UNIT III

OPTICAL REMOTE SENSING

Prepared by
Dr.R.NAGALAKSHMI
Associate Professor
SRM Institute of Science and Technology,
Kattankulathur
 UNIT III: OPTICAL REMOTE SENSING

1. Classification of Remote Sensor

2. Selection of sensor Parameter – Spatial Resolution, Radiometric
Resolution,
3. Selection of sensor Parameter – Spectral Resolution, Reference
Temporal Resolution
4. Optical and infrared camera
5. Quality of image in Optical system, Imaging mode
6. Types of Camera Photographic camera, Television camera
7. Introduction to Opto-Mechanical Sensors
8. Push broom Cameras
9. Whiskbroom Cameras
 CHARECTERISTICS OF SENSORS
• 1. Spatial resolution
• 2. Spectral resolution
• 3. Radiometric resolution
• 4. Temporal resolution
 Spatial resolution
• It refers to the size of the smallest possible object that can be

detected

• It depends on the Instantaneous Field Of View (IFOV) and the height

of the satellite orbit

• It tells the pixel size on the ground surface

Spatial Resolution describes how much detail in a photographic

image is visible to the human eye. The ability to "resolve," or

separate, small details is one way of describing what we call spatial

resolution.
 Instantaneous field of view
• The IFOV is the angular cone of
visibility of the sensor (A) and
determines the area on the Earth's
surface which is "seen" from a
given altitude at one particular
moment in time (B). The size of the
area viewed is determined by
multiplying the IFOV by the
distance from the ground to the
sensor (C).
 pixels
• most remote sensing images are composed of a matrix of picture

elements, or pixels, which are the smallest units of an image.

• Image pixels are normally square and represent a certain area on an

image.

• It is important to distinguish between pixel size and spatial resolution

- they are not interchangeable.

• If a sensor has a spatial resolution of 20 meters and an image from

that sensor is displayed at full resolution, each pixel represents an

area of 20m x 20m on the ground.

• Scale:

• A map scale is the map distance ratio that corresponds to the actual

ground distance. The scale on the map presents a distance

measurement between each landmark. As an example on a 1:

1000000 cm scale map shows that 1 centimeter is equal to 1

kilometer on the ground

• The Scale Image command enlarges or reduces the physical size of

the image by changing the number of pixels it contains. It changes

the size of the contents of the image and resizes the canvas

accordingly.
 Images where only large features are visible are said to have coarse
or low resolution.
.

In fine or high resolution images, small objects can be detected

• Low resolution systems

• Spatial resolution > 1km

• MODIS, AVHRR

• Medium resolution systems

• Spatial resolution is 100m – 1km

• IRS WiFS (188m), Landsat TM–Band 6 (120m), MODIS–Bands 1-7

(250-500m)
• High resolution systems

• Spatial resolution approximately in the range 5-100m • Landsat ETM+

(30m), IRS LISS-III (23m MSS, 6m Panchromatic), IRS AWiFS (56-

70m), SPOT 5(2.5-5m Panchromatic)

• Very high resolution systems

Spatial resolution less than 5m

• GeoEye (0.45m for Panchromatic, 1.65m for MSS), IKONOS (0.8-1m

Panchromatic), Quickbird (2.4-2.8 m)

 10 m resolution, 30 m resolution, 80 m resolution,
10 m pixel size 10 m pixel size 10 m pixel size

– Picture shows different resolutions, which represents the

smallest distance that can be measured.

– It is observed that having low values of resolution give

better images, and specific to a certain region.

– For high resolution, though it gives more details, data would

be bulky and distinction between features may be slightly
difficult. 12
Low spatial Moderate High Very high
resolution

MODIS IRS WiFS (188m) Landsat ETM+ GeoEye (0.45m

(30m) for Panchromatic
and 1.65m for
MSS),

AVHRR Landsat TM IRS LISSIII (23m IKONOS (0.8-1m

(120m), MSS and 6m Panchromatic)
Panchromatic)

1-7 of MODIS AWiFS (56-70m), Quickbird (2.4-2.8

having resolution m)
250- 500m

SPOT 5(2.5-5m
Panchromatic

13
188m
WiFS

360m
AWiFS
23.5 m
LISS-III

5.8m
PAN
2.5m
CARTOSAT
About the IKONOS Satellite
The IKONOS Satellite is a high-resolution satellite operated by GeoEye. It can yield
relevant data for nearly all aspects of environmental study.

IKONOS Satellite System: Sensor Characteristics

Launch Date 24 September 1999 at Vandenberg Air Force Base, California
Operational Life Over 7 years
Orbit 98.1 degree, sun synchronous
Speed on Orbit 7.5 kilometers per second
Speed Over the Ground 6.8 kilometers per second
Revolutions Around the Earth 14.7, every 24 hours
Altitude 681 kilometers
Resolution at Nadir 0.82 meters panchromatic; 3.2 meters multispectral
Resolution 26° Off-Nadir 1.0 meter panchromatic; 4.0 meters multispectral
Image Swath 11.3 kilometers at nadir; 13.8 kilometers at 26° off-nadir
Equator Crossing Time Nominally 10:30 AM solar time
Revisit Time Approximately 3 days at 40° latitude
Dynamic Range 11-bits per pixel
Image Bands Panchromatic, blue, green, red, near IR
 Spectral resolution
• It describes the ability of a sensor to define fine wavelength ranges

• Sand is appear as coarser in finer wavelength bands

– This represents the width of the spectral band and the number of
spectral bands in which the image is taken.
– For example, a true colour photography, will consist of 3 spectral
bands, each sensitive to blue, green and red region of the EM
spectrum.
– For studying vegetation, we would go for a combination of 4
bands, i.e., bands of the visible light and IR band.
➢ Thus, spectral resolution describes the ability of a sensor to

define fine wavelengths intervals. The finer the spectral

resolution, the narrower the wavelengths range for a particular

band.

➢ To improve the better potential of the system to discriminate

between features, it is better to increase the spectral resolution

or increase the number of bands. This would lead to more

narrower wavelength bands and finer the spectral resolution.

– Features, which may have rather similar reflectance over a
broad band, may differ in detail if the spectral interval of sensing
is narrowed.

– The use of several bands of the spectrum is referred to as

multispectral sensing.

– If a single band is used, then it is called Panchromatic (PAN)

imaging.

– Present-day sensor systems can detect hundreds of very narrow

spectral bands throughout the different regions of the EM
spectrum.

22
– Their very high spectral resolution facilitates fine
discrimination between different targets.

– Advantage of narrow band over broad band

• Narrow bands give more spectral detail

• More bands = more information to store, transmit and

process

• BUT more bands enables discrimination of more

spectral detail
 Multispectral and Hyperspectral

• Multispectral imagery generally refers to 3 to 10 bands that are

represented in pixels. Each band is acquired using a remote sensing

radiometer.

• Hyperspectral imagery consists of much narrower bands (10-20

nm). A hyperspectral image could have hundreds of thousands of

bands. This uses an imaging spectrometer.

•
 Multispectral Example: 5 wide bands

• Hyperspectral Example: Imagine hundreds of

narrow bands
 BIL, BIP, and BSQ raster files
• Band interleaved by line (BIL),

• band interleaved by pixel (BIP), and

• band sequential (BSQ) are three common methods of

organizing image data for multiband images.

• BIL, BIP, and BSQ are not in themselves image formats but are

schemes for storing the actual pixel values of an image in a

file.These files support the display of single and multiband

images and handle black-and-white, grayscale, pseudo color,

true color, and multispectral image data.

• Band interleaved by line data stores pixel information band by band
for each line, or row, of the image.

• For example, given a three-band image, all three bands of data are
written for row 1, all three bands of data are written for row 2, and so
on, until the total number of rows in the image is reached. The
following diagram illustrates BIL data for a three-band dataset:
• Band interleaved by pixel data is similar to BIL data, except that the

data for each pixel is written band by band. For example, with the

same three-band image, the data for bands 1, 2, and 3 are written

for the first pixel in column 1; the data for bands 1, 2, and 3 are

written for the first pixel in column 2; and so on.

• Band sequential format stores information for the image one band at
a time. In other words, data for all the pixels for band 1 is stored first,
then data for all pixels for band 2, and so on.
 Radiometric resolution
• The radiometric resolution of image data in remote sensing stands
for the ability of the sensor to distinguish different grey-scale values.
It is measured in bit.
• The more bit an image has, the more grey-scale values can be
stored, and, thus, more differences in the reflection on the land
surfaces can be spotted.
➢ Describe the actual information content in the image.

➢ It is the capability to differentiate the spectral reflectance or

emittance between various targets.

➢ It is the smallest change in intensity level that can be detected by

the sensing system.

➢ It is the ability of the system to discriminate very slight

differences in energy.

➢ Every time an image is acquired by a sensor, its sensitivity to the

magnitude of the EME determines the radiometric resolution.
➢ It is expressed as the number of binary digits, i.e, bits, recorded

as exponents of power 2.

➢ If a sensor used 8 bits to record the data, there would be 256

digital values available ranging from 0 – 255, representing

different colours.

➢ Likewise, if only 4 bits were used, then there are 16 values

ranging from 0 – 15.

➢ The finer the radiometric resolution of a sensor, the more

sensitive it is for detecting small differences in reflected or

emitted energy.
 What is a "bit", then?
• In remote sensing, a bit stands for the
number of grey-scale values a spectral
sensor can tell apart.
• The greater the bit number, the greater
the number of grey-scale values a
spectral sensor can distinguish, and,
therefore, the higher the radiometric
resolution of a spectral sensor.
• One bit stands for a sensor that knows
only black and white.
• 2 bit equals 4 grey-scale values and
• 4 bit 16 values. The equation is as
follows:
2bit
8 bit image
• Temporal Resolution

Indicates the time interval between successive overpasses of the

sensor when the imaging is repeated, i.e., the satellite revisits
the same area (referred to as revisit period and it is usually
several days)

During each successive overpass, changes or variations in

reflectivity or emissivity of objects is expected, and this can be
detected.

Changing appearance of a feature over time can be used to

distinguish it from near-similar features (Wheat/Maize)

38
The use of repeat coverage becomes necessary when the

phenomena of interest undergo significant changes with the

passage of time.

Very useful in identification of agricultural crops.

This is important when studying

• Short-lived phenomena need to be imaged (Floods, oil slicks)

• Spread of a forest disease from one year to the next.

 Photographic and imaging camera
• The camera is a remote sensing device as it senses subjects
without any contact .

• A camera is an optical instrument for recording or capturing images,

which may be stored locally, transmitted to another location, or both.

• The images may be individual still photographs or sequences of

images constituting videos or movies.
 Optical camera
• A camera works with the light of the visible spectrum

• camera is an optical device which creates a single image of an

object or scene and records it on an electronic
sensor or photographic film.

• All cameras use the same basic design: light enters an enclosed box
through a converging lens/convex lens and an image is recorded on
a light-sensitive medium(mainly a transition metal-halide).
 Photochemistry
• Silver chloride, silver bromide (AgBr) and silver iodide (AgI) are the

three silver "halide" compounds used in photography.

• The light sensitivity of the silver halides is key to the photographic

process. Tiny crystals of all three of these compounds are used in

making photographic film.

• When exposed to light, a chemical reaction darkens the film to

produce an image.
When silver metal forms as a result of the
electron capture, it forms a dark image on
film.
 Image or digital camera
• A digital camera (or digicam) is a camera that encodes digital
images and videos digitally and stores them for later reproduction. Most cameras sold
today are digital, and digital cameras are incorporated into many devices ranging
from mobile phones to vehicles.

• Digital and film cameras share an optical system, typically using a lens with a
variable diaphragm to focus light onto an image pickup device.

• The diaphragm and shutter admit the correct amount of light to the imager, just as
with film but the image pickup device is electronic rather than chemical.

• However, unlike film cameras, digital cameras can display images on a screen
immediately after being recorded, and store and delete images from memory.

• Most digital cameras can also record moving videos with sound.
• Some digital cameras can crop and stitch pictures and perform other
elementary image editing.
 Infrared radiation
• Infrared radiation extends from the nominal red edge of the visible
spectrum at 700nanometers (nm) to 1 mm.

• This range of wavelengths corresponds to a frequency range of

approximately 430 THz down to 300 GHz.
 Infrared camera

• A thermographic camera (also called an infrared

camera or thermal imaging camera) is a device

that forms an image using infrared radiation,

similar to a common camera that forms an image

using visible light.

 Infrared camera Principle

• An infrared camera is a non-contact device that

detects infrared energy (heat) and converts it into

an electronic signal, which is then processed to

produce a thermal image on a video monitor and

perform temperature calculations.

 how thermal imaging works
• All objects emit infrared energy (heat) as a
function of their temperature.
• The infrared energy emitted by an object is known
as its heat signature.
• In general, the hotter an object is, the more
radiation it emits.
• A thermal imager (also known as a thermal
camera) is essentially a heat sensor that is
capable of detecting tiny differences in
temperature.
• The device collects the infrared radiation from objects in the scene and

creates an electronic image based on information about the temperature

differences.

• Because objects are rarely precisely the same temperature as other objects

around them, a thermal camera can detect them and they will appear as

distinct in a thermal image.

• Thermal images are normally grayscale in nature: black objects are cold,

white objects are hot and the depth of gray indicates variations between the

two.

• Some thermal cameras, however, add color to images to help users identify

objects at different temperatures.

 Thermogram
• A special lens focuses the infrared light emitted by

all of the objects in view. The focused light is

scanned by a phased array of infrared-detector

elements. The detector elements create a very

detailed temperature pattern called a

thermogram.
 Television Camera
• television equipment consisting of a lens system that focuses an i
mage on a
• photosensitive mosaic that is scanned by an
electron beam

• camcorder- a portable television camera and videocassette

• recorder
• camera lens, optical lens -
a lens that focuses the image in a camera
• lens hood, hood -
a tubular attachment used to keep stray light out of the lens of a ca
mera
• mosaic - transducer formed by the light-
sensitive surface on a television camera tube

• television pickup tube, television-camera tube -

a tube that rapidly scans an optical image and converts it
into electronic

• signals

• television equipment, video equipment-

electronic equipment that broadcasts or receives electro
magnetic waves representing images and sound
 Whisk Broom Scanning
• Whisk Broom Scanning or Across Track Multi-spectral

Scanning includes scanning the earth in a series of lines. The lines

are oriented perpendicular to the direction of motion of the sensor

platform (i.e. across the swath) (as shown below) or

• Whisk broom scanners, also sometimes referred to as spotlight or

across track scanners, use a mirror to reflect light onto a single

detector. The mirror moves back and forth, to collect measurements

from one pixel in the image at a time

• Each line is scanned from one side of the sensor to the other, using

a rotating mirror (A).

• As the platform moves forward over the earth, successive scans

build up a two dimensional image of the earth’s surface

• A bank of internal detectors (B), each sensitive to a specific range of

wavelengths, detects and measures the energy for each spectral

band and then, as an electrical signal, they are converted to digital

data and recorded for subsequent computer processing.

• The IFOV (C) of the sensor and the altitude of the platform

determine the ground resolution cell viewed (D), and thus the spatial

resolution.

• The angular field of view (E) (the target subtends a certain angle,

referred to as the angular extent of the target) is the sweep of the

mirror, measured in degrees, used to record a scan line and

determines the width of the imaged swath (F).

• Data are collected within an arc below the system typically of some

90 - 120 degrees.
 examples of Whisk Broom Scanners

• Multi-spectral scanner (MSS)

• thematic mapper (TM) of LANDSAT,

• and Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer

(AVHRR) of NOAA
Push Broom Scanning or Along - Track
Scanning
• Push Broom Scanning or Along - Track

Scanning includes scanning the earth in a series of

lines. This also use the forward motion of the platform to

record successive scan lines and build up a two

dimensional image, perpendicular to the flight direction.

• A linear array of detectors (A) located at the focal plane of the image (B)

formed by lens systems (C) are used, which are “pushed” along in the

flight track direction (i.e. along track)

• As the motion of the detector array is analogous to the bristles of the

broom being pushed along a floor

• Each individual detector measures the energy for a single ground

resolution cell (D) and thus the size of IFOV of the detectors determine

the spatial resolution of the system.

• A separate linear array is required to measure each spectral band or

channel.
• For each scan line, the energy detected by each detector if each

liner array is sampled electronically and digitally recorded.

• Linear arrays normally consist of numerous charge coupled devices

(CCDs) positioned end to end.

 examples of Push broom scanners.

• Linear imaging self scanning (LISS)

• Wide Field Sensor (WiFS) of IRS Series and High Resolution Visible

(HRV) of SPOT - 1
 charge-coupled device
• A charge-coupled device (CCD) is a light-sensitive integrated circuit

that stores and displays the data for an image in such a way that

each pixel (picture element) in the image is converted into an

electical charge the intensity of which is related to a color in the

color spectrum.
• separate value for each color that can be stored and

recovered. CCDs are now commonly included in digital still

and video cameras.

• They are also used in the processing of satellite photographs,

and in the enhancement of radar images, especially in

meteorology. in astronomical telescopes, scanners, and bar

code readers. The devices have also found use in machine

vision for robots, in optical character recognition (OCR).

 References
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera#cite_re
f-2
• https://chlorine.americanchemistry.com/Scien
ce-Center/Chlorine-Compound-of-the-Month-
Library/Silver-Chloride-Helping-Us-Get-the-
Picture/
• https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-
difference-between-a-whisk-broom-scanner-
and-push-broom-technology
 References
• http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/definitio
n/charge-coupled-device
• http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105108077/module
2/lecture9.pdf
• http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105108077/module
2/lecture8.pdf