COHESION is the name given to those language features which do the job of 'holding together'

a text; these can cover a wide range of linguistic and stylistic devices.

CONTEXT can be 'internal' or 'external'. External context might include very broad cultural and
historical information about the author, the period of writing, etc. However, for our purposes,
external context will, like internal context, be concerned with TEXTUAL RELATIONS, i.e. with
the apparent relationships between persons inside and outside the text (e.g. the author and the
reader, the author and the characters, one character and another).

THE SIX BASIC LOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS IN LANGUAGE

PONDER THIS ABOUT LANGUAGE:

Language is essentially the interplay of its content words and the ideas that reside in them, and
in English, the primary operators for connecting ideas and establishing their various
relationships in a sentence are the following:
1. The prepositions
2. The conjunctions
3. The conjunctive adverbs

A. THE SIX BASIC LOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS IN LANGUAGE

1. The additive relationship – to add information similar to what has already been given in a
statement.
2. The comparative relationship – to present an idea dissimilar to the one preceding it, or to
highlight the difference rather than the similarity between two things or ideas.
3. The temporal or time relationship – to establish the sequence, duration, or perceived
immediacy of two or more events as they happen in time.
4. The causal or reason-result relationship – to establish a certain fact, event, or
development as the cause or effect of a particular outcome or situation.
5. The conditional relationship – to establish that the truth or correctness of an idea is
dependent on a certain condition or set of conditions, or that a certain outcome can be expected
as a result of another condition or event.
6. The example relationship – to give concrete examples of what is being talked about.

So how do we establish these logical relationships in language? In English, in particular, what

do we use as tools for combining ideas within sentences, between sentences, and across
paragraphs?

B. TOOLS FOR COMBINING IDEAS WITHIN A SENTENCE

1. Prepositions – function words that typically combine with a noun phrase to form a phrase
that usually expresses a modification or predication of an idea. Examples are the prepositions
“in,” “at,” “on,” “to,” “since,” “after.”

As connectives, prepositions have to be tacked on to a noun phrase so we can properly modify

it or elaborate on it when forming a sentence.

We will take up the prepositions in much greater detail in next week's lesson.
2. Conjunctions – function words that connect sentences, clauses, phrases, or words and
establish a logical relationship between them. They are of two kinds:

(a) Coordinating conjunction – a function word that connects two or more word groups of
equal grammatical rank. Typically, it links independent clauses to form compound sentences, or
links parallel sentence elements.

The coordinating conjunctions are: “for,” “and,” “nor,” “but,” “or,” “yet,” and “so.” They are the
basic connectives for linking independent clauses and establishing a desired logical relationship
between them. When two independent clauses are linked by a coordinating conjunction, a
compound sentence is formed.

Usage: “The boxer was ahead in points in all the rounds, but he got knocked down on the 12th.”

FOOD FOR THOUGHT ABOUT THE COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS:

Together with the prepositions, the coordinating conjunctions are the most basic function words
in the English language. Many people who know and use only the prepositions and coordinating
conjunctions can get by in life with only the most rudimentary English. They can form only the
most basic ideas, very much like a very young nonnative English speaker.

For true mastery of the English language, we need to be competent in using all of the function
words—not only the prepositions and coordinating conjunctions but also the subordinating
conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs.

(b) Subordinating conjunction – a function word that introduces and links a subordinate
clause to a main clause, creating a complex sentence.

There are four groups of subordinators than can link subordinate clauses to independent
clauses:
(1) Subordinating conjunctions for time

Examples: “before,” “after,” “during”

Usage: “You need to digest your dinner before you go to sleep.”

(2) Subordinating conjunctions for cause and effect

Examples: “until,” “if,” “because”

Usage: “We won’t be able to go to the movies tonight because this horrendous rain just won’t
stop.”

(3) Subordinating conjunctions for opposition and contrast

Examples: “though,” “as though,” “although”

Usage: “The singer lost the contest though she was the crowd favorite.”
(4) Conditional subordinating conjunctions

Examples: “if,” “if only,” “as long as”

Usage: “She could have finished college if only she had persevered enough.”

3. Conjunctive adverb – it performs essentially the same function as the coordinating

conjunctions, which is to logically connect two independent, grammatically co-equal clauses.
However, a conjunctive adverb provides a more explicit and forceful transition than its
equivalent coordinating conjunction.

Examples: “moreover,” “therefore,” “however”

Usage: “They always clash regarding policy; therefore, it is best to assign them to different
departments.”

Conjunctive adverbs can give punch to our sentences when used judiciously; otherwise, they
can make us sound pedantic, pompous, and overbearing. Indeed, the blatant overuse of
conjunctive adverbs often leads to legalese or bureaucratese, a language register that makes
business writing sound like it was written by a petty potentate or a two-bit lawyer.

Take a look:

“Whereas, during the first quarter of 2007, the company ran a very thorough and exhaustive
survey of customer preferences. However, in view of the fact that it was a very costly one, many
managers consequently opposed it and considered it unnecessary. Notwithstanding their
objections, however, we conducted the survey and found out that many of our assumptions
about our customers were wrong. Accordingly, therefore, we subsequently made rigorous
changes in our marketing plans.”

The excessive emphasis that conjunctive adverbs give to practically just anything—no matter
how trivial or petty—makes us sound like two-bit lawyers.

Now see and feel how much more easy, pleasant, and reader-friendly that same passage
becomes when the conjunctive adverbs are replaced with plain coordinating
conjunctions:

“The company ran a very thorough and exhaustive but very costly survey of customer
preferences. Many managers opposed it and thought that it was an unnecessary
exercise, but we conducted it anyway. As it turned out, the survey showed that many of our
assumptions about our customers were wrong, so we had to rigorously change our marketing
plans.”
COHESION

1. Does the text contain logical or other links between sentences (e.g. and, or, but, and so,
then etc.)?

BILGEWATER PASSAGE

(1) The interview seemed over. (2) The Principal of the college sat looking at the candidate. (3)
The Principal's back was to the light and her stout, short outline was solid against the window,
softened only by the fuzz of her ageing but rather pretty hair. (4) Outside the bleak and brutal
Cambridge afternoon - December and raining.

(5) The candidate sat opposite wondering what to do. (6) The chair had a soft seat but
wooden arms. (7) She crossed her legs first one way and then the other - then wondered about
crossing her legs at all. (8) She wondered whether to get up. (9) There was a cigarette box
beside her. (10) She wondered whether she would be offered a cigarette. (11) There was a
decanter of sherry on the bookcase. (12) It had a neglected air.

(13) This was the third interview of the day. (14) The first had been as she had expected -
carping, snappish, harsh, watchful - unfriendly even before you had your hand off the door
handle. (15) Seeing how much you could take. (16) Typical Cambridge. (17) A sign of the times.
(18) An hour later and then the second interview - five of them this time behind a table - four
women, one man, all in old clothes. (19) That had been a long one. (20) Polite though. (21) Not
so bad. (22) "Is there anything that you would like to ask us?"

((23) "Yes please, why I'm here. (24) Whether I really want to come even if you invite me. (25)
What you're all like. (26) Have you ever run mad for love? (27) Considered suicide? (28) Cried
in the cinema? (29) Clung to somebody in bed?")

(30) "No thank you. (31) I think Miss Blenkinsop-Briggs has already answered my questions in
the interview this morning." (32) They move their pens about, purse their lips, turn to one
another from the waist, put together the tips of their fingers. (33) I look alert. (34) I sit up-right.
(35) I survey them coolly but not without respect. (36) I might get in on this one. (37) But don't
think it is a good sign when they're nice to you, said old Miss Bex. (38) And now, here we are.
(39) The third interview. (40) Meeting the Principal.

(41) An interview with the Principal means I'm in for a Scholarship. (42) How ridiculous!

(43) I can't see her face against the light. (44) She's got a brooding shape. (45) She is a mass.
(46) Beneath the fuzz a mass. (47) A massive intelligence clicking and ticking away - observing,
assessing, sifting, pigeonholing. (48) Not a feeling, not an emotion, not a dizzy thought. (49) A
formidable woman.

(50) She's getting up. (51) It has been delightful. (52) She hopes that we may meet again. (53)
(Does that mean I'm in?) (54) What a long way I have to come for an interview. (55) The far far
north. (56) She hopes that I was comfortable last night.

(57) We shake hands in quite a northern way. (58) Then she puts on a coat - very nice coat,
too. (59) Fur. (60) Nice fur. (61) Something human then about her somewhere.

(62) She walks with me to the door and down the stairs and we pause again on the college
steps.

(63) There is a cold white mist swirling about, rising from the river. (64) The trees lean,
swinging long, black ropes at the water. (65) A court-yard, frosty, of lovely proportions. (66) A
fountain, a gateway. (67) In the windows round the courtyard the lights are coming on one by
one. (68) But it is damp, old, cold, cold, cold. (69) Cold as home.

(70) Shall I come here?

(71) Would I like it after all?

ANSWER

Logical/textual links

There are a few of these, mainly indicating shifts in time, place and attitude as we move from
one interview to another, e.g.

(14) The first had been as she had expected . . .

(18) An hour later and then the second interview
(38) And now, here we are. (39) The third interview.

These explicit links in particular help us to avoid 'getting lost' as we read the passage and move
continually from interview to interview and back again.