

Chapter.5. .Presents the modeling, operation and control of Pulse inverter

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA Page 8

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA Page 9

Figure 2.1: Classification of PV systems. [3]

2.2 MODELING OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) SYSTEM

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA Page 10

2.3.1 Solar Cell

2.3.2 Modeling of Solar Cell

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA Page 11

“ k ” is Boltzmann constant, 1.38 ×10-23 J / K ;

𝑇 = 3.12 + 0.25 ∗ ( 𝑆⁄𝑆 ) + 0.899 𝑇𝑎 – 1.3𝑊𝑠 + 273 (2.3)

“S” is irradiance intensity (W / m2 );

“ Isc,ref ” is solar cell short –circuit current at reference condition.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA Page 12

i. Temperature dependence of diode saturation current IR shown in equation (2.4).

(a) Simplified Model of solar cell

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA Page 13

(b) Appropriate Model of solar cell

(c) General Model of solar cell

Figure 2.2: Equivalent circuit models of PV cell. [7]

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA Page 14

Figure 2.3 Structure of a PV module with 36 cells connected in series. [8]

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA Page 15

Figure 2.4 Structure of a PV Cell, Module, and Array [8]

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA Page 16

2.6 REALISATION OF BASIC SOLAR PV MODULE

(a)I-V curve (b) P-V curve Figure

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA Page 17

(a) I-V curve (b) P-V curve

2.7 GRID-CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS

2.8 NEED OF MULTI PULSE INVERTER FOR PV CELL SYSTEM

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA Page 18

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA Page 19

b) Buck type DC to DC converter(it step down the input voltage)

3.2 BOOST CONVERTER

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA Page 20

Figure 3.1: The basic circuit of a boost converter. [19]

3.2.1 Operating Principle

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA Page 21

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA Page 22