INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING Second Edition by SHUNZO OKAMOTO UNIVERSITY OF TOKYO PRESS© UNIVERSITY OF TOKYO PRESS, 1984 ISBN 4-13-C68104-4 (UTP 69042) ISBN 0-86008-361-6 Printed in Japan A\ll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from. the publisher.CONTENTS Foreword by Professor G.W. Housner Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition Chapter—1_ EARTHQUAKES Al 12 13 14 15 16 Structure of the Earth - Composition 2. Temperatures and Pressures 3. Velocities of Seismic Waves History of the Earth .. Earthquakes... 1. Hypocenters 2. Main Shock and Aftershoc! 3. Causes of Earthquakes . Propagation of Seismic Waves . 1. Body Waves 2. Surface Waves 1) Rayleigh Waves 2) Love Waves... 3. Time-Distance Curves Earthquake Phenomena 1. General ..... 2. Seismic Tremors 3. Crustal Movements 1) Kanto Earthquake 2) Niigata Earthquake 3) Nankai Earthquake ..... 4, Faults 0.0.0... 5. Tsunamis 2d Observation of Seismic Tremors . 1. Seismometer . fee 21 2. Strong Motion Instrument Arrays. 28 Chapter—2_ EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY 2L Seismic Intensity...... 1. Seismic Intensity Scale. 2. Seismic Intensity Based on Acceleration . 3. Seismic Intensity Based on Velocity 4. Relation between JMA or MM and Seismic Intensity and Maximum Acceleration and Maximum Velocity ............0644 peer ere estvi CONTENTS: 2.2. Earthquake Parameters: : 1. Magnitude. . 2. Seismic Moment : 3, Enerey of Earthquake Motion Sapnoeboen 123. Attenuation of Maximum Seismic Displacement and Its Related Problems 1, Attenuation of Maximum Displacement fe 2. Pariod of the Wave Having Greatest Displacement ‘Amplitude. Chapter—3 SEISMICITY OF JAPAN 3.1 Introduction ...+ + 32 Chronology of Earthquake Occurrence 3.3. Distribution of Epicenters 1. Regional Distribution . 2. Seismic Activity by District... 5 1) The Pacific Ocean Side of North East Japan 2) The Pacific Ocean Side of South West Japan 3) The Sea of Japan Side of Honsh Island 4) Inland. : : 3, Geotectonic Consideration 3.4 Expectancy of Earthquake Risk 1. General . 2, Analysis According to Historical Data. 1) Yearly Occurrence of Earthquakes with Given Maximam Displacement (56) 2) Maximum Earihguake Amplitude Expected to Occur Once within a Given Period 3) Map of Expectancy of Maximum Earthquake Acceleration in a Given Period of Time 5 59) 3, Analysis According to Focus Zone Characteristics G7) IN @ 1) Gravitational Anomalies 2) The Concept of Seismic Gaps... - cee 61) 3) Characteristics of Earthquake Faults ....... ee (62) Chapter—4_ GREAT EARTHQUAKES IN JAPAN AND RESULTING DAMAGES = 65 = 68 4.1 Introduction... 42. Nobi Earthquake (1891). 1, Rivers .. ++ 6 2. Dams . +70 3. Railroads 70 4. Roads. a 70 43° Kanto Earthquake (1923) . 72 1. Rivers . uy 2. Ports and Harbors a 3. Roads .. i 4, Railroads 5. Waterworks . 44° Kita-Tango Earthquake (1927) 4.5. Sanriku Tsunamis (1933) 4.6 Nankai Earthquake (1946) 1, Rivers and Seacoasts ... 2. Ports and Harbors 15, ere ---76 7 8 9 19 aero)47 48 49 4.10 4 CONTENTS vii 4, Railroads .. Fukui Earthquake (1948) . 1, Railroads ..... 2. Roads... 3. Waterworks 4, Rivers Niigata Earthquake (1969. 1, Rivers... 2. Ports and Harbors. 3. Railroads 4, Roads. 5. Water Supply and Sewerage 6. Electric Power Facilities . 7. Buildings ..... : Tokachi-oki Earthquake (1968) 1. Railroads ...... 2. Port and Harbors : 3. Earth Dams and Drained Land Reclamation Dikes 4, Water Supply and Sewerage poe Izu-ohshima-kinkai Earthquake (1978) wee Miyagiken-oki Earthquake (1978) 1, Bridges 2. Oil Storage Tanks -80 Chapter—S INFLUENCE OF GROUND CONDITIONS ON EARTHQUAKE, Sd 5.2 53 54 GROUND MOTION Introduction... . pee 99 Earthquake Motion in Alluvial Ground. .....- ‘i 100 1. Frequency Characteristics of Earthquake Ground Motion 100 1) Predominant Period. 2) Method of Determining the Predominant Petiod - 2, Intensity of Earthquake Motion in Alluvial Ground ...... se 105 1) Maximum Displacement . aoe ; 2) Maximum Velocity 3) Maximum Acceleration . 4) Earthquake Damage 5) Surface Layer Magnification of Earthquake Motion. . 3. Microzoning Map . cee Beseoenoeocod)) 4, Earthquake Damage on Reclaimed Land .. pnopnaspooe lt} 5. Underground Earthquake Motion of Soil Strata 113 Earthquake Motion in Rocky Areas . 115 1. Characteristies of Earthquake Damage in Rocky Areas. us 2. Displacement and Acceleration of Earthquake Motion in Hard Ground 116 3. Form of Earthquake Wave 119 4. Underground Earthquake Motion of Rocky Ground... 120 5. Earthquake Ground Motion in Rocky Ground with Seams . 122 Propagation of Elastic Waves 124 1. Seismic Wave Equation 2. Velocity of Particles and Energy in Waves... sss... : 3. Reflection of Wave Motion at the Ground Surface....... .127 4, Reflection and Transmission of Wave Motion at Boundaries of Soil Strata . .128 Multi-Reflection of Wave Motion in the Surface Layer. we BT 1, The Case of a Single-Stratum Surface Layer... 131viii_ CONTENTS 5.6 2, Multi-Reflection within a Multiple-Stratum Surface Layer 3. Multi-Reflection in a Surface Layer with Non-elastic Properties . 133 135 Two-Dimentional Elastic Waves 138 1. General . 138 1) Particular Solution I. Wilco (138) 2) Particular Solution I (140) 2. Plane Waves 3. Rayleigh Waves . 141 4. Love Waves. . 141 5. Progressive Waves . . 142 Chapter—6 DESIGN EARTHQUAKE MOTION 6.1 6.2 63 64 65 66 Introduction . 145 Intensity of the Earthquake for Design... 148 1. Investigation Using Historical Information 148 2, Investigation by Geotectonic Structure . 149 Attenuation of Seismic Intensity with Epicentral Distance... 150 1, General 2. Attenuation of Maximum Velocity. 3. Attenuation of Spectral Intensity 151 152 4, Attenuation of Maximum Acceleration 152 1) Graphs Proposed by International Association for Earthquake Engineering . pene (152) 2) Observation of the San Fernando Earthquake Seen (152) 3) Observation at Kinygawa Powerhouse. ..... (153) 4) Observation of Earthquakes in the Southern Kant District. ..(1S4) Waveform of Earthquake Motion , 15S 1, Introduction . 2. Utilization of Records of Past Earthquakes ... 3. Producing Model Earthquake Waves. : 1) Procedures Assuming Earthquake Waves as a Series of Continuous Blows of Impulses = (160) 2) Procedure Representing Earthquake Waves with Harmonic Series (161) 4, Correction of a Model Seismic Wave. 1} Correction on the Assumption of Basie Earthquake Motion 155 wee SS - 160 162 as White Noise.....-.00ec00re0ese+ ++ (0162) 2) Correction for the Non-stationary Nature of Earthquake Motion cesses (163) Earthquake Motion in the Vieinity of the Epicenter 1, Earthquake Intensity. 1) Reconnaissance Reports on Past Earthquakes 165 - 165 (165) 2) Reference to Records of Strong Motion Seismographs. = (166) 2. Earthquake Damage ..... . . = 167 3. Examples of Earthquake Records Se sececesecssc3000 = 167 1) Koyna Earthquake, 1967 ..........0++ ceeeeetes sess eo(67) 2) Parkfield Earthquake, 196 : : (168) ‘Source Mechanism of Earthquakes AT 1. Source Mechanism. 2. A Mathematical Model of Fault Slip. . , 1) Displacement in an Elastic Body Produced by a Concentrated Load 7 2) Displacement in an Elastic Body Produced by a Sip on a Fault Plane. 5 5 - AT 173 073) 77)CONTENTS ix Chapter—7 EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN PROCEDURES 71 Seismic Coefficient Method . 1, Seismic Coefficient ........ 2. Seismic Coefficient of Underwater Structures . 3, Standard of the Ministry of Construction, Japan 4. Applications of the Seismic Coefficient Method . 1) Cantilever Structures . 2) Retaining Walls .............. 72 ee Analysis of Elastic Structures » Introduction . . Elastic Structure with One Degree of Freedom 1) Structures with a Viscous Damping . 2) Structures with a Complex Restoring Force 3. Elastic Structures with Multiple Desrees of of Freedom. 1) Solution Using Generalized Coordinates. . 2) Solution Using Normal Coordinates 3) Continuous Elastic Body +181 = 181 183, 183, 184 2.84) « (185), = 186 186 - 187 208) (089) (490) 292) “a8 73° Earthquake-Resistant Design Using Response Spectrum --201 1. Response Spectrum of One-Degree of Freedom System --201 2, Response Spectrum of Multi-Degree of Freedom System = +202 3. Properties of an Earthquake Response Spectrum. ; +204 4. Modified Seismic Coefficient Method ; ee 207 1) General en (207) 2) Ministry of Construction Standards... == ++ (208) 3) Concept of the Applies Technology Council (USA) ..........@12) 74 Dynamic Analysis of an Inelastic Structure... 1. Introduction ......... 2. Methods of Analysis. 212 212 gaeeoodde5aoad 214 1) Step-by-Step Integration Procedure»... «++ Q14) 2) Procedure Assuming the Restoring Force of Masing Type ......(215) 3) Computer-Actuator On-Line System ceeesneee (21) 4) Linearization Technique (21g) 3. Elasto-Plastic System . 219 219) (24) = 227) 1) Perfect Elasto-Plastic System. 2) Imperfect Elasto-Plastic System. . 3) Stiffness Deteriorating Structure Chapter—8 ASPECTS OF SOIL DURING EARTHQUAKES 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Dynamic Properties of Soit 1, Composition of Soil .. 1) Sandy Soil... 2) Clayey Soil 2. Dynamic Characteristics of Deformation of S: 1) Introduction 2) Sandy Soil seein 3) Clayey Soil eee 3. Dynamic Strength of Sandy Soil . 1) Condition of Failure ........ 2) Liquefaction of Sand 3) Experimental Study with Electrically Conductive Sand 4) Dynamic Strength of Cohesive Soil : 8.3 Stability of Slopes . 1, Stability of Slopes under Normal Conditions - 229 231 231 --233 236x CONTENTS 1) Theory Assuming a Circular Sliding Line 2) Theory Assuming a Straight Sliding Line . 2. Stability of Slopes during an Earthquake .. 84° Earth Pressure Applied to Retaining Wall 1. Coulomb's Theory of Earth Pressure. . 2. Mononobe’s Theory of Earth Pressure during Earthquakes . 1254 3. Experimental Studies... 8.5 Bearing Power of Ground . 1. Bearing Power of Ground under Normal Conditions. 2. Bearing Power of Ground during Earthquakes 3. Experimental Studies. a 8.6 Failure of the Ground . 1, Introduction ..........604 2. Liquefaction of the Ground. 3) General : (264) 2) Evaluation of Possibility of Soil Liquefaction during Earthquakes(267) 3) Countermeasures to Liquefaction of the Ground ve QT) 3, Large-scale Landslides 278 Chapter—9 EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE OF ROADS, RAILWAYS AND RIVERS 9.1 Roads and Railways. . 217 1, Introduction 217 2, Embankments . 2277 1) Earthquake Damage... = 2) Detailed Description of Earthquake Damage ............0.+...279) 3) Behavior of Embankments during Earthquakes . (282) 4) Earthquake-resistant Design... + (282) 3. Cuttings ae) 4, Tunnels. . 5. Culverts 6. Pavements 9.2 Derailment and Overturning of Trains 1, General 2, Railway Safety Facilities 9.3 Rivers... : 1. Earthquake Damage . 1) Falling of Mountainsides 283 284 289 -290 -291 291 295 -296 296 2) Embankments . - 298) 3) Revetments . G00) 4) Weirs, Sluices and Sluiceways -(G00) 2. The Flowing Tide - +302 Chapter—10 EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE OF PORT AND HARBOR FACILITIES 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Reclaimed Land and Breakwaters 10.3 Gravity-type Quaywall . 1, Earthquake Damage in General 1) Cast-in-place Single-block-type pe Quayval foes 08) 2) Block-type Quaywall...... (606) 3) Caisson-type Quaywall . 2.606) 4) Cell-type Quaywall 308)04 10.5 CONTENTS xi 2. Earth Pressure on Gravity-type Quaywalls during Earthquakes . 309 ‘Sheet-pile Bulkhead oe 310 1. Earthquake Damage in General ‘i +310 2. Stability of Sheet Piles during Earthquakes... . -314 1) Stability of Sheet Piles at Normal Times ..........24........G1M) 2) Stability of Sheet Piles during Earthquakes ..................GI) Landing Pier-type Quaywall 1. Earthquake Damage in General 1) Landing Pier 2) Shore Bridge ... . 2. Horizontal Resistance of Piles 3. Vibrations of Landing Piers 319 319 -.G19) + G20) : 321 324 Chapter—11 EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE OF BRIDGES LL 42 U3 A ILS Earthquake Damage to Girder Bridges .. 1. Introduction . 2. Earthquake Damage to Bridge Abutments 327 327 +++ 328 oo 329 3. Earthquake Damage to Bridge Piers 1) Bearings ...... : od 2) Pier Heads . -@30) 3) Girder Seats vee -@31) 4) Bridge Pier Columns. ..... G31) 4, Earthquake Damage to Bridge Pier Foundations . =-331 1631) (334) 1) Settlement at Bridge Pier Foundations ... 2) Damage to Bodies of Foundation Structures $. Earthquake Damage to Girders . Analysis of Vibration of Girder Bridges 1, Introduction ......, : 2. Analysis of Vibration of Bridge Piers 1) Analysis by Differential Equation . 2) Analysis by the Finite Difference Method 3) Analysis by the Finite Element Method... 4) Analysis of Vibration of Bridge Found Spring and Dashpot Model . ++. G49, 3. Analysis of Vibration of Bridge Foundation by Elastic Theory esses 347 1) Approximate Solution by K, Sezawa ; G41) 2) Solution by H. Tajima cesses 21 G50) 3) Solution Using the Finite Element Method .. perenne (352) 335 337 22337 - 337 163) --G40) G40) Field Study of Vibration of Girder Bridges....... 22354 1. Girder Bridges with Low-rise Bridge Piers . =354 2. Girder Bridges with High-rise Bridge Piers. i 355 3. Observation of Earthquake Motion of Bridges . -359 Earthquake-Resistant Design of Superstructures . 1. General . 1) Specifications of the Japan Road Association. 2) Criteria Proposed by U.S. Applied Technical Council ..... : (364) (366) 2, Simple Girder Bridges. . ceceee eee peer 367) 1) Bridge Piers cee ee ++ G67) 2) Abutments cecttettetteeeese Fococd 370) 3) Bearings eooeeune06390 see B7) 3. Continuous Girder Bridges 4, Tall-Piered Girder Bridges. . Earthquake-Resistant Design of Foundations. 1, Introduction 314 377 379 379xii_ CONTENTS 2, Direct Foundations. 3. Caisson Foundations ..... 4, Pile Foundations . 383 1) Design Formula... ; -(383) 2) Analysis by the Theory of Elastic Foundation ++ G85) = G87) 3) Analysis by the Theory of Plastic Foundation 4) Horizontal Loading Test of Piles : IL6 Arch Bridges and Suspension Bridges 1. Arch Bridges. eee 1) Introduction 2) Seismic Stress Analysis. (391) 91) 2, Suspension Bridges ... 5 es 393 1) Earthquake Damage .....-..+.+ : +93) 2) Vibration of a Suspension Bridge pes G94) 3) Natural Period and Damping Constant .2...2..2+0600+0+++.G97) 4) Earthquake Response ...2....s.20cc0scsreereees (402) Chapter—12. EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE OF CONCRETE GRAVITY DAMS 12.1 General . 403 1, Safety of Dams against Earthquakes viteeereeeeteser ee 403 2. Earthquakes Induced by Impounding Reservoirs eveeeee . 404 12.2 Earthquake Damage to Concrete Gravity Dams ...... 407 12.3 Srismic Forces Acting on Concrete Gravity Dams = 409 1. Inertia Force of a Dams : fei icteeeeees 409 1) Vibration Tests at Tsukabaru Dam - G09) 2) Earthquake Observation at Tagokura Dam .........++++++ (410) 2. Hydrodynamic Pressure 660 412, 1) Westergaad’s Formula G12) 2) Reservoir-Dam Interaction - (16) 3) Reservoir-Soil Interaction . oo 16) 4) Measurement of Hydrodynamic Pressure. = 17) 124 Barthquake-Resistant Design of Concrete Gravity Dams. ee so) 1, Design Using Statical Method eee 419 1) Seismic Forces coceeteseee 3) Stress Analysis... vee vos 19) 3) Stability against Sliding (419) 4) Freeboard : ++ +420) 5) Keys between Monoliths cece 421) 6) Design of Installations at Crest... ...000+ : (422) 2, Design Using Dynamic Method - - 422 Chapter—I3_ EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE OF ARCH DAMS 13.1 Introduction 425 13.2. Method of Analysis of Dam Vibration 427 1, Mathematical Analysis ped 2. Experimental Analysis Using Models 428 1) Law of Similitude in Primary Test = 2) Law of Similitude in Secondary Test = @31) 3) Results of an Experiment cece 433) 13.3 Behavior of Dams during Earthquakes .. eee - 436 1, General bee coe 36 2. Difference in Earthquake Motion between the Two Banks of a Dam ......430 3, Vibration Magnification at Dam Crest 441ia CONTENTS. xi 4, Natural Period... 443 5. Damping Constant . 2445 6. Vertical Vibration = 446 7. Effect of Longitudinal Joint... : Earthquake-Resistant Design of Arch Dams 1, Introduction . . : 2. Seismic Coefficient Method. 3. The Finite Element Method . 4, Stability against Sliding of Foundation Rock. = 449 449 449 -450 +452 452 Chapter—l4_ EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE OF EMBANKMENT DAMS 14d 142 143 M44 Earthquake Damage . : 1. Earthquake Damage in General 2, Details of Earthquake Damage . 1) Longitudinal Cracks 2) Sliding of the Slope . 3) Transverse Cracks ....... 4) Settlement 5) Facing of Embankment Dams 6) Appurtenances .......... Method of Vibration Analysis . 1. Introduction ..............4 2. Shear Beam Theory ....... 1) Shear Beam without Damping 457 457 -460 RB8 2) Shear Beam with Damping..........0...4 (468) 3) Shear Beam with Variable Rigidity... 20.02.00. ..00020... (470) 3, Finite Element Method . 471 4, Model Test 411 1) Elastic Vibration Test ~ 2) Dynamic Failure Test . : Dynamic Behaviors of Embankment Dams during Earthquakes... -...........474 1. Free Vibration ....... a : 1) General 2) Natural Period . 3) Vibration Mode 4) Vibration Damping : 2. Dynamic Behaviors during Earthquakes 1) General 2) Observation of Earthquake Acceleration - 3) Magnification of the Maximum Acceleration at the Top of Dams : 7 4) Stresses Developed in the Embankment ....... Failure of Dams .... 1. Failure of Earth Dams 1) Failure of Earth Dams Due to the 1939 Oga Peninsula Earthquake ..... = (504) 2) Failure of an Farth Dam Due to the 1925 Santa Barbara. Earthquake seceee 2. Failure Test of Rockfill Dam Model... 1) Mechanisms of Slope Sliding . 2) Effect of Slope Gradient on the Sliding of Slope... - (11) 3) Effect of Grain Size on the Sliding of Slope....... (312) 3. Examination of Failure of Models by Stress Analysis ............ 1) Examination by Considering Tensile Stress Zone..............(513) 2) Examination by Considering the Connection of Potential 508 = 513xiv CONTENTS 4s Failure Zones Earthquake-Resistant Design 1, General .... 2. Examination of Stability of Embankment by Sliding Surface Method 3. Examination of the Stability of Embankment Soil by Stress Analysis........523 4, Examination of Embankment Stability by the Displacement Method ......523 (515) ..518 518 Chapter—15 EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE OF UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES 15.1 General aocoe6cuS06cd0 eeeee527, 15.2 Earthquake Damage to Underground Structures... veeee cee 528 15.3 Stresses during Earthquakes on Areas around Underground Cavities . 1, Analytical Methods . 2, Numerical or Experimental Method - 15.4 Measurement of Vibrations of an Underground Structure Due to Earthquakes... 535 1, Steel and Concrete Pipelines ........... feet een eee eee e SBS 2. Subways. — +536 15.5 Earthquake Resistance of Submerged Tunnels 542 1, General . 542 2. Observation of Earthquake Strain Produced in Tubes 543 3, Mathematical Model of Submerged Tunnels . 1549 4. Connection of Tubes .. 354 Chapter—I6 EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE OF WATERWORKS, 16.1 Iniroduction 555 16.2 Underground Pipelines vevetees 555 1, General . ee 2. Relationship of Types of Pipes and Joints to Earthquake Damage 3. Foroes Acting on Buried Pipes during Earthquakes : 1) General ....... (559) 2) Reduction in Bearing Capacity of Ground Due to Vibration (560) 3) Local Sliding of Ground .........00.eccceeeveceeeeee ees 2 (560) 4) Pipe Stress Due to Eccentric Pressures... (560) 3) Pipe Deformation . Got) 6) Influence of Nonuniformity of Ground +662) 7) Stresses at Bends (563) 8) Hydrodynamic Pressure Acting on Pipe (S64) 16.3 Reservoirs ; seve e ence 565, 16:4 Aqueducts and Inverted Siphons ....... beeen 1567 16.5. Water Tanks 16.6 Earthquake Resistance of Network Systems Chapter—17_ EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE OF BUILDINGS Wd 72 173 174 General ....... cee Design Method Using the Lateral Seismic Shear Coefficient ....... 576 Methods of Dynamic Design Special Buildings 1. Wooden Buildings 2. Reinforced Concrete Buildings . 3. Steel Skeleton Buildings . 4, Steel and Reinforced Concrete Composite BuildingsCONTENTS xv 5. Masonry Buildings References. . Index of Authors Cited . Subject Index ..de ket FOREWORD The protection of cities from earthquake damage and the protection of the inhabitants from injury and loss of life are the responsibilities of engineers. Unfortunately, many earthquake disasters have occurred during the present century. The most famous of these are San Francisco, California 1906, Messina, Italy 1908, Tokyo, Japan 1923, and ‘Tangshan, China 1976. In addition, there have been many less well known earthquake disasters during the past 80 years in Nicaragua, El Salvador, Guatemala, Venezuela, Chile, Argentina, Peru, Columbia, Italy, Yugoslavia, Morocco, Turkey, Iran, India, the Philippines, China, Japan, Alaska, and others. Whether or not an earthquake causes a disaster depends on the following three items: 1) the magnitude of the event, 2) the distance of the causative fault from the city, and 3) the degree of preparedness in the city. If the earthquake is of small magnitude the shaking will not be sufficiently violent to cause extensive damage; if a large magnitude earthquake is distant from a city the ground shaking will not be strong; if a city is well-prepared even a large, close earth- quake will not cause a disaster. However, if an earthquake of large magnitude occurs close to a city which is unprepared the result will be a great disaster. A classic example of such a situation is the disastrous Tangshan, China earthquake of 1976. This M7.8 shock centered under the city, which had no seismic requirements in the building code; because the buildings were not designed to resist strong shaking, the result was exten- sive collapse of structures and several hundred thousand deaths. It is worth noting that in the preceeding earthquake disasters it was observed that some well-engineered structures survived the ground shaking with minimal damage. Itis very important that civil engineers and architectural engineers in seismic countries understand the nature of earthquakes and how to design and build structures to resist strong ground shaking. Also, in industrialized countries mechanical engineers, electric power engineers, nuclear power engineers, computer engineers and others also need to understand the earthquake problem and the need for protecting against seismic shock, Everything that is connected directly, or indirectly, to the ground will be affected by earthquake shaking and, therefore, things that are subject to costly or dangerous damage should be designed to resist the expected shaking. The first level of earthquake-resistant design is the “equivalent static force” method that is specified in building codes. This might also be called the “effective lateral str- ength” method because the building code is actually specifying the degree of strength that structures should have to resist lateral forces. To apply this method, an engineer must know how to calculate the internal forces and stresses produced by the specified static lateral forces. This “equivalent static force” method is a highly simplified approach to seismic design, for during an earthquake a structure is excited into vibrations and the displacements, stresses and strains are oscillatory so that it is a complex dynamics pro- blem rather than a statics problem that must be analyzed, The dynamic nature of the earthquake response of structures must be taken into account when designing important i 1xviii FOREWORD projects such as high-rise buildings, major dams, nuclear power plants, long-span bridges, ete. Any project for which the consequences of failure are unacceptable must give special consideration to the level of seismic azalysis and seismic design. The book introduction to Earthquake Engineering by Dr. Shunzd Okamoto is well- suited for engineers to study. It describes the origin of earthquakes, the seismicity of Japan and the nature of ground shaking. A number of destructive Japanese earthquakes are described, beginning with the 1891 Nabi earthquake and ending with the 1978 Miyagiken earthquake. The nature of ground motions in different kinds of ground is discussed. A particularly valuable feature of the book is the broad coverage given to ivil engineering structures as distinguished from building structures. This coverage includes retaining walls, soil slopes, roads, railways and rivers, port and harbor facilities, bridges, concrete gravity dams, arch dams and embankment dams, water works and underground structures. The earthquake resistance of these civil engineering structures is very important to society. The welfare of a city depends very strongly upon the con- tinued functioning of water supply, sewers, electric power, gas, transportation, com- munication, etc. In this second edition of the book much new material has been added to bring the presentation up-to-date. The origin of earthquakes is discussed more fully in the light of plate tectonics and seismic gaps. A total of fifteen destructive Japanese earthquakes are described with discussion of observed damage. Interesting new informa tion has been added to every chapter. The new information added to the discussion of dams and earthquakes is particularly interesting, for the author has specialized in research on dams during his career. This book is recommended reading for all engineers concerned about earthquake safety. During the coming one hundred years, many large earthquakes will occur in seismic countries throughout the world and many will cause disasters. By careful study of the earthquake problem, the conscientious efforts of engineers can mitigate these disasters. June 1984 Pow Wh tfowener George W. HOUSNERPREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION Teking into account the progress of earthquake engineering in the past decade, the author has revised his original ‘Introduction to Earthquake Engineering’ published in 1973. In revising the book, Professor Chdshird Tamura gave the author great help in providing data and in discussing the contents. The author expresses his hearty thanks to Professor Tamura for his cooperation. Professor G. W. Housner (C. F. Braun Professor of Engineering, California Institute of Technology) has kindly written a foreword for this second edition. This is a very valuable contribution for people who are studying the earthquake engineering and seismology. The author is grateful to Professor Housner for his kindness and friendship. Assistance was also received in regard to the contents from Profs. M. Hakuno, T. Okada, N. Akiyama, H. Higashibara, Y. Fujino, E. Kawakami, and K. Katé and Mr. Tsuchida, and in the arrangement of the manuscript from Messrs. K. Sakai and Y. Arai. In the publication of this book, the author is obliged to Mr. M. Inoue of the University of Tokyo Press. The author's heartfelt acknowledgements are made hereby to each and every one of them. : June 1984 _S, Chamete- Shunz3 OKAMOTOPREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION ‘There are numerous seismic zones in the world, and in these areas various structures should be made safe against earthquakes. Earthquake engineering is the development of technology aimed at fulfilling this purpose. In earthquake engincering, a wide range of knowledge that includes geophysics, geo- logy, seismology, vibration theory, structural dynamics, materials dynamics, structural engineering and construction techniques is necessary. More specifically, earthquake en- gineering is the application of this knowledge to the single objective of building structures that can withstand earthquakes. Since it is only comparatively recently that aseismic problems began to be studied by engineers, there are very few books systematically describing the subject. In particular, there is almost nothing written about structures other than buildings. For the future development of earthquake engineering, it is necessary for fundamental knowledge to be systematically assembled. Itwas after the Nobi earthquake of 1891 and the San Francisco earthquake of 1906 that the resistance of structures to earthquakes begin to receive attention from a scientific standpoint. In these earthquakes, a great number of buildings, bridges, em- bankments and irrigation dams suffered irreparable damage. It become known from such earthquake damage that structures must withstand not only vertical forces but forces in the horizontal direction also. The next disaster was the Kant earthquake of 1923. Many buildings, including modern structures, were destroyed. In addition, fires in Tokyo and Yokohama resulted in loss of 140,000 lives. This earthquake taught us that the problem of earthquake resistance of a flexible structure could not be solved rationally without taking vibration theory into consideration. Similar thinking also developed in other countries situated in earthquake regions, and after 1940, aided by the development of electronic computers, grea: advances were made in dynamic design of earthquake-resistant structures. Another period of development in earthquake engineering resulted fom two earth- quakes occurring in the first part of the 1960s: one in Niigata and another in Prince Willam Sound, Alaska. At this time it was realized that large-scale damage could be brought about by ground failure caused by an earthquake. Since then studies regarding dynamic properties of soil have been carried out quite actively. In 1954 the author wrote a buok in Japanese concerning earthquake engineering with the idea that it would be used to design civil structures. The book, comprising nine chapters, was entitled ‘Method of Design of Structures Contemplating Seismic Forces.’ It was revised in 1960 and increased in size to 13 chapters. This English version, which is based on the previous ones, includes recent advances and has been increased to 18 chapters. The increase in the size of the book alone indicates the development of earthquake engineering. Since 1954, earthquake engineering, which had been built upxxii PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION based on statics, has changed to earthquake engineering based on dynamics. Moreover, dynamics has advanced from the realm of theoretical study to the field of structural design. Although there are many problems in this area which are still unsolved, high-rise structures recently built owe much to the progress made in this respect. ‘Although the contents of the book may have changed with progress made in earth- quake engineering, the fundamental position of the author stated in the first publication has not changed one bit, even today. In the first book, the author stated: ‘It should be avoided establishing a design method cast in a set form by making up an earthquake in the mind. Rational design cannot be accomplished unless the true states of earthquake motion and earthquake damage are first grasped and the design engineer himself thinks and makes judgments aiming at earthquake resistance of structures’, Building an earthquake-resistant structure requires comprehensive technology based on an aggregate of the research and experience of many experts. Therefore, in compiling this book, a great number of publications were referred to. In addition to this, the re- search results by the members of the Laboratory of Dynamic Strength of Materials, Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, were added. Therefore, the contents of this book owe much to the research work of many people. The author fears that through misunderstanding on his part erroneous interpretations may have been made and that inquiry into problems may not have been adequate. The publication of this English edition has been timed to commemorate the au- thor’s sixtieth birthday. The author wishes to tender his utmost thanks to his elders and friends who so kindly planned this project and particularly to the chairman of the Commemora‘ive Project Committee, Dr. Susumu Nagata, the Secretary General, Prof. Keizaburd Kubo, Prof. Chésiré Tamura and the many generous contributors to the project fund. Also, in the writing of the book, enormous assistance was received in regard to the contents from Profs. Chésiré Tamura and Tsuneo Okada and Messrs. Katsuyuki Kato and Sigeaki Morichi, all of the Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, and Prof. Motohiko Hakuno of the Earthquake Research Institute, University of Tokyo. “Assistance was also received from Miss Toshiko Tanuma and Mrs. Michiko Tsukada, also of the Institute of the Industrial Science, in calculation of values, drafting and ar- rangement of the manuscript; Mr. Masaki Tanaka of Alfa-Orient Corporation in the translation into English; and Messrs. Shigeo Minowa, Teiji Sasaki and Mitsuo Inoue of the Tokyo University Press and Mr. Keiji Fujima of the Ohm Publishing Co. in publica tion of this book, The author's heartfelt acknowledgements are made hereby to each and every one of them. January 1973 Shunzd OKAMOTOINTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERINGChapter—1 EARTHQUAKES 1.1 Structure of the Earth 1. Composition The earth is an approximately spherical body measuring about 6,400 km in radius. Its internal structure has been deduced from various clues; comparing the vibrations at different points on the earth's surface at the time of an earthquake is one important method of investigation. Since earthquakes are vibrations produced at the surface of the carth through propagation of energies released by disturbances in the earth's interior, the vibration patterns actually observed depend on the structure along the propagation path. Thus, interpretation of such patterns serves in reverse as a means of probing the internal structure of the earth. . Fig. 1-1 Structure of the earth, According to the results of such investigations, the earth consists of :hree layers of different nature: the core or centrosphere, the mantle, and the crust. The core comprises the central part of the earth (see Fig. 1-1), and is spherical with a radius of 3,500 km; as it does not transmit transverse waves, at least its surface portion is considered to be liquid. The mantle envelopes the core and is 2,900 km in thickness, consisting mainly of ultrabasic olivine rock. The earth’s crust differs in composition and thickness in its oceanic and continental (including continental shelf) parts. The crust under the oceans is basaltic and is about 5 km in thickness, The crust in the continental areas consists of two layers, granitic in the upper portion and basaltic in the lower. The thickness here is about 30 to 60 km. ‘Continents thus float in the form of thin plates on the mantle, which possesses a visco- 34 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING elastic character. The continents are readily deformed by changes in mass distribution over their surfaces, or by slight deformations of the mantle resulting from disturbances in its interior. The equilibrium thus maintained is termed isostasy. Furthermore, riding on the mantle convection, the land masses are considered to have been drifting; the result of such drift is the distribution of continents and islands as seen today. The spe- cific gravities of the various parts of the earth are shown in Table 1-1 TaBte 1-1 Specific gravities of various component parts of the earth. Crist 27-30 Outer periphery 33 eee Inner periphery 56 Periphery 97 cone Central portion 172 2, Temperatures and Pressures The temperature of the earth increases with depth. The rate of temperature rise is about 30°C/km in the surface portion of the earth, but this rate decreases with increas- ing depth. At the bottom of the crust the temperature is 150°— 250°C in the oceanic crust and 300°- 800°C in the continental crust. In the mantle, the temperature is 1000°-1500° C at 700 km, which is the greatest depth at which earthquakes are thought to originate, and 4000°-5000° Cat the bottom portion. However, these temperatures are average ones; actual temperatures will vary, some- times sharply, from average values according to regional geophysical characteristics. For instance, in the Japanese Islands area, terrestrial heat flow is greater by two or more times in the Sea of Japan than in the Pacific Ocean. As a result, in the upper mantle beneath the Sea of Japan the temperature is so high that partial melting might be occur- ring at an unusually shallow depth of 30 or 40 kilometers. Considering the physical properties of the mantle and the temperature distribution in it, there should be thermal conveyance due to convection in the mantle. However, its mechanism and scale have not yet been determined. Pressure inside the earth is thought to be 9 1/om? in the upper part of the mantle, 1,400 fem? in the outer part of the core, and 3,700 t/cm? in the central part of the core, These pressures are far greater than the monoaxial compressive strengths of rocks under ordinary conditions. 3. Velocities of Seismic Waves The velocity of a longitudinal seismic wave is about 6.0 km/sec in a granitic part of the crust and about 6.8 km/sec in a basaltic part, while in the mantle, it is about 8 km/ sec in the upper part and about 13 km/sec in the lower. Near the boundary between the earth’s crust and the mantle there is a plane at which the velocities of seismic waves undergo discontinuous changes. This plane of discontinuity of seismic wave velocity is called the Mohorovidié plane, after the name of its discoverer. The depth of this plane in Japan is about 30 km. In the layer of the upper mantle 70-250 km in depth, velocity of seismic waves is rela- tively low. This low speed layer is called the asthenosphere. It is thought that the lithosphere about 100 km thick, drifts, using the asthenosphere as a lubricant, on the surface of the mantle.EARTHQUAKES 5 1.2 History of the Earth The birth of the earth is believed to have taken place at about the same time as the beginning of the galactic universe, approximately 4,500 million years ago, and it is thought that at the beginning of the Paleozoic Era the earth as a body had become very much what it is today, Taste 1-2 Geologic history of the earth, Prowmbrian Ere | Pestroaie Ea Cambrian Period Ordovician Period (Era of trilobites) ae Gotlandian (Silurian) Period (242-564 May Devonian Period } cera of shes) Carboniferous Period ma | Permian Feed } Gm tannin Triassic Period Mesozoic Era Jurassic Period (Era of reptiles) cee | Cretaceous Period | Paleocene Age (Tertiary Periog { Paleorene Fpocn ) Tones Ags | a.7-64 May ; Cenozoic Era Neocene Epoch {Miocene ee orn Pliocene Age Quaternary Period { Diluvial Epoch (0-1.7 Ma) Alluvial Epoch The time division of the subsequent geological history of the earth is as listed in Table 1-2, The later the period, the smaller are the divisions; thus the Quatemary Period of the Cenozoic Era goes back only 1.7 million years, while the preceding Tertiary Period goes back to 64 million years. In the Japanese Islands, great crustal movement oc- curred during the Paleocene and Neocene Epochs. It is thought that the present-day geological and geotectonic phenomena are manifestations of the tectonics which oceur- red after the Neocene The investigation of the geological constitution of the continents reveals that new continental areas have been formed at the outer edges of existing continents as shown in Fig. 1-2. Until a quarter of a century ago, the following concept of tectonic cycle was generally believed to be the cause of the increase of the continental area: the geosynclinal phase (the period of settlements and sediments)—sthe orogenic phase (the period of regional metamorphisms and intrusions of granitic substances)—>the post-orogenic phase (the period of faultings, foldings and volcanic actions). However, during the past several decade, a new concept of tectonics, based on the hypothesis of the spreading ocean floor, has been developed. Accordingto this concept, the earth’s outer layer can be envisioned as a rigid lithosphere consisting of some dozen plates, with the plates assumed to be drifting on the underlying softer asthenosphere, ‘The plates interact with one another, and the interactions have been the primary cause of orogeny throughout the earth’s geologic history. The following three kinds of plate interactions occur (see Fig. 1-3): 1. two plates split apart, making an oceanic ridge between them, 2. two plates slide horizontally, making a transform fault, and6 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING Pacific Ocean Cenozoic Eras 3 | Paleonoie ! Precambrian Era Fic. 12 Formation of new continental areas through epeirogenic movement. Ridge Fig. 1-3. Illustration of plate interactions. (a) Mid-Ocean ridge type. (b) Transfomed fault type. (© Subducting type. 3. a high density oceanic plate subducts beneath a low density continental plate, forming a trench and island arcs. When an oceanic plate subducts beneath a continental plate, both oceanic sediment and the sediments from the land are accreted to the continental plate, These accre- tionary prisms are thrust and heated and become part of the continental plate, resulting in the growth of the continents, At present, this concept is generally recognized as a mechanism of the orogeny.EARTHQUAKES 7 1.3 Earthquakes 1. Hypocenters An earthquake is a phenomenon of strong vibrations occurring on the ground due to releas2 of a large amount of energy within a short period of time through a sudden dis- turbance in the earth’s crust or in the upper part of the mantle. The maximum amount of energy released in one earthquake is thought to be approximately 5 x 10° erg, which is about 1/1,000 of the total energy released by the earth’ from its surface in a year’s time in the form of heat. The energy which produces earthquakes is stored in the crust or the upper mantle due to the epeirogenic forces, and the sudden release of the energy is produced by dislocation along faults. An earthquake is an accompaniment to these large-scale natural phenomena. The location at which an earthquake originates is called the hypocenter or focus, and the point at the surface of the earth directly above the hypocenter is termed the epicen- ter, The hypocenter is determined through observation of seismic tremors at observation points on the earth’s surface. In Japan, when earthquakes are classified according to depth of focus, those within 30 km of the earth’s surface are termed extremely shallow; those from 30 to 100 km, shallow; and those beyond 100 km, deep. In other countries, earthquakes within 70 km. of the surface are called shallow, those from 70 to 300 km intermediate, and those beyond 300 km deep. The limit of hypocenter depth is considered to be 700 km. When there is release of energy at the hypocenter of an earthquake, longitudinal and transverse waves are generated simultaneously. However, since the velocity of longi- tudinal waves is greater, the arrival time at an observation point on the earth's surface is earlier for this type of wave. The initial tremor is ascribable entirely to these longitudinal waves; the subsequent arrivals of the transverse waves as well as surface waves set off the main tremor. Thus, given distance from hypocenter to observation point; velocity of transverse waves; velocity of longitudinal waves; and difference in time of arrival of longitudinal and transverse waves at an obser- vation point, (1) T in this case is the time of duration of the initial tremor and is known from observation, while a and f are geological constants for a given location. Therefore, the distance from the hypocenter to the observation point is approximately proportional to the time of duration of the initial tremor; the coefficient of proportionality is generally about 8.0 kmjsec. ‘When s has been thus determined for each of three observation points, the hypocenter is located at the point of intersection of these spheres, each centering on one of the three observation points and having as its radius the appropriate value of s. The hypocenter thus determined is the location from which the first wave motion was8 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING sent out, but it does not necessarily coincide with the location from which the most in- tense energy has been released. In other words, the actual source of an earthquake is not necessarily confined to a small area, and in some cases covers a fairly wide expanse; at times it is not even limited to a single area. For instance, the hypocenter of the Kant earthquake of 1923 was determined to have been located in an area about 10 km south of Mt. Tanzawa, but it is thought that the greatest terrestrial changes occurred under Sagami Bay (sce Fig, 1-12). Furthermore, recent seismological studies indicate that most large earthquakes are complex multiple events over a period of ten to thirty seconds. 2. Main Shock and Aftershocks Great earthquakes usually do not end with one tremor. The magnitude is gradually reduced, but a number of further quakes normally occur. The first severe earthquake is called the main shock and the following quakes the aftershocks. Before a main shock, milder earthqiiakes sometimes occur as a precurser. These earthquakes are called fore- shocks, The hypocenters of aftershocks do not generally coincide with that of the main shock, the latter usually being located at the edge of the focus areas of the aftershocks. The volume of the earth encompassing the points at which aftershocks are produced tends to increase with the passage of time after the main shock. ‘The energy of the main shock is considerably larger than that of foreshocks or aftershocks, and it is thought that the extent of the region in which the aftershocks occur in the early stage indicates the range in which the energy causing the main shock was stored. However, foreshocks, main, shocks, and aftershocks are phenomena associated with a series of fractures in the crust or mantle, and characteristics of the earthquake tremors change with the progress of the fracturing. Figure 1-4 shows foci and times of occurrence of the series of Izu-ohshima-kinkai earthquakes on January 14, 1978, The numbers in the figure indicate the order of earth- quake occurrence. The main shock is No. 6. White circles indicate earthquakes of depth zero km; black circles, depth 10 km; and triangles, depth 20 km. Only the earthquakes of magnitude larger than 4.0 are shown, except for earthquake No. 1 whose magnitude was 31. 0 139°00 0 29 | 8 21 | Le ote _ ___| | ey 2 © | so 84 | x . Iau Peninsula Saami Boy | . | 1005 Fig. 1-4 Epicenters of the 1978 Iuohshima-kinkai earthquakes. ©: Depth 0, @: Depth 10 km, 4: Depth 20 km.EARTHQUAKES 9 On January 13, 1978, the first shock, No. 1, occurred at 8:38 p.m. Then, about noon on the next day, in the area 15km west of Izuohshima Island, big earthquekes, including the main shock, occurred concentratedly for about 4 hours, Again, at about 4 p.m. on January 15, big aftershocks were concentrated in the central part of the Izu Peninsula, Suggesting that the influence of the main shock extended 40 km west of its origin. Subsequently, after 4 hours, at the same place, but at a somewhat deeper level, after- shocks were concentrated. After that, the earthquakes gradually came to an end. Faults appeared in the eastern part of the Izu Peninsula where shown in Fig. 1-4, Such investigation of foreshocks and aftershocks provides important information about the source mechanisms of earthquakes. 3. Causes of Earthquakes In regard to the causes of earthquakes, the principal concepts currently stressed are the theories of the effect of magma and of the effect of epeirogenic forces. The former theory treats the problem in terms of sudden changes in the earth’s crust due either to the force- ful entrance of magma into parts of the semi-hardened crust where equil'brium of heat and stress has been lost, widening existing fissures or creating new fissures, or to abrupt varaitions in the condition of the magma itself, The latter deals with the sudden release of a portion of the strain energy stored in the crust on account of epeirogenic forces. At present the latter theory is widely recognized. As described previously, the earth's outer layer consists of some dozen drifting plates. Accordingly, their interaction may cause earthquakes. Each of three types of interaction of the plates has its own particular type of seismic activity and earthquake source mechenisms; however, the types which cause the great earthquakes are the transformed fault type and the subduction type. Figure 3-6 shows three plates located in the vicinity of the Japanese islands where the Pacific Ocean and Philippine Sea Plates are subducting beneath the Eurasian Plate. This concept is appropriate to explain the mechanism of great earthquakes which occur along the Pacific coast of the Japanese islands. But it is difficult to explain details of the mechanism of the earthquakes which occur inland and in the Sea of Japan according to this concept alone. This problem remains to be solved. According to the theory attributing earthquakes to the effects of epeirogenic forces, at places where excess energy is stored and strains exceed (1 ~ 2) x 10~*, major faults comprising the boundaries of crustal blocks increase their rates of slippage or new faults are formed in the blocks, releasing seismic energy. But in general energy will be more likely to be released by sliding motion along existing faults than by new ones. Therefore, existing faults are considered to presage earthquake occurrence in the future. The direction of slip of a fault will depend on the type of stress. There will be a nor- mal fault in the case of tensile stress, a reverse fault in the case of compressive stress, and a strike slip in the case of shearing stress. When there is intense epeirogenic movement and rapid storage of energy, marked earthquake activity is produced. However, the Lime interval between earthquakes will differ according to the capacity of the crustal blocks to store strain energy. In the event the ability of the crustal blocks to store strain energy is great, the amount of eventual sliding of the fault will be large, increasing the scale of the resulting earthquake. Con- versely, when the ability of the crustal blocks to store strain energy is low, there will be continuous slight sliding of the fault, with the result that the amount of sliding at the time of an earthquake and consequently the scale of the earthquake will be small. It follows that there would normally be almost no earthquakes in the former type of area, with10 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING heavy earthquakes occurring at long intervals; while in the latter, medium and small- scale earthquakes would occur frequently. Observation of the direction of the initial motion of an earthquake is a means of proving the mechanism of the earthquake eruption. The P-wave initial motion is ¢ lon- gitudinal wave radiating from the focus, and its horizontal direction coincides with the direction towards the epicenter. When the vertical motion which is observed simultane- ously is in the upward direction, the direction of the horizontal motion is from the epicenter, and when the vertical motion is in downward direction, the direction of the horizontal motion is toward the epicenter. In the former case, the earthquake wave is termed the push wave and in the latter case, the pull wave. ‘According to observation of the P-wave initial motion of an earthquake at various points, initial motions are push waves in some areas and pull waves in other areas. The boundaries of these areas are two straight lines intersecting at right angles, or a conic section. Figure 1-5 shows the push-pull distribution of the P-wave initial motion of the earth- quake which occurred in the vicinity of the Tenryai River on May 18, 1917. Solid circles denote the push wave and open circles the pull wave. The boundaries are two straight lines whose directions are SW-NE and SE-NW. This is a general pattern for shallow earthquakes which occur in this area. For shallow earthquakes, as cited above, intensity of the P-wave initial motion is proportional to sin 2g and that of the S-wave initial motion is proportional to cos 29 where g is the angle between the direction concerned and the push-pull boundary axis. From the distribution of the initial motion and other properties of earthquake waves, the source mechanism can be inferred such that when a point source is assumed, the earthquake is equivalent to a combination of two couples which cancel each other out. The moment of one of the two couples is termed the seismic moment. Sea of Japan Pacific Ocean Fic. 1-5 Push and pull distribution of the Tenrya River earthquake on May 18, 1917, 1.4. Propagation of Seismic Waves 1. Body Waves Energy released underground moves through the earth in the form of wave motions toEARTHQUAKES 11 reach the surface. Two types of wave motion of different nature, longitudinal and trans- verse waves, may be transmitted through the ground. In the case of longitudinal waves, the direction of motion of particles of matter coincides with the direction of advance of the waves. The velocity of propagation of such waves is given by the following: EC ) pl + 2) (1 — 20) (1.2) where E= Young's modulus; a = Poisson’s ratio; and p= density, The longitudinal wave is called a P-wave. In the case of transverse waves the direction of motion of particles of matter is ortho- gonal to the direction of advance and the velocity of propagation (1.3) The transverse wave is called an S-wave—in particular, an SV-wave when it is vertically polarized and an SH-wave when it is horizontally polarized. Itis usual to assume o = 0.25 and to take a/f as 1.73, but actual measurements have produced values of 1.67 for shallow earthquakes and 1.78 for deep focus earthquakes in the Kinki region of Japan, and 1.67 in earthquakes occurring near California, The value of 1.67 corresponds to ¢ = 0.22. The crustal structure is not uniform and the velocity of seismic waves is higher with greater depth underground. In diluvial and alluvial deposits distributed on the earth’s surface, the velocity is extremely different form that in places deep underground. The values of Table 1-3 have been suggested as standard values for the velocity of transverse waves in places shallow underground, Taste 1-3 Velocity of transverse wave in soft ground (after Dr. $. Omoto). Velocity (m/sec) ‘Sand 60 Reclaimed land 100 Sandy clay 100 ~ 200 Clay 250 Sand-bearing gravel 300 ~ 400 Moist sand 340 Gravel 600 Tertiary strata 1,000 or above ret 0 or above The velocity of an S-wave within sandy soil differs considerably depending on the degree of consolidation. Figure 1-6 shows the velocity of transverse waves measured in consisting of silt and sand as compared with corresponding N values, indicating that the ground velocity varies between 50 to 500 m/sec according to the N value. 2. Surface Waves At the earth’s surface there are ground movements which are pronounced only in the surface portion of the earth and rapidly become faint deeper underground. These are ter-12. INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING B (m/sec) S re 4 6810 20 40 60 80 Fic. 1-6 Variation of the velocity of transverse waves as a function of the degree of consolidation in silt and sand, A: Velocity of transverse wave; N: N value determined by standard penetration test. med surface waves. The Rayleigh wave and the Love wave are two representative surface waves, In the case of the Rayleigh wave, particles move describing an ellipse in the vertical plane parallel to the direction of wave motion, In the case of the Love wave, particles move horizontally orthogonal to the direction of the advance of the wave. LD) Rayleigh Waves ‘When the ground is uniform, the velocity of Rayleigh waves, vp, is slightly slower than that of shear waves; the ratio is determined by the Poisson’s ratio and is inde- pendent of the wave length. It is shown in Fig, 1-7. Figure 1-8 shows horizontal displace- ment and vertical displacement in the ground providing that the Poisson's ratio of the ground is 0.25. ‘As seen in this figure, the amplitude decreases with depth, this reduction being partic- ularly great the higher the frequency. For this reason the waves propagate two-cimen- 0.96 | 8 0.95) T T i an EE 096 _- at | Ee oss = t 3 | a oaa 1 : 3s \ - 0.91 a0 or 02 oF 3a as Poisson's ratio Fig. 1-7 of Rayleigh waves.EARTHQUAKES 13 0s. 10 worizontal displacement w=vertical displacement Fic. 1-8 Horizontal and vertical amplitude of Rayleigh waves (¢ = 0.25). sionally, and there is less damping due to distance than with wave motions propagated three-dimensionally, so that the wave can be transmitted a great distance. The Rayleigh waves are caused by longitudinal or transverse waves emitted from the hypocenter. However, they are not produced in the vicinity of the epicenter. The range in which they occur is farther from the epicenter thn thae minimum distances 5» and ss, for surface waves resulting from longitudinal and transverse waves, respectively, where: a4) where d denotes the depth of the hypocenter. When ¢ = 0,25, these values will be 0.63¢ and 2.33d. When there are surface layers on the base ground, the Rayleigh waves can also be ex- cited, In this case, the particle motion becomes fainter deeper underground in the surface layer as well as in the base ground. In this case the velocity of the Rayleigh waves is dependent on the wave length. Figure 1-9 (a) shows the relationship between the velocity of the Rayleigh waves and the wave Jength when there is a surface layer and the Poisson’s ratio of the ground is 0.25. It is low when the wave length is short. As an extreme case, when the wave length is very short, the velocity converges to that of the Rayleigh waves propagating in the uniform ground having the same ground conditions as the surface layer, whereas, when the wave length is very long, the velocity converges to that of the Rayleigh waves propagating in the uniform ground having the same ground conditions as the base ground, 2) Love Waves ‘When the base ground is covered with a soft surface layer, Love waves can be trans- mitted through the ground, In this case, the waves consist of plane waves in the surface layer, but in the base ground they rapidly become faint. The Love waves have a number of component modes, and the velocity of each com- ponent wave depends on the wave length. In Fig. 1-9 (b) the solid lines show the rela- tionship between the velocity of the wave and the wave length of the first-order wave14 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING rap 20) m7 Lat vel 15|— wt ve 14 = | - 1 C4 7 149 — ~ ost 1 L L xa a al = v2 a AW ZY a Lt ° t | L wa ] | i L 8 ae 82 wu (b) Love waves. Fig. 1-9 Dispersion of surface waves (¢ = 0.25), Velocity of the Rayleigh waves. Velocity of the Love waves. Velocity of the shear waves in the surface layer. 1;: Shear modulus of soil in the surface layer. zig: Shear modulus of soil in the base ground. component when the Poisson’s ratio of the soil is 0.25 in both the surface layer and the base ground, and the broken line shows that of the Love waves having the same period as the predominant period, To, of the surface layer. As seen in this figure, the velocity of the wave having a longer period than Ty is approximately equal to that of the S waves propagating in the base ground. The velocity of the wave having a shorter period than Ty is approximately equal to that of the S wave propagating in the surface layer. There- fore, the velocity of the waves is greater for the longer period wave, and less fer the shorter period wave. 3. Time-Distance Curves Since a certain amount of time is required for propagation of seismic waves, tremors begin at gradually later times as the distance from the epicenter increases. Thus, atten- tion is paid to the onset of various stages in the observed phenomena, and theEARTHQUAKES 15 relationship between the time of occurrence of each type of wave and the distance of the observation site from the epicenter is studied. Curves plotted with epicentral distance as the abscissa and the times of appearance of the various types as the ordinate are called time-distance curves. The flexure of the time-distance curve in Fig. I-10 indicates a plane of discontinuity in the velocity of the wave underground, and this characteristic is used in exploring the structure of the ground and the earth. 80 0 Sane Cy Ts E aot é0 P wave %” al ° 03009 Distance (km) Fic. 1-10 Typical time-distance curve, 1.5 Earthquake Phenomena o 1. General When an earthquake occurs, it does not involve merely shaking of the earth, but is accompanied by various other phenomena. The phenomena important from an engineer- ing standpoint are seismic tremors, crustal movements, faulting, and tsunamis. In addi tion, there are variations in geomagnetism, the earth current and levels or radioactivity of underground water which are of considerable interest to geophysics and earthquake prediction. 2. Seismic Tremors In vibration of the earth's surface, it is normal for faint tremors to occur at first for a brief period, followed by severe vibrations lasting for some time, after which the vibra- tions gradually disappear. The first period of slight trembling is called the initial tremor, the next part with wide amplitude is the main tremor, and the last part is the tail tremor. As examples of seismograms, Fig, I-11 shows the records of an aftershock of the 1943 Tottori earthquake taken at Tottori City and Kge. Each seismogram shows an initial tremor, a main vibration, and a tail. The initial part records dilatational waves and the main part distortional and surface waves. Earthquake waveforms are generally complex, This is attributable to differences in the mechanisms of earthquake eruption, the reflection and refraction of seismic waves at the boundaries of ground strata of different characteristics during propagation, and the vibrational characteristics of the ground peculiar to each point of earthquake observation. Considered inversely, these complex waveforms have important significance as signals16 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING | I [afputtentaatrornane Nh Wife \ Fic. 1-11 Seismograms of an aftershock of the Tottori earthquake of 1943, recorded at Tottori City (a) and Koge (b). transmitting information regarding the mechanism of earthquake eruption and the structure of the earth. 3. Crustal Movements On compatison of surveys conducted before and after earthquakes, it is sometimes found that the surface of the ground has been displaced in both horizontal and vertical directions over a wide area. If surveys could be made both immediately before and just after an earthquake, it would be possible to determine the exact variations caused by the earthquake; but in most cases such comparisons must be made between surveys taken a fairly long time before the earthquake and immediately after it, so that it is not de- finitely known whether all of the variations are due to the earthquake alone. However, it is usually quite probable that the earthquake has been responsible for a considerable part of the displacements observed. Methods of measuring crustal movements include precise triangulation using triangle stations on land and precise leveling using benchmarks. However, these methods cannot always be employed, and are in some cases supplemented by continuous observation of the rising and falling of coastlines through tide measurements. In addition, in recent years facilities for continuous observation of the inclination and strain of the earth’s ‘crust have gradually begun to be installed. These consist of groups of three mutually in- tersecting tunnels equipped with water-tube inclinometers about 30 m long and fused- quartz tube extensometers. The results of observations with such instruments are helpful in detecting sudden changes in the earth’s crust. According to these measurements big earthquakes are usually accompanied by crustal movements. The crustal movement is comparatively active during the term in which aftershocks are occurring actively; however, it subsides with lapse of time. During this term of silent curstal movement the ground is often displaced in the opposite direction to that caused by the earthquake. After the lapse of a certain period of time, crustalEARTHQUAKES 17 movements and other phenomena associated with the dilatancy of soil become active again, suggesting the occurrence of the next earthquake in the near future. These changes are thus making contributions to earthquake prediction, Inexamples seen in Japan, more movement of the ground is found under the sea than on land. Cases of displacement observed on land are the following: 1) Kant Earthquake Figure 1-12 shows the horizontal and vertical movements accompanying the 1923 Kanté earthquake. As shown in this figure, there were horizontal displacements of 1 to 3 mat various localities, Vertically, the coastline of Sagami Bay and the southern part of the Bas6 Peninsula rose while the Tanzawa mountain mass settled. In Southern Bas there are traces of upheavals in the 1703 Genroku earthquake, and the movement of the ground in the Kanto earthquake was in the same direction. However, the Kanto earth- quake is not considered to be a repetition of the activity of the Genroku earthquake, oaim 0 aves oan P12 > * cf 78m Fic, 1-12 Crustal movements in the 1923 Kanto earthquake. Large figures and ccntour lines show vertical displacements in meters; smaller figures and arrows show horizcntal movements. ‘Across marks the epicenter. Rectangles represent the fault planes estimated by Prof. H. Kanamori, 2) Niigata Earthquake In the 1964 Niigata earthquake, there were upheavals of 0.8-1.02 m on the west coast and 1,09-1.57 m on the east coast of Awashima island, which was located near the epicenter (see Fig. 1-13). The trend of this upheaval and tilting was in the same direction18 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING Fic. 1-13 Upheaval of Awashima island near the epicenter of the Niigata earthquake of 1964. as the curstal movements in a number of past earthquakes. Moreover, according to an eyewitness account, the lowering of the sea level amounted to about 2 m immediately after the earthquake and settled down to about 1 m after several hours. 3) Nankai Earthquake Figure 1-14 shows the changes in elevation of bench marks on the southern coast of the Shikoku region accompanying the 1946 Nankai earthquake. The upper curve indi- cates the differences between elevations surveyed in 1947 and 1929, while the lower con- cave curve shows the differences between 1929 and 1895, From this figure, it is seen that the tip of Cape Muroto has risen prominently as a result of earthquakes. Moreover, though Cape Muroto had been constantly tilting towards the south, the earthqueke of 1946 caused a sudden inclination in the opposite direction. os Kochi Cape Murata Kannoura Fic. 1-14 Changes in elevation along the southern coast of the Shikoku, resulting from the Nankai earthquake of 1946 (after Prof. T. Nagata). 4, Faults In great earthquakes, there are at times discontinuity of movement on the two sides of a boundary line consisting of a narrow belt of land. The discontinuous plane in the form of a band formed at such times is called a fault. A fault produced by a dislocation in a horizontal direction is termed a strike fault, and one produced by a vertical dislocation a dip fault. Most of the earthquakes are caused by the activity of a fault. After the oc- currence of the earthquake, the activity of the fault ceases for some time, but after a long period of time it revives. Therefore, the location of new faults appearing in an earthquake is thought to be related to the existing fault. But existing faults are not necessarily relatedEARTHQUAKES 19 (b) En-échelon ground cracks along a fault (Koyna earthquake of 1967). (© A giant mole-type fault in northern San Fernando Valley (San Fernando earthquake of 1971). Fic. 1-15 Various types of fault.20 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING to the earthquake because some are the remains of faults which were active in ancient times but are inactive at present, and some are fractures along weak planes at or near the boundaries of discontinuous movements of land masses accompanying earthquakes. Some faults appear at the surface and can clearly be seen, while others exist under- ground and are not apparent above ground; their presence can only be deduced after surveying displacements of the ground, The Gémura fault produced by the 1927 Kita- Tango earthquake is an example of the former type and the Fukui fault, resulting from the 1948 Fukui earthquake, is an example of the latter. Figure 1-15 (a) shows the Gémura fault where the ground dislocated in the horizontal as well as vertical direction over a long, distance. This is the normal form of fault produced by earthquakes. However, at times there are faults where cracks appear side by side like a flight of wild geese (en-échelon ground cracks) or where the surface is ground up into small fragments as if a giant mole had thrown up the soil (see Fig. 1-15 (b) and (c)). There are two types of fault movement: continuous sliding and intermittent sliding type. The faults found so far in Japan are all of the intermittent type. The San Andreas fault in the United States is an example of the continuous type and is probably the best known, Crustal movement during normal times may be in the same direction as that during earthquakes or may be in the opposite direction. For example, the sliding of the San Andreas fault during normal times is in the same direction as that during earthquakes, whereas the tilting of Cape Muroto during normal times was in the opposite direction to that during the 1946 Nankai earthquakes. However, it is known that the direction of slippage at the time of an earthquake coincides with the direction of crustal movement over a long period of time. + 5. Tsunamis Tsunamis are among the most terrible phenomena associated with earthquakes (see Fig. 1-16). They are long ocean waves which sweep up to coastal regions when distur- ances occur at the bottom of the sea. These long waves are not readily damped and reach out over great distances. There has been a case when a tsunami caused by an earthquake occurring off the coast of Chile hit the Pacific coast of Japan the following day to wreak heavy damage. The wave height of a tsunami differs greatly according to the contours of the coast- line. Along a monotonous coastline the wave height will not be great; but along coasts where there are many irregularities, waves which are not very high at the mouth of a bay will reach abnormal heights further inside the bay. Where there is a river, tsunamis can flow upstream a long distance from the mouth of the river. This is thought to be a type of seiche phenomenon, the degree of increase in wave height depending on the topography of the bay and the wavelength of the tsunami. The amplification is pronounced for a tsunami of short wavelength and high frequency in a small bay, while with 4 tsunami of long wavelength and low frequency it is more marked ina large bay. The path of the tsunami inside a bay is generally complex and depends on topography. Especially when the land at the water's edge is flat, sea water will inundate the entire area and then recede at great speed to wash away everything in its path, The damage thus inflicted is often beyond description. At the time of the Sanriku Tsunami of 1933 there was a village where 90 percent of all the houses were washed away. lieceanioiiitEARTHQUAKES 21 (@) Tsunami rising. (b) Tsunami receding. Fic. 1-16 Tsunainis inundating the parking place of an aquarium on Oga Peninsula after the Nihonkai- chibu earthquake, May 26, 1983 (Courtesy of Akita Sakigake Simpo-sha). 1.6 Observation of Seismic Tremors 1, Seismometer Quantitative instrumental observations are essential in order to analyze earthquake motion in a scientific manner. Earthquake observation was initiated more than 100 years ago. However, due to the inadequacy of observation facilities for strong motions, there existeda deficiency of records of the strong motions required in the design of earthquake- resistant structures. Since 1932in the U.S.A. and 1952in Japan, work has progressed on installation of strong motion accelerographs capable of recording accelerations up to a maximum of 1,000 gals, and at present there are several thousand such units distributed throughout the world, The essential instrument for observation of earthquake motion is the seismograph. The principle of the seismograph is to cause some object to make suitably different mo- tions from those of the ground surface and record the relative movements of the ground surface and the object. The earth movement is then calculated theoretically from the re~ corded results, A vertical component seismograph is shown in Fig. 1-17. Since the weight is suspended by a spring from the post erected on the supporting platform, the weight will not move similarly to the supporting platform because of the action of the spring. If the vibration period of the supporting platform is much shorter than the natural period of the pen- dulum formed by the spring and weight, it will be as if an attempt were made to shake a heavy hanging bell rapidly by hand: the weight will scarcely move. The revolving drum is wound with recording paper and is made to revolve very smoothly.22. INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING Fig, 1-17. Vertical component seismograph. © platform © pen or stylus @ weight © level © spring © drum @ damper Since the drum is fixed to the supporting platform and makes the same movements as the platform, a pen attached to the weight and made to contact the drum will record the relative movements of the supporting platform and the weight. In order to meke the record show clearly, an amplilying device is required. This is the lever, and the rate of amplification is termed the geometrical magnification. Further, if the pendulum is too easily vibrated, the free vibrations of the pendulum itself will not be readily extinguished; a damper is thus provided to absorb these vibrations. Such a seismograph is called a mechanical seismograph. Fig, 1-18 Schematic illustration of a typical seismograph. The structure of a seismograph is shown schematically in Fig. 1-18. The relation be- tween the vibration of the pendulum and the ground motion is expressed by the following differential equation: Px dx ay maa t Cg t k= —m™ Ga as) where m = mass of pendulum; x = relative displacement of pendulum to ground surface (recorded displacement);EARTHQUAKES 23 c= damping coefficient; k= spring constant; and y= displacement of ground surface. In this case the undamped natural period, 7, of the seismograph and the damping constant, h, are given by the following equations: 7,=2,/%, A Sak / (1.6) where T, and h are both characteristic values of seismographs. Assuming the earthquake motion to be a sinusoidal wave of amplitude yy and period Te ) and velocity amplitude, ye, and acceleration amplitude, ag, are as follows: % = 2n ee a = ana, (1.8) Substituting these quantities into Eq. (1.5), the following is obtained: @x dx 1 4ntyym Ont mat eg thke= “pe ie The solution of this equation is: 7 Ixl “e 1.9) 5 (1.9) The left term gives the ratio of the amplitude of the record and that of the ground displacement. Using similar procedures, we get (1.10) “Taree i T,) Figure 1-19 (a) shows the values of the above three formulae against T, when T, = 1.0 sec, taking three different values of parameter 4. Magnification of velocity is measured along the ordinate, and those of displacement and acceleration along the oblique coordi- nates inclined at 45° from the ordinate. From these figures the following properties are recognized. The value of |x| yo for a certain small value of h is roughly constant over the portion24 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING Phase difference (degree) », L | % txt ol 0.01 ot 10 10 Tr (sec) = 1.0 see, f= 0.25, 0.5 and 1.0 @) 180) 150 | } 120 - 90 ; - 60}— - 30) T t te | | TUT of 10 10 Ta(see) {Rouees f= 0.25, 0.5 and 1.0 () Fic. 1-19 Characteristics of seismographs.EARTHQUAKES 25 where T, is smaller than T,. Therefore, the records are proportional to displacement of ground motion within this range. In the range where T, is roughly equal to T,, the value of |2|/v for large h is roughly constant and the records are proportional to velocity of ground motion within this range. The value of |x| ag for h = 0.5 is roughly constant in the range where 7; is longer than T,, and the records are proportional to acceleration of ground motion in this range. The coefficients of the proportionalities indicated here are called sensitivity coefficients and are determined individually for cach instrument by precise checking with a shaking table. . As can be seen from the above calculations, when the period of the seismic tremor to be measured is more or less known, if a pickup having a natural period longer than the period of the tremor with a damping coefficient of about 0.7 is used, the displacement of the tremor can be measured; if a pickup having a period about the same as that of the tremor with a damping coefficient higher than critical damping is used, the velocity of the tremor can be measured; and if a pickup having period shorter than the period of the tremor with a damping coefficient of about 0.5 is used, the acceleration of the tremor can be measured. The instruments used for these measurements are called displacement seismographs, velocity seismographs and acceleration seismographs, respectively. Each of these instruments can be applied to measure earthquake motion, The choice depends on the frequency range of the vibration to be measured. Acceleration seismo- meters are suitable to measure short period vibration such as the vibraticn of ordinary buildings while velocity or displacement seismometers are suitable to measure long period vibration such as that of large oil tanks or suspension bridges. As shown in Fig. 1-19 (b), there is phase difference between the ground motion and the motion of the weight. The phase difference depends on the frequency of ground motion. Therefore, a seismograph does not record the ground motion correctly, and the error caused by the phase difference must be corrected when exact recording of the ground motion is desired. Figure 1-20 shows horizontal and vertical electromagnetic seismographs. Each such instrument consists of a powerful magnet, a weight supported by a leaf spring, and a coil wound around the weight. In an earthquake, the weight moves relative to the magnet and the coil cuts the magnetic field. At this time, a voltage is produced within the coil which is proportionate to the number of magnetic lines of force cut within a unit of time or to the speed of the pendulum. This voltage is electrically magnified and recorded by an oscillograph, on magnetic tape, and is sometimes digitized. Damping systems are set in the amplifying system. Such recording systems differ from the mechanical system in that the recording system is not independent of the pickup system. Therefore, it is neces- sary to calibrate the sensitivity of the pickup and recording systems together as a unit. Recently, new ideas for measuring acceleration, such as servo-mechanisms or piezo electric elements, have been used for the accelerographs. These elements produce an elec- ric current proportional to the earthquake acceleration, A servo-accelerometer consists of a pendulum, a condenser pickup, a pendulum actuator and a servoamplifier (see Fig. 1-21). When the pendulum is displaced from its equilibrium position under the action of earthquake acceleration, the displacement is detected by a condenser pickup and the signal indicating the displacement is amplified and fed back to the pendulum actuator. The pendulum actuator acts so as to return the pendulum to its original equilibrium position, The electric current which is fed from the servoamplifier to the actuator is proportional to the acceleration of the pendulum; thus earthquake acceleration can be estimated by measuring this electric current. The merit of this apparatus is that the displacement of the pendulum is so small that26 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING Fic. 1-20 Electromagnetic seismographs. aug \iZ i. h WY | + Hi | —— F 4 Fic. 1-21 Schematic illustration of a servo-accelerometer. m: Mass C: Condenser pickup A: Servoamplifier unfavorable properties such as the nonlinearity of the spring are negligible. Electric cur- rent is amplified and frequency modulated and recorded on magnetic tapes, or in a digitized table. These apparatuses obtain very high amplification in spite of their small size, In measuring the vibration of a structure during an earthquake, it is difficult to station a person to carry out observations at all times, and unmanned observations are therefore usually made, At such times a starter is employed. The recording apparatus of the seismo- graph is dormant during normal times, but simultaneously with occurrence of an earth- quake the starter is activated by the first seismic tremor and activates the recording ap- paratus. Since an earthquake ordinarily subsides within a few minutes, the recording device is also designed to stop with the subsidence to await the next earthquake, In order to record the vibration of the initial stage of an earthquake before the record- ing system begins to move, a data delay device has come into use recently. This device stores the data of the past few seconds and then outputs the stored data sequentially after a predetermined period of time. Table 1-4 lists widely used strong motion seismographs, along with their performance capacities. The SMAC-type strong motion seismograph (see Fig. 1-22) is an apparatus developed and manufactured in Japan, and a great number of this type have been in- stalled throughout the country. { jEARTHQUAKES 27 ‘Taste 1-4 Characteristics of strong motion seismographs. Japan @MAC-A) | Japan USA. ‘Type of senser ‘Mechanical Servo | Servo Frequency characteristics N=10Hz 0.0525 Hz | Recording range 10 ~ 1,000 gal 0.1~ 2,000 gal | max ,000 gal Sensitivity 25 gal/mm 86 dB 66 dB Timing 0.01 see (0.5 sec (WWVB) Delay time 5 sec 5 sec Recording system Paper Digital Digital Fia, 1-22. SMAC-type strong motion seismograph. Not only the measuring of the acceleration, but the measuring of velocity of strong motion earthquakes is important from the engineering point of view. For this purpose a strong motion velocity scismograph has recently been developed by using a horizontal pendulam system. This makes possible the measurement of earthquake vibrations of 0.05 ~5.0 sec period and 0.01 ~ 100 cmjsec velocity. Further, there are seismographs made for such special purposes as embedding under- ground or installation at sea bottom. It is essential to prevent underground water, sea water, or humidity from penetrating these instruments, and methods such as hermetic sealing in oil have been devised for this purpose. From the standpoint of engineering, it is not sufficient merely to observe the move- ment of objects during earthquakes. It is often necessary to measure variation of struc- tural sirain, soil pressure, water pressure, and residual displacement of structures. due to earthquakes, and instruments for these purposes have been developed. In Fig. 1-23 cone type of dynamic strain meter is shown as an example. Fig. 1-23 Katd-type dynamic strain meter.28 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING 2. Strong Motion Instrument Arrays The observation of earthquake motion by instruments has provided basic data for studies of the natural phenomena of earthquakes as well as for earthquake-resistant design of structures and has contributed much to the progress of earth science and earth- quake engineering, In particular, the development of the strong motion seismograph ‘and the accumulation of strong motion seismograms have played a very important part in the rational design of structures. However, sometimes a single isolated instrument cannot provide sufficient information to give a clear understanding of the factors influencing strong ground motion. In this case, multiple instruments, two-and three-dimensional arrays with configurations tai- lored to the aquisition of specific information, are required. There are two kinds of strong motion earthquake instrument arrays: source me- chanism and wave propagation arrays and local effects arrays. The first is a fairly dense array of strong motion instruments installed within the near field region of strong earth- quakes to gain a greater understanding of the physical processes involved in the genera- tion and transmission of seismic energy. The second is a dense array of strong motion instruments installed within a particular site to gain a complete description of the precise nature of the ground motion which is affected not only by the properties of the source and wave propagation path between the source and site but also by many local factors: localized topographic and soil fea- tures, soil structure interaction effects, soil liquefaction, etc. Observation of strong mation earthquakes by instrument arrays began in the late 1970s at many seismically active regions of the world, and some data have already been obtained. Figure 1-24 shows earthquake instrument arrays established in the South Kant dis- Fio. 1-24 @Deep pit Station for sirong earthquake observation f@Siation for micro earthquake observation % Central laboratoryEARTHQUAKES 29 trict, Japan, by the National Research Center for Disaster Prevention. The network consists of three deep pits (2,330 m deep at Shimo-osa, 2,780 m deep at Fuchi, and 3,500 m deep at Iwatsuki), 7 stations for strong earthquake observation, and 16 stations for micro earthquake observation. Observational results are collected at the Central Labora- tory at Tsukuba by telemetering systems. In the South Kanto district, the seismicity is influenced by the submergence of both the Pacific Plate and the Philippine Sea Plate. Seismic activity is very high. Therefore, observation of this network is expected to generate sufficient information to give a clear understanding of the submergence of the plates as well as the seismicity of this district. In the United States some local accelerograph arrays have been established along the San Andreas fault. Data obtained at the times of the June 27, 1966, Parkfield earthquake and the October 15, 1979, Imperial Valley earthquake have provided valuable know- ledge about seismic behavior of the ground in the vicinity of the fault (see Fig. 6-21).Chapter—2 EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY 2.1 Seismic Intensity 1, Seimic Intensity Scale ‘The term “seismic intensity” is used to denote the severity of an earthquake at a partic ular place. The attempt to quantitatively express such a complex phenomenon as an earthquake by a single numerical measure involves a fundamental illogicality; and there is the additional drawback that in attempting to make terminology numerically precise, the actual sensation of the earthquake is sometimes not brought out, while when the scale is based on actual feeling, the engineering context of the terminology becomes indistinct. Seismicity scales currently in use are constructed from either the engincering or the perceptual standpoint, and the one most convenient for a particular purpose is the one used, However, the relation between the two aspects is now fairly well understood. The intensity scale adopted in 1949 by the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) was established from the perceptual viewpoint and has become the standard for seismic in- tensity in Japan. This scale is as indicated below: JIMA Intensity Scale 0. No sensation: registered by seismographs but no perception by the human body. L. Slight: felt by persons at rest or persons especially sensitive to earthquakes, I, Weak: felt by most persons; slight rattling of doors and Japanese latticed paper sliding doors (shoji). IIL. Rather strong: shaking of houses and buildings; heavy rattling of doors and sh@ji, swinging of chandeliers and other hanging objects; movement of liquids in vessels. IY, Strong: strong shaking of houses and buildings; overturning of unstable objects: spilling of liquids out of vessels four-fifths full. Y. Very strong: cracking of plaster walls; overturning of tombstones and stone lanterns; damage to masonry chimneys and mud-plastered warehouses. VI. Disastrous: demolition of up to 30% of Japanese wooden houses; numerous landslides and embankment failures; fissures on flat ground. VII. Ruinous: demolition of more than 30% of Japanese wooden kouses. Modified Mercalli Scale The seismicity scale widely used in North America is the Modified Mercalli (MM) Scale, established in 1931. This scale is graded with division into 12 categories. L__ Not felt except by a few under especially favorable conditions. 3132 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING II. Felt only by persons at rest in places such as upper floors of buildings. Delicately suspended objects may swing. II, Felt by many persons in places such as upper floors of buildings, but of a degree that most persons do not recognize it as an, earthquake. Standing automobiles may rock slightly as if from vibration caused by passing truck. Duration may be measured, IV. In daytime, felt by many indoors but by only a few outdoors. Dishes, windows, doors disturbed, and wallls creak. Sensation like a heavy truck striking a building. Standing automobiles rocked considerably. V. Felt byall, many awakened. Some dishes and window glasses broken, wall plaster may crack. Unstable objects overturned, Disturbance of telephone poles, trees, and other tall objects sometimes noticed. Pendulum clocks stopped. VI. People are frightened and run outdoors. Heavy furniture may be moved; some instances of fallen plaster and toppling of chimneys. Slight damage. VII. Everybody runs outdoors. Damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction, slight to moderate in ordinary structures, and considerable in poorly built or badly designed structures. Chimneys broken. Felt in moving automobiles. VII. Some damage even in buildings of good design and construction. Considerable damage in ordinary buildings, with some collapsing. Great damage in poorly constructed buildings. Panel walls thrown out of frame structures. Falling of houses and factory chimneys, columns, monuments and walls. Heavy furniture overturned. Sand and mud ejected in small amounts. Changes in well water. Driving of automobiles hindered. IX. Damege considerable in buildings of good design and construction. Structures thrown out of alignment with foundations. Ground cracked conspicuously. Unde rground pipes damaged. X. Wooden houses of good design and construction collapse. Most masonry and frame structures destroyed together with foundations. Ground cracked causing damage. Rails bent. Slopes and embankments slide. Water surface rises. XI. Almost all masonry structures collapse. Bridges destroyed. Fissures over entire surface of ground. Underground pipelines completely out of service. Earth slumps and land slips in soft ground. Rails bent prominently. XI. Damage total. Waves seen transmitted at ground surface. Topography changed. Objects thrown into air. Although it is difficult to define an exact correspondence between the JMA and MM scales, it may be expressed roughly by the following equation: Ty = 05 + 151, where In = MM scale; and 1, = JMA scale. 2. Seismic Intensity Based on Acceleration ‘Among structural engineers it is common practice to express the intensity of an earth- quake by its maximum acceleration. This is based on the premise that the effect of an earthquake cn buildings and civil structures is determined chiefly by the maximum ac- celeration. This concept is more or less valid for judging elastic damage when the struc- NemisisEARTHQUAKE INTENSITY 33 ture can be regarded as naerly nonflexible, However, flexible structures such as chimneys, high-rise buildings, and high arch dams cannot be discussed in terms of maximum ac. celeration alone so that frequency, displacement, velocity, and waveforms of seismic tremors also become involved. Recently, flexible structures have increased in number and there are thus more and more cases in which the maximum acceleretion concept is not applicable. When seismic intensity is expressed in terms of maximum acceleration, the ratio be- tween the maximum acceleration of the earthquake and the acceleration of gravity is employed. Thus if the maximum acceleration of an earthquake in the horizontal tion is a, the ratio employed is alg = ky (2.1) where k; is called the horizontal seismic coefficient. Similarly, if the maximum accelera- tion of the earthquake in the vertical direction is @,, then alg =k, (2.2) where k, is called the vertical seismic coefficient. Since it is not often the case that a seismograph has been handily located beforehand in an earthquake-damaged district, the maximum acceleration is in practice only esti- mated from observations of natural phenomena and the extent of damage to structures, as in the case of the intensity scale mentioned in the preceding section. In such cases, damage to tombstones and wooden houses, found everywhere throughout Japan, is used. The estimation of maximum acceleration on the basis of tombstone behavior is carried out by the method described below. If it is assumed that the inertial force acting on a tombstone at the time of maximum earthquake acceleration is applied statically, the rela- tion between seismic and gravitational forces at the instant when the tombstone is on the verge of overturning will be as indicated in Fig. 2-1. In this case, since the resultant force P of the seismic and gravitational forces acting on the tombstone passes through point D, the following equation applies: v Fic.2-1 Typical Japanese tombstone, consisting of a square pillar on a flat-topped stone pedestal, H: Horizontal acceleration due to earthquake; ¥: Vertical acceleration due to gravity and earthquake; P: Resultant acceleration.34 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING and, therefore, A general idea of earthquake intensity may be obtained by going to a graveyard and examining the ratio of the base width to the height of tombstones which have overturned, This method of estimating seismic intensity is convenient, but in general the ground of a graveyard is poorer than that of the surrounding area. Tombstones may not be over- turned due to the direction of the seismic tremors, and overturned tombstones may also include those which have danced across their pedestals to finally slide off and topple. In any case this treatment of overturning considers seismic forces, which really act dynamically, as being static; so it is only a method of rough estimation. It should also be kept in mind that normally, when the vibration period is short, tombstones will not easily be toppled even if acceleration is great; while, on the other hand, there will be the opposite tendency when the period is long. 10s" uy ms ae 4 a Minase wo \V oN Toke 400 gal or greater 350 gal 200 gal 250 asl 200 gal or less : \ Fic. 2-2 Maximum acceleration estimated by overturning of tombstones. Roman numerals indicate ground acceleration observed by seismometer, and Arabian numerals indicate seismic intensity on JMA scale.EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY 35 Figure 2-2 shows the earthquake intensity distribution of the 1978 Miyagiken-oki earthquake on June 12, 1978, on the JMA seismic intensity scale, the acceleration esti- mated by the overturning of tombstones, and the maximum acceleration on the ground recorded by seismometers. Comparing the seismic intensities by three different methods shows that the maximum accelerations estimated by the overturning of tombstones are approximately coincident with those measured by accelerometers, which in the area of seismic intensity of V on the JMA scale range from 80 to 300 gals. 3. Seismic Intensity Based on Velocity A detailed relationship between strong motion earthquake records and visually observed earthquake damage has been deduced by F, Neumann from data on earth- quakes in the U.S.A. of about 100 gals or under. According to his findings, the damage is related to both acceleration and period; even if acceleration is the same, damage in thecase of shorter periods is not as great as with long periods. However, when velocity is the same, the same degree of damage is produced regardless of period. For example, the peak velocity of an earthquake in which cracks are formed in the walls of buildings is about 2.4 cm/sec, while the peak velocity of an earthquake in which the walls fall is approximately 4.7 cm/sec. G. W. Housner deduced a velocity which he termed SI (spectral intensity), based on the viewpoint that the vibrational energy possessed by a structure at the time of an earthquake contributes to its ultimate failure. Structures vibrate during earthquakes. These vibrations are termed response vibra- tions. When the maximum value of the velocity of the response vibration is denoted by 5,, the natural period of the structure by 7, and the damping constant by h, S, is gen- erally determined by T and h. Thus, if the relation between S, and T for a particular earthquake is plotted, a curve such as that shown in Fig, 2-3 is obtained. On this curve 'S, is more or less constant, except when 7 is small. Therefore, the average value of S, over the relatively constant section or the area between the curve and the horizontal axis over this section serves as an index of the maximum value of the response velocity, In practice, the range of T considered is 0.1 ~ 2.5 sec with S, integrated over this range; thus the average value of Sin this section is given by a St=yy fs IT where SJ is the spectral intensity of the earthquake. The relation between SJ and actual damage is shown in Table 2-1 and Fig. 2-4. Ac- Se T (see) Fig. 2-3. Spectral intensity curve.36 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING ‘Taste 2-1 JMA intensity and spectal intensity. Earthquake Date Seale Observation a Location or | Epicentral i name of | Magnitude | distance (Syeay” | (emisee) (ani) earthquake (km) Saitama 1473/56 | 60 20 Vv 30 | 103 Central Chiba 30/9/56 6~7 20 lv 69 Pref 10.7 a f : a . aa 89 " a " “ “ 64 | n3 Kushiro-oki nyrjea | 62 | 2 WV 66 ‘Niigata 16/6/64 | 7.5 60 v 53.5 | 442 s a a 190 WV 250 | 255 a . a 310 m 65 46 Echizenmisaki-cki | 27/3/63 | 6.7 as ul 7 52 : fe B . a aa | 3.0 Suruga Bay 20/4/65 | 6.1 10 Vv 16.4 | | 96 p ode 20 wf ats | 22.4 Tokachi-oki 16/5/68 18 130 v | 44.0 | «20 1 [200 100 10 Spectral intensity SI (cm/sec) iw W Intensity (IMA) Fic. 2-4 Relation between spectral intensity Sf and JMA intensity as a measure of actual damage.EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY 37 cording to this figure, when SY is greater than 50 cm/sec, damage corresponding to MMIIX or higher occurs; at around 20 cm/sec damage equivalent to intensity of MMVII is produced; while at 10 cm/sec or under there is practically no damage. For instance, in the city of Hachinohe (the 1968 Tokachi-oki earthquake) where SI was recorded as having been 60 cm/sec, vibrations and failures in reinforced concrete buildings and crumbling of earth embankments occurred, At Niigata City (the 1964 Niigata earthquake) with an S/ of 55 cm/sec, liquefaction of loose sandy ground was seen. At Akita City (1964 Niigata earthquake) with an SJ of 25 cm/sec and at Shimizu City (the 1965 Abegawa earthquake) with 20 cm/sec, damage to wooden houses, overturning of concrete block walls, minor cracking of reinforced concrete buildings, and breaking of glass occurred. In the Abegawa earthquake there was some settling of the earth embankments along the roadbed of the New Tokaido Line at Shimizu City. 4, Relation between JMA or MM and Seismic Intensity and Maximum Acceleration and Maximum Velocity Itwould be convenient to be able to estimate the degree of maximum acceleration and maximum velocity of earthquake tremors on the basis of the seismic intensity scale. The relations indicated in Table 2-2 are usually used between them for a rough estimate. According to this table the JMA or MM intensity increases approximately linearly with the logarithm of maximum acceleration when the maximum acceleration is less than about 400 gals, But when the maximum acceleration exceeds 400 gals the seismic intensity increases more with an increase of the maximum acceleration. This may be caused by the fact when the earthquake acceleration exceeds about 400 gals soil is ruptured. Figure 2-5 shows the relation between the maximum acceleration of the earthquake tremors which have been observed since 1957 in Japan dnd the seismic intensity at the location where the earthquake tremors were observed. In this figure, a solid circle indi- cates that a plot has duplicated more than three times, while an open circie shows that it is only one plot or at maximum two plots. Two straight lines indicate the relationship givea in Table 2-2. From this figure the acceleration given in the first column of Table 2-2 seems to be smaller to some degree for common earthquakes. Recently, through improvement of seismometer techniques, we have been able to re- cord considerably shorter period vibrations. Therefore, newer earthquake records generally contain very short period components while their maximum accelerations are sometimes very large. For example, in the case of the 1965-1967 Matsushiro swarm earthquakes, accelerations recorded on the ground were more than 400 gals. But there was no damage to structures, Taste 2-2 Relation between maximum acceleration and maximum velecity. Max. velocity for ‘Max. acceleration JMA Seale | M®X- acceleration | vibration of period |MM Scale | (cm/sec?) (cm/sec*) longer than 1 sec- | (after M. W. McCann.) ond (cm/sec ) O | under 08 under 0.13 Vi w- 80 I} 08- 25 | 0.13 - 0.40 vil 80 - 140 u | 25- 80 0.40 = 1.3 vit | 140 - 260 m | 80- 25 13 - 40 x 260 - 410 Iv | 25 = 80 40 -13 eo 410 - 570 v | 80 ~ 250 13-40 ext 570 ~ 750 vi | 250. ~ 400 over 40 xIL 750 - 890 vut_| over 40038 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING 05 Maximum acceleration (g) Seismic intensity scale Fio, 2-5 Relationship between the maximum acceleration and the seismic intensity scale (after Dr. $. Omote). 2.2 Earthquake Parameters 1. Magnitude The seismic intensity discussed in the preceding section indicates the severity of an earthquake at a given location, but does not give the size of the earthquake as a whole, That is determined by the seismic intensity over a wide area. Thus, the size of an earth- quake is judged by inspecting the damaged area and drawing an isoseismic intensity map connecting points of the same degree of seismic intensity (see Fig. 4-11), When the isoseismic map covers a wide area, it is concluded that the earthquake was of great size. The Japan Meteorological Agency classifies earthquakes with felt radii of 300 km or more, 200-300 km, 100-200 km, and under 100 km as prominent, slightly prominent, small-area, and local earthquakes, respectively. Figure 2-6 shows the relation between seismic intensity and epicentral distance for several shallow earthquakes, indicating that seismic intensity decreases with cistance from the epicenter. On examination of the figure it is noticed that the several curves are roughly parallel. In other words, in shallow earthquakes ordinarily accompanied by damage, the decrease in seismic intensity according to distance from the epicenter is little dependent on earthquake size or the depth of the hypocenter. Therefore, if this is accepted as a hypothesis, the intensity of an earthquake at places a definite distance from the epicenter can be employed as an index for the size of the earthquake. However, it must be noted that the attenuation of the seismic intensity of the 1948 Fukui earthquake is markedly different from those of other earthquakes. H. Kawasumi took the JMA intensity at a distance of 100 km from the epicenter as an index of the size of an earthquake and defined it as the magnitude M,. He also presented an attenuation formula of the seismic intensity as follows: I= My ~ 0.00183 (4 — 100) — 4.605 logis 2.3) a 100 where JMA seismic intensity; and epicentral distance (km).EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY 39 6 —1—T Tokachicoki Earthquake 5 y |__| __} J > Eastern Nankai Earthquake Trae Intensity (JMA) Ss Fukui Earthquake 0 100 200300 400 500 600 700 800 900 Epicentral distance (km) Fic. 2-6 Seismic intensity as a function of distance from the epicenter. For earthquakes which occurred in ancient times, no instrumental measurements are available, However, by investigating ancient documents, intensities and epicentral dis tances at some places can be estimated, and the magnitude of earthquakes can then be estimated by the attenuation formula (2.3). Using this procedure, H. Kawasumi deter- mined foci and magnitudes of earthquakes which occurred in the last 1,200 years and made great contributions to clarifying the seismicity of Japan. C.F. Richter, usinga standard horizontal Wood-Anderson seismograph (magnification 2,800, natural period 0.8 sec, damping coefficient 0.8) located on firm ground, suggested an index expressing earthquake size in the form M = log, A where A denotes the trace amplitude in microns, for the epicentral distence of 100 km, and M is the magnitude of the earthquake. C. Tsuboi proposed earthquake magnitude in the following formula: M = logiodn + 1.73 logipd ~ 0.83 (T< Ssec) (2.4) where 4,, denotes the maximum displacement (micron), and T the wave period. ‘The magnitudes calculated by this formula are approximately coincident with Rich- ter’s magnitudes in the vicinity of the Japanese islands. There is the following relation- ship between M and My: M = 485 + 05M, 2.5) The magnitudes of great earthquakes of the past are said to have been 8.1 in the 1946 Nankai earthquake, 8.4 in the 1964 Alaska earthquake, and 8.3 in the 1933 Sanriku Tsunami earthquake. These values are probably the greatest possible. ‘The earthquake of 1897 in Assam, India, is said to have been felt over a radius of 2,000 km, making it the greatest earthquake in history, but an accurate magnitude is unknown, Inthe field of long period seismology, B. Gutenberg defined two generalized magnitude seales. The first scale, M,, is used for shallow earthquakes with well-recorded surface waves, and is called the surface-wave magnitude, The greatest amplitude of the surface waves with periods close to 20 seconds is selected on the seismograph. M, values roughly40 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING give a continuation of the local Richter magnitude for large distant earthquakes and give the best indication of the size of damaging earthquakes. ‘The second scale, my, determines the magnitude of the earthquake from the size of the P-wave with a period close to 1 second and is called the body-wave magnitude, For small-scale earthquakes m, is larger than M,,and for large-scale earthquakes m, is smaller than M,. 2. Seismic Moment ‘According to the theory of focal mechanisms, recorded seismographs can be explained as waves emitted from a point source when two couples act at a point in abruptly oppo- site directions. The moment of this couple is called the seismic moment. Therefore, seismic moment is a proper value representing the size of an earthquake, In Fig. 2-7, taking the seismic moment on a vertical axis in logarithmic scale and the Richter magni- tude on a linear horizontal axis, the seismic moment and the magnitude for large-scale earthquakes are compared. It is recognized that the logarithm of the seismic moment is approximately linearly dependent on the magnitude as logim = 16.1 + 15M 2.6) where m denotes the seismic moment in dyne cm, 10" 10" -kinkai-+—|— 1968 Tokachi-ok 10° - Seismic moment (dyne em) -@ T2uohshima. 7 161415 fe | ® 85 T 75 3 a5 Richter magnitude Fig. 2-7 Seismic moment of earthquakes. 3. Energy of Earthquake Motion A large portion of the energy released at the time of an earthquake is propagated in the form of seismic waves. In order to obtain the energy released in the form of such waves, the hypocenter is considered to be spherical, and the area to which the energy is released from the upper hemispherical surface is sought by reference to the time-distance curve. The maximum velocity of S waves at various observation points in this area is de- termined, and the energy corresponding to a unit volume is calcualted. In addition, the time during which seismic waves are discharged is estimated, and the total energy is then computed. inchicacisicnicasiisEARTHQUAKE INTENSITY 41 The relationship between the energy E (erg) released as seismic waves and the magni- tude M has been derived as logiy E = 11.8 + 1.5M Q1 Therefore, if M is increased by just 0.2, the energy released is doubled; and when M is increased by 1.0, the energy is increased 32-fold. However, the formula is empirical and does not hold true for heavy earthquakes, Comparing Eq. (2.7) to Eq. (2.6), it is evident that the seismic energy is proportional to the seismic moment and is E tm x 10-* (2.8) where m denotes the seismic moment in dyne cm and E the seismic energy in erg. In Fig. 2-8 sample seismic energy values are indicated. ro Miyagiken-oki Fukui 10" I2uohshime. 10-4 Seismic energy (ers) loguE=11.8-+1.50° 104 10" 8 35 75 35 Richter magnitude Fic. 2-8 Seismic energy of earthquakes. 2.3 Attenuation of Maximum Seismic Displacement and Its Related Problems 1, Attenuation of Maximum Displacement Regarding the maximum displacement of seismic tremors whose hypocenters are within a depth of 60 km, the following equation is introduced from Eq, (2.4): logis In = M —1.73 logig A + 0.83 (4 < 500 km) (2.9) maximum displacement (micron);42, INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING M = magnitude; and 4 = distance from epicenter (km). However, it should be noted that the relations described above are influenced by the ground conditions at the observation point, the geological structure along the path of the seismic wave, and the mechanism of earthquake occurrence. Of these, the effect of the ground at the observation point is very great: the same earthquake observed at the same distance from the epicenter but at different locations can at times result in a 10-fold difference in amplitude. It is usually believed that the influences of the quake-causing mechanism and of the geologic structure of the path of the seismic waves do not result in much difference in the maximum displacement of earthquakes in the area of the Japanese islands, However, observational results have been obtained from which it can be deduced that the magni- tude of the earthquake and the length of the path travelled haye some effects on the form of the seismic wave. 2. Period of the Wave Having Greatest Displacement Amplitude The period of the wave motion giving the maximum displacement is related to the magnitude of the earthquake, and is longer with increasing magnitude. This relation is generally given by an equation of the following form: logio Tn = — a + bM (2.10) where T,, denotes the period of wave with the maximum displacement (sec). The values of T;, are rather-scattered and the coefficients a and b are given different values by various authors. According to B, Gutenberg, logio Tn = — 0.82 + 0.22. M Qin and to K. Kasahara, logio Tn = — 0.78 + 0.28. M (2.12) for shallow earthquakes and logio Ty = —2.59 +0.51M ($< M<8) (2.13) for both shallow and deep earthquakes. T. Matsumoto observed at Tsukuba the earth- quakes which occurred off Kinkazan, and analyzed them by Fourier series. He found that there were two periods for large component vibrations and that these had the following relations to magnitude: logis T= —0.19 + 0.25 M 14) logis T= —1.36 + 0.33 M (2.15) K. Kanai, based on results obtained from observations in bedrock 300 m underground at Hitachi, gives the following equation for the relation between spectral amplitude and period of the maximum displacement component: Jogio Tm = 0.39 loBi0, An.to0 + 0.89 (2.16)EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY 43 where An.:oo = maximum spectral displacement (cm), corrected to an epicentral distance of 100 km; and T,, = period of vibration of above component (sec). Ifit is assumed that Ap,1o0 and Ap are equivalent, it is possible to express Ay roo in Eq. (2.16) as a function of M. Thus, if 4 = 100 km is posited in Eq. (2.9), Logie Am = M — 1.73 logig 100 — 3.17 = M — 6.63 Substituting this into Eq. (2.16), we have : logic Tn = —1.70 + 0.39 M 17) The several equations noted above are illustrated graphically in Fig. 2-9. 100 80 60 Period Tr of maximum displace iment component (sec) Magnitude Fic. 2-9 Relation of magnitude M and period T,, of maximum displacement components. | TT T T 7 $ Lit - | | 6 gs Lijitt 2 + — i | : TL OL 0.5 1 5 (sec) Period of the initial tremor Fic, 2-10 Relation between the period of initial tremors and the magnitade of earthquakes (after Japanese National Railways).44 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING, There is also a linear relation between the logarithm of the period of initial tremors and the magnitude of earthquakes: logis T; = — a’ + 0M (2.18) where 7; denotes the period of initial tremors, and a’ and b' are constant coefficients. Figure 2-10 shows the relation between 7, and M of earthquakes which have beea ob- served at the Japanese National Railways’ Miyako Observatory.Chapter—3 SEISMICITY OF JAPAN 3.1 Introduction On investigating the geographical distribution of hypocenters of past earthquakes throughout the world, it is noticed that earthquakes occur within certain limited areas. The areas in which great earthquakes occur especially frequently are the following: |. A ring-like area surrounding the Pacific Ocean including the west coast of South America, Central America, North America, the Aleutian islands, the Kurile islands, the Japanese islands and the Ryliky@: islands; the Philippine archipelago, New Guinea, the Tonga and Kermadec islands to New Zealand. 2. A beltlike area stretching from the region north of the Mediterranean Sea through Fic. 3-1 Epicenters of strong earthquakes occurring in Asia in the years 1904 to 1952, 4546 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING Asia Minor, Central Asia, the southern steps of the Himalayas in India and on into the interior of China. 3. A beltlike area extending from the Tien Shan Mountains to Lake Baikal. The first of these earthquakes areas is called the Circum-Pacific Earthquake Zone; the second, the Alpine-Himalayan Earthquake Zone; and the third, the Tien Shan-Baikal Earthquake Zone. It is said that 80% of the earthquakes in the world occur in the first of these zones and 14-15% occur in the other two. Figure 3-1 shows the epicenter distribution of great earthquakes occurring in the Asian area during the 49 years from 1904 through 1952, giving an outline of the earthquake situation of this area. Of the Circum-Pacific Zone, the western half from the Kurile islands to the Kermadee islands is an area of particularly great earthquake activity. This is a new geological area, formed in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras, and topographically it comprises island arcs with deep ocean trenches at one side. The Circum-Pacific Earthquake Zone is separated into two at the Japanese islands. One branch runs in the direction of the Rytiky@ islands and the Philippine archipelago and the other in the direction of the Maraina islands, For this reason, the main-island parts of the Japanese archipelago lie along an epeirogenic ‘geosyncline type of seismic zone which is penetrated from the east by the Pacific Ocean system and from the south by the Philippine Sea system. Both of these are island-are type earthquake belts, making the earthquake situation in Japan quite complex. 3.2 Chronology of Earthquake Occurrence Seismological data of all earthquakes in the world have been reported to the Interna- tional Seismological Center in England and published by this organization, and those in Japan have been published monthly by the Japan Meteorological Agency. Japan has frequently experienced strong earthquakes in the past. The first such earthquake re- corded was the Kawachi earthquake on July 4, 417 A.D., and was reported in the Annals of the Emperor Ingyo in the Chronicles of Japan (Nihon Shoki). The next earthquake to be recorded was one in 599 A.D. or the seventh year of the Emperor Suiko. The record states the date and time and mentions ground motion, the total destruction of huts and a proclamation to all to offer prayers to the Earthquake God. The damage and the ad- ministrative measures taken in the aftermath were recorded. After that the records of earthquakes increase, and those from the Tokugawa period (1603-1867) onward have become more accurate, In the 350 years from the beginning of the Tokugawa period until today about 70 great earthquakes have been recorded, meaning that on the average of once in five years there has been considerable earthquake damage somewhere in Japan. Of these earthquakes, those of large scale M > 7.0 occurring since earthqueke obser- vation facilities were first set up are listed in Table 3-1, which gives the date of occurzence, magnitude, location of epicenter, and resulting damage. Among these, the Nobi earth- quake of 1891, the Sanriku Tsunami earthquakes of 1896 and 1933, the Kanto earth- quake of 1923, the Kita Tango earthquake of 1927, the Tottori earthquake of 1943, the Tonankai earthquake of 1944, the Mikawa earthquake of 1945, the Nankai earth- quake of 1946, and the Fukui earthquake of 1948 caused many casualties and terrible damage. After the data in Table 3-1 were compiled, a big earthquake of M = 7.7 occurred at 138° 55'E, 40°25’N and 10 km in depth on May 26, 1983. The epicenter was locaied in the Sea of Japan, about 100 km west of the coast of Akita Prefecture. A number of tsunamis assaulted the coast, and more than 100 people lost their lives. On land, a wideSEISMICITY OF JAPAN 47 Taste 3-1 Strong Earthquakes in Japan from 1880 to 1980. Date Magnitude Name | Lat. and Long Killed [Remark Oxt. 28, 1891 | 79 35.6 1366 | 7.273 | Fault, Landslide. Heavy | damage June 4,1893] 7.5 431 1470 | Tsunami, Mar. 3,1894) 7.4 (424 1463 | oh | Taman June 20, 1894] 7.0 35.7 1399 | Medium damage. June 15, 1896] 7.1 Sanriku- | 39.6 144.2 ona Heavy tsunami, tsunami | | Heavy damage. Aug. 31,1896] 7.0 | Rikuu | 39.5 140.7 | 209 | Fault. Heevy damage. Feb. 20, 1897} 7.3 38.1 141.5 | | Slight damage. Aug. 5, 1897) 7.2 | 3800 1437 | | Tsunami Apr. 23, 1898) 7.3, | 39.5 143.6 | | Slight damage, Mar. 7, 1899) 7.1 | 34.2 136.0 7 | Landslide. | | Heavy darage. Nov. 25,1899) 71 | | 319 1314 | Slight darrage. June 24, 1901) 7.4 28.3 1293 Slight darrage. Aug. 91901) 7.2 | 403 1418 | 18 Slight damage. June 2, 1905] 7.1 Geiyo 34.2 1323 | 11 | Heavy damage. Mae 13,1909) 72 | 3531409 | Medium damage. Nov. 10, 1909) 7.4 321 133 2 | Slight damage. Jun. 15, 1911] 7.7 28.1 130.0 | 12 | Medium damage. Nov. 1, 1915} 7.0 | 389 143 | | Slight damage. Sep. 9, 1918] 7.4 | 45.7 151.8 oo | Tsunami. Nov. 81918) 73 ifr tas | Tina Sep. 1, 1923] 7.8 Kanto 35.2 139.3 142,807 | Fire. Tsunami. Heavy damage. Mar. 7, 1927} 7.5 Kita-Tango 35.6 135.1 | 2,925) Heavy damage. Nov. 26, 1930) 7.0 Kita-lzu 35.1 139.0 | 272 | Fault. Landslide, ; Heavy damage. Sep. 21,1931) 7.0 Nishi-Saitama | 36.1 139.2 16 | Heavy damage. Mar. 3, 1933) 8.3 Santikusishin- | 39.1 144.7 | 3,008 | Heavy tsunami, tsunami Heavy danage. Nov. 3, 1936 7.7 | 382 1422 | Slight damage. May 23,1938] 7.1 36.7 1414 | | Slight damage. Nov. 5, 1938] 7.7 371 1417 | 1 | Stight damage, May 1, 1939| 7.0 40.0 1398 | 27/ Heavy damage. Aug. 2, 1940) 7.0 44 1395 | 10 | Tsunami Heavy damage, Nov. 19, 1941) 7.4 326 132.1 2 | Tsunami. Sight damage Sep. 10, 1943) 7.4 Tottori 35.5 1342 | 1,083 | Fault. Heavy damage. Dec. 7, 1944| 8.0 Tonankai 33.7 1362 "998 | Heavy tsunami. Heavy damage Jan. 13, 1945] 7.1 Mikawa 34.7. 137.0 | 1,961 | Fault. Heavy damage Dee. 21,1946, 8.1 | Nankai 330.1356 | 1432 | Heavy tsunami | | Landslide, Heavy damage. Nov. 4, 1947| 7.0 43.0. 141.0 | Tsunami. June 15, 1948) 7.0 33.8 135.5 2 Slight damage. June 28, 1948) 7.3 Fukui 36.1 1362 | 3,895 | Fault. Fire. Heavy damage. Mar. 4,1952| 8.1 Tokachi-oki | 42.2 143.9 33. | Heavy tsunami, | Heavy damage. Nov. 5, 1952] 83 2.8 159.5 Tsunami. Nov. 26, 1953] 75 | Bos6-oki 343° 1418 | Slight damage. Nov. 7, 1958} 80 443 148.5 Tsunami. Mar. 21, 1960] 7.5 39.8 143.5 | Tsunami. May 23, 1960] 8.5 Chile- 38.0S 73.5W 139 | Heavy damage. | tsunami | Fev, 27, 1961| 7.0 | 316 1319 | 2) Tsunami, Slight damage, Aug. 12,1961, 70 | 42.9 1456 Slight damage. (after Rikanenpy6, 1981, Iwanami-Shoten)48 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING ‘Tame 3-1 (continued). Date Magnitude] Name Tat. and Long. [Killed] Remark ‘Aug. 19,1961) 7.0 | Kita-Mino [36.0 1368 8 | Landslide. Medium damage. Apr. 23,1962} 7.0 422° 143.9 Slight damage. Oct. 13,1963 8.1 438 1500 | Tsunami. June 16,1964) 7.5 | Niigata 38.4 139.2 | 26 | Tsunami. Liquefaction, Heavy damage. ‘Apr. 1,1968| 7.5 | HyOganada-oki | 32.3 132.5 Slight damage. | | May 16, 1968| 7.9 Tokachi-oki | 40.7 143.6 52 | Heavy damage. Feb. 29,1972) 7.0 | 332 1413 Slight damage. Dec. 4, 1972} 7.2 Hachijojima- | 33.2 141.1 Slight damage. t6hd-oki | June 17,1973) 7.4 Nemurohanto- | 43.0 146.0 ‘Tsunami. oki Jan, 14,1978| 7.0 | Izuohshima- | 34.8 129.3 25 | Fault. Landstide. kinkai Heavy damage. June 12,1978] 7.4 | Miyagiken-oki | 38.2 1422 27 | Heavy damage. area of reclaimed land was liquefied, resulting in heavy damage to river dikes, highway and railway embankments and pipelines for water and gas supply. Using formula (2.7), the energy of the earthquakes tabulated in Table 3-1 can be calculated, and from this result the energy released in the Japanese islands area can also be calculated. Figure 3-2 shows the sum of energy released by earthquakes which occurred during each ten-year period. ‘According to this figure, the energy released by earthquakes which were larger than 7.0 in magnitude during these 100 years is E = 11.5 x 10 erg or an annual e = 12 10 erg/yr on average. Furthermore, it is seen that the seismic activity was not uniform during these 100 years. It was relatively quiescent during the first half of the century and very active in the latter half, The annual energy released averaged e = 4 x 10 erg/yr in the first half and e = 1.9 x 10® erg/yr in the latter half. The magnitude of all earthquakes occurring during this century did not exceed 8.3. Therefore, it may be assumed that the maximum energy which the earth’s crust can store in the Japanese islands area will nearly be equal to the energy released by an earthquake of M = £3. Generally, in any given region, the relation between the magnitude and number of earthquakes is represented by the following equation: logN =a—bM GB) where ‘M = magnitude; and NV =ayerage number of times a year of earthquake occurrence of magnitude M. a and b are coefficients which, in Japan and its vicinity, have been determined, by observation of earthquakes which occurred during the 79 years from 1885 to 1963, to be a= 6.72 and 5 = 1.03, However, it should be noticed that the coefficients of this equa- tion differ according to the area and change with the passage of time. ‘According to the equation, the lower the occurrence is, the greater the earthquake size. However, since the energy released by an earthquake is greater the larger the scale, the total energy released by a few great earthquakes during a certain period will be greater than that released by many small earthquakes. iiiSEISMICITY OF JAPAN 49 x0 eee te 3 ab ne Lod 222288 2228 10% ere qr we 20} Fob 2 a s 222225 23 5 & Fro, 3-2 Energy release in the vicinity of the Japanese Islands (1880-1980). 3.3 Distribution of Epicenters 1. Regional Distribution The foci of the earthquakes in Table 3-1 are plotted on the map in Fig. 3-3. In the Japanese islands there are two long structural lines, the Fossa Magna and the Median Tectonic Line. The Fossa Magna is located across the main island of Honshil in a nearly NS direction at about 138° east longitude from the Sea of Japan to the Pacific Ocean. The zone east of this line is called North East Japan and that west of the line South West Japan. The Median Tectonic Line runs through southwestern Japan (Kydshi, Shikoku and Honshil) oriented WSW-ENE at about 33°-35° north latitude. The northern side of this line is called the inner zone of South West Japan and the southern side of this line the outer zone of South West Japan. Each zone has different geological and tectonic prop- erties and thus has different seismicity From Fig. 3-3 the following characteristics of the regional distribution of epicenters of large earthquakes can be seen: 1. On the Pacific Ocean of the Kurile islands and Hokkaids island, there are many epicenters of great earthquakes. 2. On the Pacific Ocean side of NorthEast Japan, epicenters of big earthquakes line up roughly in a N-S direction,50 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING fwara Trench leu Ogase Fig, 3-3 Epicenters of great earthquakes (1880-1980). Double circle M = 8.2, Large circle M = 7.8-8.1. ‘Small circle M .7. Black circle M = 7, 3. On the Sea of Japan side of North East Japan, epicenters of earthquakes line up roughly in a N-S direction. 4, On the Pacific Ocean side of South West Japan, epicenters of the big earthquakes are lined up in the sea near the coast line. 5. On the Sea of Japan side of South West Japan, epicenters of the earthquakes are in a nearly straight line along the coast. 6. Along a straight line in the eastern area of South West Japan, the epicenters of the earthquakes are in fairly close proximity. Earthquakes of this group have frequently occurred and caused serious damage within a limited area. 7. In other areas of the Japanese islands there are few epicenters of very big earth- quakes. Figure 3-4 shows the depths of the hypocenters along a line crossing the Japanese islands in an E-W direction. In the eastern section, hypocenters are located from 20 ~70 km in depth and gradually increase in depth going west. The angle of inclination is steep in the northern region and gentle in the southern region. On the west side of the inclined earthquake belt, foci of shallow earthquakes are located within 15 km of the surface. This special feature of hypocenter distribution is important for understanding the n of earthquake occurrence in the vicinity of the Japanese islands. mechaniiSEISMICITY OF JAPAN SI SEISMICITY OF JAPAN ee ae ee Lo a Sr . :00 100 i . = m0} + 4200 ae. ‘ E ao sa ae 400 | os 400 East KylshiiChgoku Kinki Chub Kanto Tohoku Hokiaids Sea of China Sea Shikoku Okhotshiea Fig. 3-4 Distribution of depths of focus (after Dr. M. Katsumata), 2, Seismic Activity by District ‘As may be seen from Fig, 3-3, the occurrence of large earthquakes in Japan may be classified into several districts. The following characteristics are known about the depths and activities of earthquakes occurring in each district. 1) The Pacific Ocean Side of North East Japan The earthquakes occurring on the Pacific Ocean side of North East Japan are deep- focused, The majority occur at depth of 20 to 70 km, although in the vicinity of the coast of the Kant region there is a hypocenter area with shallow depths of 10 km or less. The frequency of occurrence of great earthquakes is about one in every 10 to 20 years at loca- tions relatively close to one another. The great earthquakes in this area have a maximum magnitude in the 8 class. Since they are deep-focused and the epicenters are relatively distant from the coast, severe damage from vibrations is relatively rare. However, tsunamis frequently cause heavy damage. 2) The Pacific Ocean Side of South West Japan The hypocenters of earthquakes on the Pacific Ocean side of South West Japan are shallow, generally within 30 km of the surface; in other words, they are in the earth’s crust, The frequency of occurrence of great earthquakes here is once in 30 to SO years. This is a slightly greater interval than that for North East Japan, The maximum scale of very great earthquakes is a magnitude in the 8 class, with the frequency of occurrence of such great events said to be once every 100 to 200 years. As the hypocenters of earth- quakes occurring in this area are relatively close to the coastline and are at shallow depths, in addition to the water destruction caused by tsunamis a considerable amount of vibrational damage is incurred on land. 3) The Sea of Japan Side of Honsha Island The Sea of Japan is shallow at its southern part, suggesting a connection with the ‘Asian continent: whereas at its northern part, there is a deep sea which is considered to possess oceanic characteristics. A seismic zone runs along the coastline of the Sea of Japan. The distribution of hypocenters in clear belt form is prominent in southwestern Japan, but is not conspicuous in northeastern Japan.52 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING The depths of earthquake hypocenters in South West Japan are within 30 km, with those at 10 to 20 km being particularly numerous. Compared to the Pacific Ocean side seismic zone, the total number of earthquakes is small and the intervals between earthquakes at the same location are long. However, although the total number is smaller, comparatively great earthquakes do occur, at times having magnitudes in the 7.5 class. As the earthquakes are shallow-focused and the epicenters are on land or in the sea-bottom close to land, damage due to earthquakes or tsunamis is generally heavy and the area coinciding with the epicenter is subjected to extremely severe damage. In the Fukui earthquake of 1948, the municipalities on the Fukui Plain suffered such heavy damage as is rarely seen. 4) Inland Inland, in the area located between 136° E and 137° E longitude, big earthquakes often occur. In this region, the depths of most hypocenters are within 50 km of the surface. Those within 30 km of the surface are especially numerous. Since the epicenters of earthquakes in this zone are on land, local damage is heavy. The Nabi earthqueke of 1891 had a magnitude of 7.9, and the earthquake damage extended over a wide area, That within the epicentral area was indescribably heavy. In the other inland area, earthquakes of medium magnitude occur frequently. Though they are not very big earthquakes, they may cause considerable damage in their epicen- tral areas, Therefore, from the disaster prevention point of view, they are important earthquak The following are examples of earthquakes which occurred on land and caused con- siderable damage. By referring to these examples it is possible to estimate the magnitude and the width of damaged areas due to earthquakes which will occur inland in the future. 1, June 16, 1662 (Kanbun 2) earthquake. This earthquake occurred at the west coast of Lake Biwa and caused damage in a wide area around the lake. The radius of the severely damaged area was estimated to be 60 km. Many houses collapsed and many people lost their lives. Failure of embankments and landslides occurred. 2. January 4, 1686 (Teikyo 2) earthquake. This earthquake occurred about 40 km south of the city of Hiroshima. The radius of the severely damaged area was estimated to be 40 km. Many houses collapsed within this area, 3. March 8, 1766 (Meiwa 3) earthquake. The epicenter was located near the city of Aomori. The ground liquefied, many houses collapsed, and many people lost their lives. The radius of the severely damaged area was estimated to be 20 km. 4, July 10, 1804 (Bunka 1) earthquake. This earthquake occurred near Mt. Chokai, The most severely damaged area was along the coast line of the Sea of Japan and was 90 km in length. Some 5,500 houses collapsed. The bottom of Lake Kisakata was heaved up and became dry land or marsh land. This earthquake was named the Kisakata earth- quake. 5. May 8, 1847 (Koka 4) earthquake. This earthquake occurred near the city of Na- gano. A fault appeared and was oriented NE-SW. The slip was 2.4 m vertically, The most severely damaged area was 90 km NS and 40 km EW about the epicenter. About 30,000 houses were destroyed and 8,600 people lost their lives. Big landslides occurred in mountainous areas, the Sai River was clogged by debris, and several villages were inun- dated. This earthquake was named the Zenk@ji earthquake. 6. August 31, 1896 (Meiji 29) earthquake. This big earthquake of M = 7.0 occurred on the border of Akita and Iwate Prefectures. The radius of the area of severe damage was estimated to be 10 km. Some 5,792 houses collapsed and 209 people lost theirSEISMICITY OF JAPAN 53 lives. Two faults, the Kawafune (15 km long and 2.0 m vertical slip) and the Senya (60 km long and 2.5 m vertical slip), appeared (see Fig. 3-5). No horizontal sliding could be found. This earthquake was named the Rikuu earthquake. Fic. 3-5 Outcrop of the Senya fault, 3. Geotectonic Considerations The distribution of the foci of earthquakes is considered to be closely related to the tectonic structures and stresses in the island are region. These have remained un- changed during the Quaternary period. 5 The Japanese islands are a typical island are and have a deep trench on the eastern side (the Japan Trench), troughs on the southern side (the Nankai Trough and the Sagami Trough), and marginal seas between the continent and the islands on the western side (the Sea of Japan and the East China Sea). According to plate tectonics theory, the Japanese islands are located on the Eura- sian Plate, Underriding this plate are the Pacific Ocean Plate from the east and the Philippine Sea Plate from the south (see Fig, 3-6). The speed of drift of the Pacific Ocean Plate is estimated to be about 10 em/yr and that of the Philippine Sea Plate about 3-4 cm/yr. Thus, the former is superior to the latter and the seismicity is more active in the North East Japan Zone than the South West, Japan Zone. Furthermore, itis interesting to note that the boundary line of the Pacific Ocean Plate and the Philippine Sea Plate is drifting northeastward; accordingly, volcanic activity was marked during the Miocene age and thereafter slowed down in western Japan. The investigation of the structure of the crust is carried out through the analysis of waves of naturally or artificially generated earthquakes and gravitational anomalies. According to the study of the crust of the Japanese islands, the depth of the crust of the land is nearly uniform and is about 30 km, It decreascs gradually toward the Japan Trench on the eastern side and rapidly toward the Sea of Japan on the western side, In the crust, under the thin surface layer, there are two other layers. The upper layer is granitic and brittle while the lower layer is basaltic and slightly plastic. The velocity of pimary seismic waves in the crust is about 5.9 km/sec in the upper layer and about 6.6 km/sec in the lower layer. Those in the uppermost mantle are 7.5 kmjsec under the land, 8.0 - 8.1 km/sec on the Pacific Ocean side and 8.2 km/sec on the54 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING ” iS ] Asiatic Continent a SN a Pie P Fic. 3-6 Geotectonic structure of the Japanese islands. ® Fossa Magna © Ryukyu Trench ® Median Line @® Sagami Trough @ Kurile Trench ® Nankai Trough @ Japan Trench ® Okinawa Trough © Izu-Ogasawara Trench Sea of Japan side. A velocity of 7.5 km/sec in the upper mantle is significantly smaller than that of the world average velocity of 8.0 to 8.2 km/sec. There is a lithosphere of about 100 km thickness which inclines downward from the oceanic region toward the continent, as shown in Fig. 3-7, Since the lithosphere is hard and cool, seismic waves have high velocity and low attenuation within it. This is con- sidered to be the subducting slab. As a result of the tectonic structure, there may be at least three types of earthquake generation mechanisms, The first type of earthquake is generated within the subducting slab at great depth. An earthquake of this type is interesting from the standpoin: of earth science, bat as its focus is very deep it causes no damage, and its impact on human society is not significant.SEISMICITY OF JAPAN 55 Sea of Japan Pore Pacific Ocean Japan Trench Lithosphere oT Tok Fic. 3-7 Cross-section of the Japanese islands (after Prof. T. Yoshii). The second type of earthquake is shallow, generated in the boundary zone where the crust and the subducting slab meet under a trench or trough, Nearly all earthquakes of this sort are interplate earthquakes originated by the interaction of an oceanic plate and a landward plate and are low-angle thrust fault earthquakes. In these regions, the sea floor continues to underthrust, dragging the crust on the land side down into the earth. When the deformation caused by this dragging reaches a critical point, a slip occurs at the boundary between the land and oceanic crusts. As a result, the land rebounds and is uplifted, generating an earthquake, ‘The magnitudes of earthquakes of this kind are generally great. Examples are the Tokachi-oki earthquake of 1952, M = 8.1, and the Nankai earthquake of 1946, M = 8.1. However, at times normal fault earthquakes with steep sliding planes are generated within the slab in these regions. For instance, the Sanriku Tsunami earthquake, M = 8.3, of 1933 belongs in this category. As the earthquakes generated in these regions have shallow foci and their epicenters are not very far from the land, they often cause great shock damage and create es- pecially large tsunamis, When the deformation caused by the dragging is a continuous sliding type, big earth- quakes do not occur in this region in spite of the fact that the slab continues to subduct into the mantle. The seismic inactivity of the region along the Izu-Ogasawara Trench is considered to be due to the reason mentioned above. The third type of earthquake is a shallow one occurring within the land crust. It is Known that in the upper layer of the crust in North East and South West Japan there is compressive stress in the E-W direction, Furthermore, in the outer zone of South West Japan there is compressive stress in the N-S direction in the lower part of the crust. Since the upper part of the crust is relatively hard and brittle, stress causes fracture lines, which form the border lines of blocks. When stresses are exerted on the crust, the blocks move, and this relative movement produces faults at the boundaries of the blocks. ‘When the blocks slide along the fault planes, earthquakes may be generated ‘The magnitude of such earthquakes is intermediate and their foci are at shallow depths, Such earthquake damage is local but usually serious. The 1847 Zenkoji earth- quake and the 1948 Fukui earthquake, M = 7.3, belong to this category. Table 3-2 shows faults in Japan produced on land in connection with major earthquakes during the past century.56 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING ‘Taste 3-2 Faults caused by earthquakes since 1891. T T T Irenath [Max Dspace” Earthquake Year | Magni-| Fault | Location | (km) _| ment (m) tude | Hor. Vert. 7 : 79 | weodanj | Katabira, Kani-gun~| “4 [6 Nobi 1891 79 ‘Neodani | Midori, Motosu-gun Senya | Senpokugun 3 Rikuu 1896 | 7.0 Kawafune| 5 ‘Shimoura | Miura peninsula [io ea ze ee Enmyoji_| BOs peninsula Gomura | Amino~Mineyama 1S 23 105 Kita-Tango coe i Yamada | Yotsutsuji~Iwataki 10 08 | 07 Kitetea 1930 | 7.0 | Tanna | Tashiro~Ukihashi | 23 | 24 | 06 Yoshioka | Yoshioka~Nozaka | 43] 09 | 03 Tottori 1943 | 7.4 | Shikano | North of Mt.Jubs | 80 15 | 025 Kuchihoso Mikawa 1945] 7.1 Fukozu Mel a Cee __| Bay Fukui i948 | 7.3 | Fukui | Fukui plain 25 075 Izuhant6-oki Irozaki__| Southern Izu >5.5 0.45 | 0.25 Tzu-ohshima-Kinkai | 1978 | 7.0 | Inatorl | Eastern Izu 330 | 128 | 020 3.4 Expectancy of Earthquake Risk 1. General In engineering, it necessary to predict the following by rational means: 1. the areas in which great earthquakes are likely to occur in the future; 2. the frequencies of occurrence; 3. the sizes of the earthquakes; and . the area in which damage will occur from these earthquakes. Earthquake expectancy is calculated as a prediction of 2 and 3 collectively. In reality, such prediction is rather difficult, It is essentially a matter of judgement based on the following procedures: 1, Assuming earthquake occurrence to be a statistical phenomenon, earthquake expectancy at a site may be estimated statistically by processing the data on earthquake events of the past. 2. By investigating the characteristics of past earthquakes in detail and determining under what conditions an earthquake is likely to occur, future earthquakes may be expected on the basis of present seismological and geotectonic conditions at the site. 3. Considering the fact that faults often appear at the time of earthquakes, the earthquake expectancy may be estimated by investigating the activity of existing faults. s 2, Analysis According to Historical Data 1) Yearly Occurrence of Earthquakes with Given Maximum Displacement In areas I:ke Japan, where there have been a great number of earthquakes in the past, statistical prediction methods tend to be emphasized. The frequency with which earth- quakes of certain intensities occur at a certain location is of extreme importance in the planning of carthquake-resistant structures. In regard to this, M. Ishimoto and K. IidaSEISMICITY OF JAPAN 57 0b @) 500 200 | 100} sof af we Number of earthquakes, Nov. 1935 : Nov. 1938 02 05 1 2 8 10 20 50 Maximum amplitude (mm) Fig. 3-8 Relationship between frequency of occurrence and maximum amplitude (after Prof. M. Ishimoto). sought the relationship between maximum amplitude and number of earthquakes for all earthquakes recorded on the scismographs of the Earthquake Research Institute, Uni: versity of Tokyo, during a period of 3 years from November 1935. They found the rela- tionship can be represented by a straight line on logarithmic coordinate, as seen in Fig. 3-8 Therefore, the number of earthquakes is given by the following equation: logig N = 2.24 — 1.74.4 G2) where N= the average number of earthquakes with maximum displacement 4; and A= the maximum displacement (mm). 2) Maximum Earthquake Amplitude Expected to Occur Once within a Given Period Figure 3-9 shows a bar graph indicating the chronicle of earthquake displacement data at the Tokyo district which is calculated by the attenuation law from the estimated epicenters and magnitudes of past earthquakes. The period of observation is 370 years. During this period earthquakes with maximum displacements of more than 1 cm have occurred 40 times. Viewed statistically, the maximum amplitudes indicated in this figure may be considered as a sample of the population, “maximum amplitude of earthquake motion at this location.” Therefore, the figure comprises fundamental information for estimating the nature of the population, Figure 3-10 was obtained by plotting a frequency curve by amplitude based on Fig. 3-9, The abscissa is the maximum amplitude of earthquake motion and the ordinate is the ratio of the number of earthquakes of a designated maximum amplitude to the total number of earthquakes occurring during the period of observation. In other words, the bar graph in Fig. 3-10 indicates the probability of the maximum amplitude being between x om and (x + 1) em when an earthquake occurs at that location. In order to handle this bar graph numerically, a smooth curve is fitted to the bar graph38 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING 109 ou oo, a a a a a Fic, 3-9 Bar graph illustration of the seismic history of the Tokyo district from 1600 to 1968. 0.18 0.16 014 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 Probability density . 0 2 0 4 90 60 ‘Maximum displacement (em) Fic. 3-10 Probability density curve of maximum displacement. and the probability density function of the population is considered, In consideration of the fact that great earthquakes occur only rarely, the distribution function of ex- ponential type po) — fer @.3) or the distribution of Poisson’s type Pe) = ot Ga)SEISMICITY OF JAPAN 59 is applied as the probability density function, where maximum displacement (cm); probability density function that maximum displacement is x; and expectancy of maximum displacement. Assuming the exponential type as a distribution function, the value of b is determined to be equal to the expectancy of the maximum displacement calculated from the bar graph and becomes 8 5 cm in the case shown in Fig. 3-10. The probability, P(x > x0), from this curve that the maximum displacement will be larger than xo is Pe> x) = f fetarset (5) x0 In the following, for the sake of simplicity, the phenomenon of occurrence of an earth- quake of maximum displacement larger than x9 is expressed as phenomenon E(x >%o). If the average number of earthquakes occurring during one year is N,, the expectancy of E(x > x4) occurring during one year is NyP(x > Xo) and the expectancy for f years is, Ht, X) = Ny tPGe > x) = Nite G6) where A(t, x9) denotes expectancy of number of occurrences of E(x > %,) in t years, If x, is sought from the relation Mtee the following is obtained: 30 b (logit + logioN) G7) where x, is thought of as the lower limit of displacement of E(x > x,) expected to occur once in f years. After determining the maximum acceleration of earthquake motion in this manner, the distribution of amplitude must be decided. The distribution of amplitude is not yet known well, but if it is assumed to follow the Gaussian distribution with zero means, the variance can be determined from the maximum acceleration sought previously. If it isinterpreted that the meaning of maximum is a probability of 95%, the square root of variance will be 1/2 of the maximum acceleration, and if the probability is 99.7%, it will be 1/3. The Japanese islands were divided into 236 districts according to the longitude and latitude, and bar graphs have been made for all districts by the procedure mentioned above. Thus the earthquake expectancy throughout the country has been estimated. 3) Map of Expectancy of Maximum Earthquake Acceleration in a Given Period of Time H. Kawasumi investigated 343 earthquakes which had occurred since 599 A.D. by statistical methods and prepared earthquake expectancy maps in areas throughout the country (see Fig. 3-11(a) and (b)). Figure 3-11 is the isoseismal intensity expectancy the expectancy of a number of occurrence of earthquakes which are stronger than the designated acceleration is once for 75 or 100 years respectively. However, since the graph shows acceleration in alluvial ground of an ordinary nature, suitable adjustments are necessary for ground of a different variety.60 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING Fi. 3-11 Expectancy of maximum acceleration of earthquakes in (a) 75 and (b) 100 years (after Prof. H. Kawasumi. This figure outlines the earthquake situation of Japan. In making quantitative designs on the basis of this figure it is necessary to carry out careful evaluations of the data on which it is based, the characteristics of the materials employed in estimating seismic intensity, and the various formulae used, in light of the purpose of the structure being designed, 3. Analysis According to Focus Zone Characteristics I) Gravitational Anomalies ‘As seen in Fig. 3-3, epicenters are located on several belt-like zones, but they do not line up continuously. Each epicenter has its own aftershock region. The zone in which many foci are densely packed is termed a nestle of earthquakes. According to the in- vestigation of focus zone characteristics, the following have been found regarding earthquake occurrence. 1. In North East Japan, earthquakes occur in the area surrounded by the line where the change of gravitational anomalies are steep. This is the area where the thickness of carth’s crust is uniform. In South West Japan, earthquakes occur along the line where the gravitational anomaly changes are steep, that is, in the area where the thickness of earth’s crust changes suddenly.SEISMICITY OF JAPAN 61 2. Large earthquakes occur in the region between nestles of medium-size earthquak 2) The Concept of Seismic Gaps M. Katsumata pointed out an interesting fact about the seismic activity in an after- shock area of an earthquake. He investigated the number of earthquakes larger than 3 in magnitude within the aftershock area of the March 4, 1952, Tokachi-oki earthquake of M=8.1 using the following time periods: (a) from 15 to 3 years before the main shock occurrence (1937-1949); (b) from 2 years before to just before the main shock occurrence, (1950—March, 1952); (©) during the 21 years after the main shock (June, 1952—1973; not counting aftershocks of the main shock); (d) during the 6 years following period (c), (1974—October, 1978). Figure 3-12 shows epicenters of earthquakes which occurred in the aftershock area during each period of time. The rectangular frame indicates the assumed aftershock area of the main shock. As shown in these figures, in time periods (a) and (c) no earthquake occurred in a part of the aftershock area (this part is called the “seismic gap”), while outside the seismic gap many earthquakes occurred. During (b) and (d) earthquakes occurred outside the seismic gap to the same degree as within it. (a) #1987—1949 (c) # June.1952~1973 (b) 1 1950—Mar.1952 (@) : 1974~0ee.1978 Fig. 312 Epicenters in aftershock area before and after 1952 Tokachi-oki earthquake (after Dr. M. Katsumata). x Main shock, O M=60~7.0, @M=50~59, In regard to these phenomena M. Katsumata suggested the following five stages of growth of an earthquake: 1, Earthquake occurrence and aftershocks immediately after the main shock. 2. Creation of a seismic gap after the main shock (c). 3. Extinction of the seismic gap and normal activity in the aftershock area (d), 4, Creation of a seismic gap before the main shock (a). 5. Activation of earthquakes in the seismic gap and recurrence of alarge earthquake @).62 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING A similar phenomenon was recognized in the case of the May 15, 1968, Tokachi-oki earthquake, whose magnitude was 7.9. 3) Characieristics of Earthquake Faults Considering that earthquakes are generated by the sliding of faults, it is evident that detailed investigation of the activity of faults in a region is a useful method for predicting earthquake occurrence in future. Topographically, faults appear as lineaments and are distinguishable in air photographs. However, all lineaments are not always faults. They must be confirmed by field surveys which include dredging trenches in the ground. Moreover, « fault is not necessarily active. Faults which slid in ancient times are not related to present earthquake activity in the region, so it is important to determine whether the fault is presently active or not, a difficult task at best. The dislocation of a fault is estimated by measuring the topographical discontinuity. The age when the dislocation occurred is estimated by investigating the terrace whic the fault cut or classifying fault clays, volcanic ashes, and pollens which are contained ia the fracture zone of the fault, From the time and the amount of the fault movement, the average speed of fault movement can be estimated on the assumptions that the occur- rence of fault movement was uniform for a long time and that traces of fault movement have not beea wiped off by erosion or sedimentation. In actuality, it is not easy to verify these assumptions. T. Matsuda divided fault acti average speed of fault movement: into the following three classes according to the A; 10>S2>1 B: 1>S>0.1 G8) C: 01> 52001 where S represents average speed of dislocation in meters per 1000 years. The relationship between earthquake magnitude and the length and dislocation of the fault has been obtained empirically as follows for the faults in Japan: log L = 0.6 M — 2.9 G9) log D = 0.6 M — 40 where M = magnitude of earthquake; L = length of fault (km); and D location of fault (m). The depth of a fault is assumed to be half its length. In Table 3-3 the relation between J, D and M is given numerically. From these figures, the magnitude of the earthquake which the fault can produce can be estimated by mea- suring the length of the fault. However, the estimated magnitude of the earthquake i the largest possible one because the fault does not always move along its entire lengih. Tante 3-3 M 60 65 70 8.0 L 3 Tr) Ca 4 08 16 64SEISMICITY OF JAPAN 63 The magnitude of an carthquake is considered to correspond to the volume of the strained portion in the crust. C. Tsuboi proposed the following relation between them: log 2r = 0.5. M — 2.1 (3.10) where r represents a radius of a sphere in which strain energy is assumed to be stored. Since this equation is approximately coincident with Eq. (3.9), the length of a fault can be regarded approximately as the diameter of the strained domain in the crust. Regarding the activity of a fault, present practice is to assume that a fault is active and significant to the design of structures when the fault has moved during the previous several tens of thousand of years. But some questions remain about this assumption.Chapter—4 GREAT EARTHQUAKES IN JAPAN AND RESULTING DAMAGE 4.1 Introduction Table 4-1 indicates recent earthquakes in the world which caused heavy damage and loss of life. It is the duty of earthquake engineers to reduce earthquake damage to a minimum, In order to minimize earthquake damage, its real aspect must first be grasped, and then a theory of earthquake engineering must be systematically constructed on the basis of what is learned from earthquakes, Damage due to earthquakes provides information of significance regarding earthquake engineering. Therefore, a natural earthquake and its resulting damage is considered to be a valuable tool for the study of earthquake engineering. It is particularly difficult to study the disasters attributable to strong earthquakes without actually experiencing those earthquakes. It is necessary, therefore, to keep accurate disaster records of earthquakes. Earthquake engineering may then be studied based on these records. Tante 4-1 Recent disastrous earthquakes in the world (1970-1980). Date Magnitude [ Location Damage Jan. 4, 1970] 7.5 | Yunnan, China ~ Mar. 28,1970] 7.3. | Western Turkey More than 1,000 people were killed. May 31,1970] 7.6 | Northern coast Peru | 70,000 people were lost. Feb. 9, 1971] 6.6 | San Fernando, Calif. | Heavy damage to structures Apr. 10,1972| 7.0 | Southern Iran ‘More than 5,000 people were killed. Dec. 23,1972] 6.2 | Nicaragua 4,000 ~ 6,000 people were killed. ‘Aug. 28,1973| 7.2_| Southern Mexico 600 people were killed. ct. 3,1974] 7.5 | Near coast Peru Heavy damage to Lima. Feb. 4, 1975} 7.3 | Heicheng, China | Heavy damage to structure and ground. Feb. 4,1976| 7.5 | Guatemala More than 23,000 people were killed. June 25,1976) 7.1 | West Iran 3,000-9,000 people were lost. July 28,1976 7.8 | Tangshang, China__| More than 200,000 people were killed. Aug. 16, 1976) 7.7} Mindanao, Philippines | 5,000-8,000 people were lost to tsunami. Nov. 24, 1976 7.3. | Northern Iran More than 5,000 people wer: killed. March 4, 1977 12 Rumania | 1,570 people were killed. June 12,1978| 7.4 | Sendai, Japan ‘Heavy damage to structures. Sep. 16,1978) 7.8 | Eastern Iran More than 15,000 people were killed, Apr. 15,1979) 7.3 | NW Yugoslavia 121 people were killed. Dec. 12,1979) 7.9 | Ecuador More than 600 people were killed. Cct. 10,1980) 7.2 | El Asnam, Algeria | 2,590 people were killed. Oct, 24,1980) 7.0 | Central Mexico More than 300 people were killed, Nov. 23,1980] 6.9 _| Southern Italy More than 3,000 people were killed. 6566 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING In this chapter, some examples of damage from earthquakes which occurred in Japan recently will be described. Among those to be discussed, the Nabi, Kanto, Sanriku Tsunami, Nankai, and Tokachi-oki earthquakes were large earthquakes, while the Kita-Tango, Fukui, Niigata, Izu-ohshima-kinkai, and Miyagiken-oki earthquakes were intermediate in size. The Nabi earthquake of 1891 was the first event in which the modern structures con- structed with western technologies in Japan suffered damage. From this experience, it was recognized that structures should be designed to be able to resist horizontal loads in order to be earthquake-resistant. The Kant5 earthquake of 1923 destroyed structures in two big cities, Tokyo and Yokohama, and showed that the earthquake damage to structures depends considerably on the vibration characteristics of both structures and their subgrades. As a result, the need to develop a method of analysis of the vibration of the ground and a method of design of structures based on dynamic analysis was recognized, In the case of the Niigata earthquake of 1964, many heavy concrete structures settled due to the decrease of bearing capacity of the ground in Niigata City, which is located on the loose sand layer at the mouth of the Shinano River. Such a decrease of the bearing capecity of the ground due to earthquake vibration and the resulting damage was the first experience, and since this event studies of the liquefaction of soil have been remarkably advanced. Furthermore, techniques to prevent the liquefaction of the ground have been investigated. In the Tokachi-oki earthquake of 1968, great damage to embankments was seen on the northern part of the Tohoku trunk railway line, On the day before the earthquake heavy rainfall of 150 to 200 mm was experienced in this area, and this rainfall helped to cause the major damage to embankments. The effect of heavy rainfall must be considered in the earthquake-resistant design of soil structures, In the Miyagiken-oki earthquake of 1978, shoes of concrete girder bridges suffered severe damage. The reason was that the shoes were made of brittle materials and at the same time the weight of the girders has been considerably increased in recent years be- cause of the increase of the span length of girders and the annexing of side walls to prevent noise due to moving vehicles. Taking these trends of modern bridges into ac- count, bridge shoes must be made of ductile materials. After the May 26, 1983, earthquake of M = 7.7 which occurred in the Sea of Japan, a terrible tsunami hit the coasts of Honshu and Hokkaido islands. In some places, the tsunami hit the coast about 10 minutes after the earthquake shock, and people could not escape from high waves. The establishment of a quick alarm system for tsunamis is necessary. Through experiences with past earthquakes we are able to make the following statements: 1, Earthquake vibration at a site is considerably influenced by the ground conditions there. This phenomenon is closely related to structural damage at the site. 2. Loose sandy ground with a high underground water level behaves as if it were liquid during strong earthquake vibrations. In this case, the bearing capacity of the ground decreases or may vanish entirely, 3. By designing structures which have specified vibration characteristics relative to the earthquake vibration, these structures can be made reasonably earthquake-resistant. 4, It is necessary to take into account effects of heavy rainfall on the earthquake re- sistance of soil structures.GREAT EARTHQUAKES IN JAPAN AND RESULTING DAMAGE 67 fons 2 is Fic. 4-1(b) Map of the central part of Japan.68 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING Fic. 4-1(¢) Map of the northeastern part of Japan, 5. It would be possible to reduce tsunami casualties considerably by completing a quick tsunami alarm system, 6, Structures made of ductile materials are reasonably earthquake-resistant whereas those made of brittle materials are not. 7. Underground structures are more resistant to earthquake vibration than those built on the surface. Furthermore, it is worthy of special mention that in this decade equipment for earth- quake prediction has been provided in various countries. In China the Heicheng earth- quake on February 4,1975, was predicted, and the loss of life was minimized. Maps of the Japanese islands are shown in Fig. 4-1 for reference to place names described in this chapter. 4.2. Nobi Farthquake (1891) At 6: 37a. m. on October 28, 1891, a great earthquake occurred with its epicenter in Gifu Prefecture. It was felt over a wide region. Severe damage was inflicted on the northern part of the Nabi Plain. The mountainous area in the vicinity consists mainly of Paleozoic strata, while the plains area consists of the soft deposits from the rivers Kiso, Nagara, and Ibi.GREAT EARTHQUAKES IN JAPAN AND RESULTING DAMAGE 69 Ground fissures, boiling, and water spouting were seen widely in the plains area, while landslides and falls were prominent features in the mountains. A phenomenon of special note was the appearance of a great fault, as shown in Fig. 4-2, centered along the Neodani Valley. This fault showed dislocations in the vertical direction in some areas and the horizontal direction in others. In the neighborhood of Kimbara village in the ‘Necdani Valley, there was a maximum dislocation of about 7 m in the horizontal diree- tion with no vertical dislocation. At Midori village, 10 km upstream from Kimbara, a maximum dislocation of about 5.4 m was seen in the vertical direction only. ‘The damage was severe in the alluvial lands of the downstream areas of the Kiso, Nagara, and Ibi Rivers, with the proportion of buildings damaged reaching 94% in the region near the conjunction of the Kiso and Nagara Rivers. In the region where the greet fault occurred, this proportion was 91%, In Gifu City and four other towns, fires were started, and the devastation was even greater. The damage suffered by civil structures in this earthquake was enormous. A brief description of the major damage is given below. Fukui Prefeetur 10 20km Fic. 4-2 Area of the Nobi earthquake (1891) showing the Neodani fault, @ Kimbara village @ Midori village @ Itasho vilage ® Tenjindo village) Nagashima village) Nogo village 1. Rivers There was marked damage to the embankments of the three large rivers, the Kiso, Nagara, and Ibi, which assumed a wavy appearance due to settlement and horizontal movement. At some places of severe settlement the embankments sank to the level of the70 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING ground. At locations of severe quaking, cracks were formed in all directions in the em- bankments, some reaching to the ground. Revetment works consisting of spur dike mattresses, revetment mattresses, A-frame crib work, and permeable timber groins were all greatly damaged. Most of the timber groins were uprooted and some washed away. Sluiceways were of relatively sound construction, but a great many were destroyed with some being crushed in from both sides. 2. Dams Damage to irrigation earth dams was severe, especially where water had been im- pounded. Some dams were pushed out several tens of meters downstream. In the case of check dams, damage was heavy to earth dams in places with soft ground, with crack formation in all directions. There were no overall failures of stone masonry dams, The extent of failure was light, with the loosening of rock facings here and there. 3. Railroads ‘The damage to railroads was extensive in the Nabi Plain, with embankments settling at numerous places and cracks forming all over the roadbeds. Steel truss bridges 30 m and 60 m long had been built across the Kiso, Nagara, and Ibi Rivers. All of these bridges were heavily damaged. The Ibi Bridge had a substructure of cast-iron pipe piles filled with concrete with the bottom ends reaching beilrock. These structures were fractured at the river bed level and caused three trussed spans to fall. The substructures of both the Nagara and River bridges were pairs of 3.6-m meter circular-section caissons straddled by brick masonry arch-type piers. In both bridges, the caissons either shifted or settled and the brick piers were split and broken. ‘Abutments were tilted towards the sides of the rivers. In addition to the above, there were also medium and small-sized bridges which suffered damage. 4. Roads Damage to roads varied depending on the hardness of the ground. In general there was. settling and shifting producing wavy forms, and cracks. Road bridges were mostly earthen or wooden bridges. Many of them had pier piles uplifted and their surfaces werped. Since that time there have been no earthquakes in Japan in which such large faults as the Neodani fault have occurred on land, In this sense, the following abstract of the re- port on reconnaissance of the fault is of value in gaining a knowledge of faults. Reconnaissance Report on the Neodani fault The areas in which side-slipping and settling of ground over great distances were seen were the various branches of the Neodani Valley system. Side-slipping and settling occured cither together or separately. Therefore, even on the same line there were sudden variations in the diastrophic movements; in some places the ground surface simply opened in wide cracks, while in others the surface wes ground up into small fragments as if a giant mole had thrown up the soil. Such diastrophisms were clearly recognizable in soft ground such as cultivated fields, but on hard ground, the traces either were lost or became indistinct. Where the line crossed mountainous areas, landslides often occurred, and where there were no slides cracks were formed.GREAT EARTHQUAKES IN JAPAN AND RESULTING DAMAGE 71 In the Neodani Valley, the fault began in Kimbara village. It was more or less a straight line advancing in the direction 150° with some amount of bending. Movements were all horizontal. The ground surface coinciding with the line of diastrophism was generally cracked and torn into small fragments over a band about 10 meters wide and was either slightly depressed or slightly raised. It appeared that sideways slippage occurred only on one side of the fault. There were no topographical changes to speak of on the ground surface adjacent to the line on the east, but on the surface to the west, rows of trees and vegetables which had once been in straight lines were all bent to the south. Thus it appeared that the ground surface on the western side had been pushed toward the south, The amount of slippage differed depending on location, the maximum being as much as 7 meters. Where the line of diastrophism reached the mountains there were no abnor- malities, with no trace of the line being recognized, There were, of course, no great changes such as mountains being split in two and slipping laterally. ‘At Kimbara village almost all houses and other structures collapsed. Regardless of whether they were east or west of the diastrophism, they all toppled toward the southwest, south, or southeast, none falling northward. According to the accounts of witnesses, the ground shook back and forth 4 or 5 times, after which it gradually slid, One mud-plaster warehouse happened to be directly on the line of diastrophism and was tilted to the north, but did not fall. The gates of the Kingenji Temple were neither overturned nor broken, but were shifted to the east-southeast about one meter from the foundation stones. On inspection of tracking on the ground it was seen that the gates had not been moved gradually but rather wefe thrown out in two sudden moves. There was a large fault produced in the flat area of Midori village in the directi 145°. The ground on the eastern side of the fault line remained in its original po: but on the western side, sinking occurred. The amount of settling was 2 maximum of 5.5 meters. There was no lateral slipping. The eastward facing gates of Saikaji Temple, the back of which traversed the fault, were thrown out about one meter to the southeast, Instead of falling normal to their faces the gates fell southward, breaking a column on the southern side. Almost all houses were shifted or collapsed. The shifting or falling of houses both very close to the faul: line and relatively distant was generally to the south or southeast, Since the moun- tain range bordering the depressed flat area on the west showed no signs of settlement or dislocation, itis thought that the mountain range settled slightly along with the flat area, At Itashd village, a strange diastrophism was seen. This was not a simple fissure, but a lifting of soil as if caused by a mole, which ran for a length of more than 100 meters. The diastrophisms were greatest at Tenjinds village and Nagashima village, and a very prominent fissure was produced. The fissure was not especially wide, but it ran in a straight line in the direction of 145° with the southern end reaching into the mountains behind Nagamine village. The land on the eastern side of this fissure settled as a whole, with most settling being as much as 3 meters and the maximum almost 4 meters in places. Hovever, the settling was not regular as in the case of the Midori fault, The diastro- phisms were not limited to simple settling or side-slipping. Evidently there was a strong lateral pressure, as there are places where the valley width was narrowed. The fissure opened up to the north with the width becoming 3 to 3.5 meters and the depth 2.5 to 3 meters. A river is crossed in this condition, and at Nogo village the fissure runs into the mountains.72 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING 4.3 Kanto Earthquake(1923) The earthquake which occurred in the southern part of the Kanté region at around noon on September 1, 1923, was of enormous energy, and since the epicenter was located near the two great cities of Tokyo and Yokohama, it was unprecedented in the great number of deaths and severe damage. The hypocenter was about 10 km south of Mt. Tanzawa ai a depth of O—10 km, with M = 7.8 (see Fig. 4-3). Over the land area, the northwestern part of the Kant6 region settled a meximum of 1.40 m while the southeastern coastal area was heaved up a maximum of 1.80 m (Gee Fig. 1-12), No large faults were seen on land. Judging from the degree of damage, the greatest intensities were experienced in the alluvial lands of the downstream area of the Sagami River and the southern tip of the Bass Peninsula, The wooden houses which collapsed in these areas exceeded 50%, In the two cities of Tokyo and Yokohama, many houses collapsed. The damage to wooden houses was especially severe in alluvial areas, becoming greater with increasing thickness of the alluvial layer (see Fig. 4-4). However, in the case of mud-plastered storehouses and reinforced concrete buildings the reverse was true, with a tendency for the ratio of damage to be higher on table land rather than in the lower, downtown areas. Such experience with the relationships between ground, structure type, and earthquake damage yielded important ideas for subsequent city planning of the two cities. Judging by the statistics shown in Table 4-2 on damage to buildings surviving in burnt- out areas of Tokyo, it appears that the trend was for severe earthquake damage to de- crease with brick, reinforced goncrete, and steel frame structures, in that order. In the case of brick buildings, those structures which had been carefully planned and built on the basis of the experience of the Nabi earthquake were scarcely damaged, but the ma- jority of those which had been carelessly built during the boom years of the ear'y 1910s fell, resulting in a high ratio of collapses. Tau Peninsula Choshi Bosd Peninsula Pacific Ocean Ohshima Island 010 20 30kn Fic. 4-3 Area of the Kanto earthquake (1923).GREAT EARTHQUAKES IN JAPAN AND RESULTING DAMAGE 73 — Sumida River Imperial House aN & EB about 25% «10% + 15% © 10% Fic. 4-4 The ratio of collapsed wooden houses in the City of Tokyo (Kanto earthquake of 1923), Tapte 4-2 Damage to buildings surviving in burnt-out areas of Tokyo. Heavy Tieht Damage ‘Type of structure damage damage ratio * _ A) CO Mud-plastered storehouse 20 33 46 Stone masonry 60 26 B Wood-frame stone masonry, 33 67 | 66 Woot-frame brick 100 ° 100 Brick | 6 | oa | 16 Steel-frame brick 45 | iW | 50 Steel and reinforced 48 20 | 58 conerete composite | Reinforced concrete 50 39, i 6 “Damage ratio = heavy damage (7%) + 1/2 light damage Steel-frame structures showed the greatest earthquake resistance of all types. For ex- ample, the Japan Industrial Bank building, which had been designed with prior con- sideration to seismic forces, suffered almost no damage, proving the superiority of steel frame structures and the appropriateness of earthquake-resistant design methods. How- ever, multistory steel-frame structures which had copied foreign techniques without modification were low in earthquake resistance, and the result was an average damage ratio of about 50%. Regarding reinforced concrete structures, there had been little experience with this typeat that time, and there were inadequacies in both design and construction. The damage was considerable, especially in the case of factory buildings with little wall area and few columns. Failure here occurred at the joints of columns and beams. However, the direct earthquake damage to buildings in Tokyo and Yokohama bore no comparison to the damage resulting from the subsequent fires. In Tokyo, with 80 km? city74 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING area and 2.4 million population, there were 277 outbreaks of fire, and 133 of these spread. App-oximately 50% of the city was razed, while Yokohama lost about 80% of its buildings to fire. More than 100,000 deaths occurred in the two cities. ‘The places where fires broke out in the City of Tokyo are shown in Fig. 4-5. The open circles denote fires put out, and the solid circles those which spread. It is clear that fire- fighting is difficult when outbreaks are close together. If the outbreak of fires could have been prevented, the damage and the number of dead would have been greatly reduced, ‘Damage to public works structures due to this earthquake was enormous: the more prominent damge is described briefly below. Are Sumida River River ©: Extinguished (144) ©: Spread (133) Tokyo Bay Fig. 4-5 Outbreak of fires i the city of Tokyo (Kanté earthquake of 1923). 1, Rivers Rivers suffering damage were more than 10 in number and included the Sakawa, Sagami, Tama, Ara, and Tone. The types of damage included destruction of embank- ments, revetments, groins, gates, and sluiceways; failures of mountainsides and river banks; and the burying of river beds with alluvium. Of these, the most serious type of damage was settlement of embankments. There were serious floods after this earthquake, and the damage along the Sagami and Sakawa Rivers was greatly increased as a result. 2. Ports and Harbors Of the ports in the earthquake-damaged area, the largest ones were at Yokohama and Yokosuka. The chief damage at the Port of Yokohama was the collapse of quaywalls and jetties. The 6.0—7.2 m quaywall of the New Port was a concrete block structure, but of its 2,000-m length, only about 20% even approximately retained its original shape; the remainder fell completely. The central part of the main pier, which was a shore bridge 490 m long with conerete pier bridges on both sides of a steel pier bridge, buckled completely with only the extended sections on both sides remaining. Newly reclaimed land settled an average of 20 cm, and warehouses and cargo-handling equipmen: became useless except for those installations with sound foundations. The chief damage at the Port of Yokosuka was also the collapse of quaywalls, TheGREAT EARTHQUAKES IN JAPAN AND RESULTING DAMAGE 75 entire quaywall of the coaling station then under construction and part of the quaywall of the completed port area collapsed. Breakwaters formed irregularities over their entire lengths, but were not overturned and remained functional. This was also the case at Yokohama. 3. Roads The major damage to roads consisted of settlement and collapse of embankments, failure of slope surfaces of cuts, injury to road surfaces, and destruction of bridges. Settlement of embankments was seen mostly along newly completed sections or at places where the roads were on soft ground. In the new embankments of the national highway across Hakone, and in the embankments of the soft alluvial soil of the Ara and Fuefuki Rivers, cave-ins and numerous cracks in all directions were produced. There were also embankments at many places along roads on the heights inside the City of Tokyo, but as the ground was hard and compaction was good, marked settling was not observed. Landslides were seen mostly at roads running along mountainsides, Along the coast- Jine of the Izu Peninsula where roads had been built partly by cutting into steep moun- tainsides and partly by embanking the mountainsides below, there were many instances of cut surfaces failing and stone masonry roadside retaining walls collapsing. Road sur- faces were damaged by the cracking of subgrades. Roads in urban areas were mostly of asphaltic paving, and showed cracking everywhere along their entire lengths. These cracks were especially numerous in areas of soft foundation ground and at changes in roadbed structure, for example, at joints between concrete roadbeds and macadam road beds. However, insofar as pavements were concerned, the greater part of the damage was from fire regardless of the type of construction. Damage to bridges was also severe: 1156 bridges collapsed or cracked. Especially in the case of reinforced concrete bridges across rivers, located near the epicenter, some abutments and piers toppled like dominoes and girders fell. 4, Railroads The sites of heaviest railroad damage were the sectors of the lines located along Sagami Bay and Tokyo Bay, coinciding more or less with the areas where large numbers of houses collapsed. At cut sections, tracks were buried because of, the crumbling of slope surfaces and retaining walls, while at filled sections, embankments cracked or settled and rails were bent into S-shapes. Damage to bridges of the lines located along Sagami Bay and Tokyo Bay was heavy: substructures were destroyed and superstructures fell down, Tunnel damage at places close to the epicenter consisted primarily of slides of moun- taiasides at portals, destruction of portals due to the shocks of the slides, and cracking of linings in the vicinity of portals. Cases of sections deep in tunnels where the lining was destroyed occurred when the overburden was thin or where accidents had occurred during construction, leaving the linings susceptible to eccentric earth pressures. Waterworks Damage to waterworks can be classified as relating either to water quality or to facili- ties, The former involved contamination of river water due to the devastation of moun- tain lands at the water sources. The water supply of Yokohama, due to sedimentation of mud caused by the contamination of the catchment area of its source, required treat- ment with aluminium sulphate in amounts from 1/10,000 to 1/50,000 for purification.76 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING The latter damage consisted chiefly of cracking of intake weirs, collapse, settlement, and leakage of waterways; cracking and destruction of purification ponds; and break- ing of distribution pipes and valves. In the case of city water for Tokyo, cracks were formed in the earth dam of Murayama reservoir. In the 40-km-long conduction waterway from the intake to the city, many transverse cracks were formed on top of culverts. In the purification plants located at places where the subsoils were good, there was hardly any damage, whereas at a purifica- tion plant where the subsoil was soft, the concrete slabs of the pond bottoms and dia- phragm walls suffered a great deal of cracking. As for iron distribution pipes, damage was sustainedat many sections of the 1,100 mm main, while irregular piping installations such as valves were chiefly broken at joints and bends. In the Yokohama system, there was little damage suffered by intakes, settling ponds, or waterways, but purification ponds and distribution lines within the city were severely damaged. A purification plant in the city was located on soft ground and, moreover, was a plain masonry structure completed in 1887; this plant was damaged beyond repair in the earthquake. On the other hand, another purification plant was located on the heights with good subsoil and was of reinforced conerete, so it sustained hardly any damage. Damage to distribution lines occurred throughout the area, and in order to retighten joints and replace broken pipes almost all of the lines eventually had to be dug up. 44 Kita-Tango Earthquake (1927) ‘The Kita-Tango earthquake dccurred a little after 6 p.m, on March 7, 1927, with its epicenter on the Oku-Tango Peninsula, This peninsula is a tableland consisting mainly of granite, bordered by the Kayadani Valley cutting deeply westward from Miyazu Bay and the Takenogawa Hills. The earthquake resulted in the appearance of the Yamada fault (length 14 km, maximum vertical dislocation 40 cm, maximum horizontal disloca- tion 80 cm), running east-west along the Kayadani Valley, and the Gomura fault (length 1.8 km, maximum vertical dislocation 70 cm, maximum horizontal dislocation 250 cm), running roughly north-south near the western boundary of the Takenogawa hill area. Upon further detailed surveying it was found that with the Gmura fault as the bound- ary, the western side had risen and moved south, while the eastern side had settled and moved north; and the southern side of the Yamada fault had settled while the northern side rose (see Fig. 4-6). Takenogawa River Mt. Taiko (683) a Gulf of Miyoru rey Fic. 4-6 Area of the Kita-Tango earthquake (1927).GREAT EARTHQUAKES IN JAPAN AND RESULTING DAMAGE 77 The most violent damage was inflicted in the area 10 km long and 2 km wide along the Gémura fault from its north end and the district 4 km long and 1 km wide along the Yamada fault from its east end. Only short distances away from these fault lines, except for areas along the sea coast and lake shores and a small part of the Takenogawa Hills, the damage sharply decreased. The proportion of total collapse was comparatively low on the right bank areas of the Takenogawa River and in the mountainous area on the western side of the Gomura fault. As a result of surveys of damage caused by this earthquake, it was established that roof structure and room arrangement had a great influence on earthquake damage to wooden houses. There were houses in the area of the most violent earthquake along the Gomura fault which escaped significant damage, and these were, without exception, houses with light roofs and room arrangements providing a great number of internal walls. 4.5 Sanriku Tsunamis (1933) On March 3, 1933, around 2:30 a.m., a slowly rolling but great earthquake was felt in the Tohoku and Hokkaido regions. There was scarcely any direct damage. However, 40 minutes to one hour later, tsunamis assaulted the entire coastline from the southern coast of Hokkaidé to the east coast of Fukushima Prefecture, inflicting tremendous damage on numerous coastal districts. The ocean surface rose about 3 m to 7 m in most places, but along the coast from Miyako to Kesenuma the rise was especially high, with the highest recorded at 30 m (see Fig. 4-7). The epicenter was in the ocean about 300 km east of the eastern coast of the Tohoku region. The earthquake was due to activity in the Outer Seismic Zone. Earthquakes oc- curring in this area usually cause tsunamis: a tsunami of the same scale had occurred in June of 1896. Damage was incurred along the entire eastern coast of the Tohoku region, Wherever 15. q itt oUt Mt 05 = +t o 4 8 2 & m0 4 8 i2(Time) March 3 Mareh 4 Fic. 4-7 Rising of sea level at Shiogama (Sanriku tsunamis of 1933),78 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING wave heights had been high in the previous tsunami they were high again this time, clearly showing that topography has a decisive influence on tsunamis. The severest damage was along the coastline from Cape Kinkazan where the land protrudes eastward to Kuji. Houses in some hamlets were 90% washed away, leaving only a devastated flatland. The city of Kamaishi is in this area: a great part of the city was inundated by a wave 3 m high, and more than half of the city suffered damage. There were few conspicuous cases of damage to civil structures as these were relatively small in numter in this area, but roads and bridges near the coastline were washed out and levees at river mouths were broken. The railway from Hachinohe to Kuji was also rendered temporarily unpassable due to washing away of roadbed ballast and failure of revetments, Measures taken after the tsunami consisted, passively, in moving houses and facilities to heights distant from the shore and, actively, in the installation of tidewater control groves and seawalls, In view of the fact that damage was light wherever such measures had been taken after the tsunami of 1896, it was confirmed that these measures were effective. 4.6 Nankai Earthquake (1946) At about 4:20 a.m, on December 22, 1946, an earthquake of M = 8.1 erupted with an undersea focus 60 km off the shore of the Kii Peninsula (see Fig. 4-8). Although no prominent faulting was seen, it was subsequently learned from surveying and other obser- vations that upheavals and settlements of the earth's crust had in fact taken place. Thus the southern tips of Cape Muroto and Cape Ashizuri and the southeastern shore of the Kii Peninsula rose a maximum of 1.20 m, while the areas of Susaki, Kachi, Tokushima, and Tanabe to the north settled 2 maximum of 20cm. It was known that the Kii Peninsula and Cape Muroto had been inclining southward year by year. This trend was not reversed in the Ténankai earthquake of 1944, but in the Nankai earthquake, recovery was made in a single stroke. Cape Muroto and Cape Shionomisaki, which had been sinking up to the time of the earthquakes, rose 1.20 m. Subsequent to this earthquake, surveys were made on two occasions along the southern coast of the Shikoku region, and these phenomena were confirmed (see Fig. 1-14). Takahashi R- is. ‘Sakaide Kagawa P. $ os i Ohashi dam ae A Sha nye Re van ime * Nagasawa dam ~~; a ‘Shikoku en ‘Tokushima P. val aXe Susahi ? °Kehi fog Kochi Rta. Kiehi P bo Kit Nigoto RN 7 Magen Wateri R. oa Y Cape Muroto ‘Walayema P. Cape Ashizuri Susam\ Shing Fic. 4-8 Area of the Nankai carthquake (1946).GREAT EARTHQUAKES IN JAPAN AND RESULTING DAMAGE 79 The earthquake damage was spread over a very wide area. Fortunately, the Shikoku region and the Kii Peninsula, which were near the hypocenter, are comprised mostly of mountainland of sound Paleozoic formations, and thus the damage in these areas was light. Heavy damage was limited mostly to alluvial soil along rivers and narrow strips of allavial ground around inlets on the coasts. However, because of the large scale of the earthquake, even at a distance from the hypocenter damage occurred where ground conditions were poor, for example, on reclaimed land along the shores facing the Seto Inland Sea and along the shoreline of Ise Bay, which are located 200 ~ 300 km distant from the epicenter. Tsunamis struck from 10 minutes to an hour and a half after the earthquake, the first three waves were of large scale. Wave height was under 4 m along the coast of Kéchi Prefecture, but was generally high on the southern coast of the Kii Peninsula where the shoreline is irregularly recessed, These heights reached 4.5 to 6.5 m. On the southern coast of Tokushima Prefecture, the tsunami height reached 5 to 6 m as well. The damage to public works due to the earthquake and tsunami is described below. 1. Rivers and Seacoasts The chief damage to rivers was settling and cracking of levees in Kochi, Wakayama, and Okayama Prefectures. The heaviest damage was on the Watari River in K6chi Pre- fecture, where a levee was heaved somewhat upward at a place where the river ran through a sedimented old pond. Damage to shoreline installations was heaviest along the coast of the Kii Channel where revetments were broken at numerous places. 2. Ports and Harbors The cost of the damage to medium and small-sized ports and harbors hit by tsunamis, if totalled, would reach an enormous amount; but at large ports, the damage was much smaller in comparison with what Yokohama had suffered previously in the Kanto earth- quake, The more prominent damage included the collapse and shifting of a quaywall at the port of Sakaide, the bulging outward of an L-type quaywall on piles at the port of Nagoya, the bulging outward of a shorebridge on piles at Yokkaichi, and the bulging outward of the wharf of Central Pier at Osaka. It is worthy of note that of the many facilities at the port of Osaka, the damage to Central Pier was particularly heavy. This pier had a width of 100 m and a length of 350 m, The depth of the water was 9 m. As the ground conditions were poor, the quaywalls were shelf-type steel sheet piling which, to lessen the earth pressure on the sheet piling, had inlays of concrete slabs supported by piles. This quaywalll bulged forward about 1 m. This is said to have been due in part to the fact that the fill was new, but also to the inlays of concrete slabs causing the retaining wall to be dislocated outward. In addition, ports such as Susaki and Kochi were damaged from rises in sea level caused by topographical changes. 3. Roads The major damage to roads consisted of the settlement of embankments on soft ground, sloughing of slopes of roads in mountainous areas, and breaking of stone masonry revetments of coastal roads by tsunamis, The damage to embankments ap-80 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING peared mostly in Kéchi, Wakayama, and Okayama Prefectures. In the three prefectures of Wakayama, Mie, and Nara, there was much crumbling of weathered granite. Tsunamis caused many stone masonry revetments of roads along seashores to break, but no major highways were washed out, The number of bridges damaged was close to 300. The greatest damage was in the case of the Shimanto-gawa Bridge across the Shimanto River in the township area of Naka- mura in K@chi Prefecture. This bridge consisted of 8 spans of steel trusses 53.64 m long and 6 spans of reinforced concrete girders 11.60 m in length. Six of the steel truss spans fell and all of the concrete girders were shifted about 10 cm, In addition, there were several other bridges which showed movement and tilting to superstructures, settlement of piers, and sliding of abutments. Also, there were many bridges in Wakayama and Toku- shima Prefectures which had their foundations scoured by tsunamis or were damaged after being struck by drifting objects. 4, Railroads There was no great damage to railroads, although the sector between Kachi and Mure was cut by tsunamis and there was settlement of embankments at various places in the Shikoku region. In addition, a bridge between Tokushima and Kéchi, two lengths of three continuous spans, moved about 30 cm in the direction of the bridge axis, while another bridge between KGchi and Susaki was dislocated to the side; neither bridge fell, however, 4.7 Fukui Earthquake (1948) A little after 4 o'clock on the afternoon of June 28, 1948, an earthquake of M = 7.2 occurred with its epicenter in the Fukui Plain, Because the epicenter was at an inland location, the damage inflicted was of unprecedented severity in local areas. Although a fault line did not appear at the surface, one was found as a result of surveying, With a line running through Kanazu and Isobe in the Fukui Plain as the boundary, the eastern side of the plain rose while the western side settled, Damage was concentrated in the central and northern part of the Fukui Plain while there was little damage in mountainous areas. Figure 4-9 shows the results of investiga- tions of percent of totally collapsed wooden houses in the disaster area and shows the proportion to have been 100% near the epicenter—an indication of just how violent the earthquake was. In Fukui and Maruoka fires broke out, increasing the damage even further. In Fukui City, there were a fair number of modern buildings of reinforced conerete, but there was still a considerable amount of damage. The Daiwa Department Store, a seven-story building, was destroyed beyond repair due to settling of part of the founda- tion (see Fig. 4-10). Besides this, a fair number of multi-storied reinforced concrete warehouses sustained cracks in their walls, ‘The damage to public works facilities was as follows: d. Railroads The damage to railroads was chiefly on the Hokuriku Trunk Line and Mikuni Branch Line of the National Railways and on the Keifuku Electric Railroad Line in the Fukui Plain. By type the damage consisted of deformations of bridges, cave-ins of embank- ments, settlement, lifting up and shifting of tracks, cracking of road beds, collapse of stone walls, and deformations of tunnels. The most serious instances were deforma-GREAT EARTHQUAKES IN JAPAN AND RESULTING DAMAGE 81 alluvium sand and gravel tut indesite sand stone SAE tertiary Fig. 4-9 Area of the Fukui earthquake (1948) showing the percentage of collapsed wooden houses. Fic. 4-10 Collapse of the Daiwa Department Store Building (Fukui earthquake of 1948).82 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING tions of bridges and cave-ins of embankments. The major damage to bridges was sustained by the Asuwagawa and Kuzuryfigawa Bridges. The Asuwagawa Bridge (length 140 m, deck girder bridge, 8 spans) suffered deforma- tions in its substructure. The abutments were concrete, with the southern side settling 5.cm and the northern side 15 em. The bridge piers were brick for the main line and ‘concrete for the side-track. A crack was formed in the No. 4 pier of the main line bridge. Also, because of the relative displacement of the girders an dbridge piers, numerous anchor bolts were broken or bent and piers cracked locally near supports. The Kuzurytigawa Bridge (length 252 m, spans 21 m, deck girder bridge, 12 spans) of the Hokuriku Trunk Line had both abutments and piers of brick. The foundations of the abutments were piles while the foundations of the piers were circular brick caissons. The earthquake caused the abutments at both banks to break and fall, All studs were broken immediately above the caissons and all of the girders fell into the river. The Kuzuryfigawa Bridge (single track, steel plate girder spans of 18 m and 21 m) of the Keifuku Electric Railroad had abutments and piers of plain concrete. One pier settled and collapsed while another was sheared horizontally at a construction joint. The dislocation between upper and lower parts was approximately 30 cm. The chief damage to the embankments was as follows: The embankment between Ho- sorogi and Ushinotani on the Hokuriku Trunk Line was constructed across an alluvial valley surrouded by hills and had a maximum height of 6 m. This valley is considered to have been an inlet in the past, and diluvial shale and sandstone approximately 4 m thick are interbedded on top of green tuff. The surface consists of a sand layer about 2 m thick of poor consolidation. The embankment settled over a length of 320 m due to the earth- quake. With the settlement, the embankment spread out greatly on both its sides with the width at the toe becoming’almost twice the original in some places. The maximum settlement was about 4.5 m, Several deep cracks were formed in the crest, and the slope ‘was inclined an average of about 1:2.7. The ground on the sides did not appear to have been heaved upward. The section between Kanazu and Awara was an embankment on a narrow strip of alluvial soil surrounded by hills. In this section settling, sloughing of slope surfaces, and vertical cracks were produced. 2. Roads ‘The major damage to roads was due to landslides, embankment failures and bridge destruction. There was also some damage to concrete pavements. The approach to the overpass bridge across the Hokuriku Line within the limits of Naka-Fujishima village (near Morita) was an embankment with a height of 6 m; it settled about 1 m, with slope surfaces sloughing and cracks forming in the crest to make the road impassable. Between Yoshizaki and Awara the road was closed at many places due to the crumbling of sand dures. Particularly, in the vicinity of the Kitakata Lake, a dune 60 m high suffered a massive slide from the top towards the eastern side over a length of 50m to cover the road and bury 13 houses which stood along the road, The road between Awara and Mikuni with an embankment 4 m high with a 1:1 slope gradient wove through the southern fovthills of a diluvial tableland. Vertical cracks and sliding were seen at numerous places along this road. The highway bridges in the earthquake disaster area were mostly simple girder types, and many of them sustained damage in their substructures. The Nakatsuno Bridge across the Kuzuryi River was located near the epicenter of the earthquake. It had 14 spans ofGREAT EARTHQUAKES IN JAPAN AND RESULTING DAMAGE 83 steel plate girders 18.36 m long, abutments of concrete gravity-type structure with pile foundations, and piers of rigid reinforced concrete frames with foundations on piles or caissons. Of the 14 spans, 11 had one end or the entire girder fall into the river while the remaining 3 spans were shifted. The abutments were destroyed while most of the piers were tilted or cracked. Of the tilted piers there were a number which were broken at connections between studs and caissons with the reinforcing steel partially pulled out. Some studs completely dislocated out of their caissons, The Itagaki Bridge was a reinforced concrete T-beam bridge within the City of Fukui. The bridge piers were tilted and most of the girders fell into the river while the remainder, because of structural weakness due to the lack of cross beams, were broken at the deck slabs. The Goshé Bridge was a double-span suspension bridge crossing the Kuzuryii River on the town line between Matsuoka and Goryogashima. The right bank anchor block and the saddle atop the right bank tower shifted about 20 cm and 10 cm respectively toward the river. The upper chord of the stiffening truss buckled, and the bridge undulated with a wavelength of 14 m. 3. Waterworks The damage to waterworks was severe in Maruoka, Fukui, and Awara. The City of Fukui depended on wells for its water source, but as the ground settled 30 to 40 cm in relation to well casings, a great number of valve-heads and pipes were destroyed. The ground of the embankment for the distribution pond slid, causing damage to valve-heads, while retaining walls and impermeable layers inside cracked. As for distribution mains, those laid in a north-south direction were damaged more than those in an east-west direction, At several places, the former were broken on an average of every 12.5 m. Straight pipes were sheared at the flanges while curved pipes were damaged at their bends. In particular, there was much damage to anchor blocks. At approaches to the bridges the ground settled and curved pipes were damaged. The foundations of siphon culverts proved inadequate and damage was heavy, Control valves were subjected to axial forces and were split in their shells, tees were sheared and socket Joints, upper and lower, were loosened. Corporation cocks and fire hydrants were sheared at their bases or bent. The damage to waterworks at Maruoka and Awara was similar in nature to that at Fukui, but in the case of the former the damage was ruinous because of its proximity to the epicenter. 4. Rivers The mainstream and tributaries of Kuzurya River were heavily damaged, Improve- ment works on the mainstream had been completed to some extent, bu! embankments at bends in the river or at places where new levees had been constructed on the old river channel settled considerably. Added to this, 10 days after the earthquake a flood ex- ceeding the warning level occurred and levees were broken at several places, increasing the damage. The chief damage to the river was the change in the longitudinal slope due to the deformation of the ground. According to surveys, the riverbed gradient was increased about 1/1,000 in the area upstream of the bridge of the Hokuriku Trunk Line while the gradient downstream was reduced by about 1/2;000. This resulted in sediment being84 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING deposited in the middle and downstream areas, causing the riverbed to rise, and impairing drainage within the levees. The embankments were cracked vertically throughout the length of the river and settling occurred over a wide area, In extreme cases there were complete cave-ins. As noted above, the most severe settlement occurred where embankments had been con- structed in the old river bed or where the channel was bent and the low water channel approached the toe of the embankment. Damage to accessory facilities was light. 4.8 Niigata Earthquake (1964) At 1:25 pm. on June 16, 1964, an earthquake occurred with a hypocenter 2 to 3 km southeast of Awashima island and at a depth of 40 km. The magnitude was 7.5 and the seismic intensities amounted to MM VII ~ VIII in Niigata and Yamagata Prefectures (ee Fig. 4-11). As a result of this earthquake, Awashima Island was heaved upward while the oppo- site shore on the mainland sank (see Fig. 1-13). The formation of several faults at the sea bottom between the two was also observed. re of “ea q Us wv Shiralewa Fonahana Sa Nazengs ale 3 Matsui LE Kakioka * a ms 36 ‘o wy Choshi st i 1 Shiewoka J “Tom innd§ MA Cape Omaezaki Fic. 4-11 Isoseismic intensity map of the Niigata earthquake (1964).GREAT EARTHQUAKES IN JAPAN AND RESULTING DAMAGE. 85 Ten to sixty minutes after the earthquake, tsunamis occurred. The wave height was approximately 4 m at shores near the point of origin of the tsunamis but decreased sharply with increased distance from the origin; along the Shinano River it was 1.7 to 2.1 m. In the City of Niigata there were lowlands resulting from continuous sinking of the ground, and because of this water entered from breaks in revetments. Therefore urban areas on the western side of the downstream Shinano River, the pert area, and the lowland along the Tstisen River were covered with water. The inundation lasted for a fairly long time. Tsunami damage in other districts was extremely slight. Direct earthquake damage was especially severe in Niigata City (see Fig. 4-12), In the city, there is a large area in which sandy soil deposited by the Shinano River is not yet well consolidated and the underground water level is high. In this area, there was a considerable amount of water spouting and sand boiling in addition to failure of em- bankments, falling of bridges, and settlement, tilting, and collapse of permanent build- ings. However, in neighboring areas where the ground was well consolidated, there were places where the damage was so slight that even tiles on wooden buildings did not fall. As soon as the earthquake occurred, a fire started in the storage tanks of an oil refinery in the industrial area located on the right bank side of the Shinano River. This burned for several days, causing some fire loss of neighboring houses. It was fortunate that other fires did not start 1. Rivers River damage was seen along the Mogami, Agano, Tsilsen, and Shinano Rivers. It was concentrated in areas about 5 km from the seaside and was found in embankments, revet- ments, groins, water gates and sluiceways. Most of the damage was encountered in structures built on old river channels or in zones bordering the high aad low ground Concrete structures built on shallow foundation piles were damaged, while structures with caisson foundations or built on extensive footings were not damaged. ‘Agno River Shinano Showa cil refinery Airport wharf a T Yachiyo Showaihashi Bridg Bridge Torijano Fig. 4-12 Damaged area in the City of Niigata (Niigata earthquake of 1964).86 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING 2. Ports and Harbors The port of Niigata suffered ruinous damage from this earthquake. The main facilities of the port of Niigata are Yamanoshita wharf and the prefectural wharf. These facilities had been raised intermittently to cope with the yearly subsidence of the ground, and most had inconsistencies in design. Yamanoshita wharf consisted of a 9-m quaywall and revetments, both steel sheet pile bulkheads, The quaywall was located on relatively good natural ground, was constructed for a design seismic coefficient of 0.12, and had just been completed; it thus suffered no damage. The revetment portion had been built on land reclaimed with dredged soil and settled approximately 1 m. The prefectural wharf consisted of four main wharves (north, east, central, and south) of 7.0 to9.5 mdepth and a lighter landing wharf of 1.0 to 8.0 m depth. The quaywall of the north wharf was block. In front, steel pipe piles 508 mm in diameter had been driven at spacings of 1.5 m. The piles had been covered with prepacked concrete to raise their height and moorings were taken at the pile heads. The design seismic coefficient had been taken at 0.1 horizontally, but some bulging and tilting of the front of the concrete at the top were produced. The structure of the central wharf was more or less the same as that of the north wharf, and the damage was similar. The east wharf was a steel sheet pile bulkhead. Piles and sheet piling had been driven approximately 5 m into the ground, but the ground was loose with an N-value of less than 10, and the anchoring block was dislocated forward about 3 m. The south wharf quaywall was a steel sheet pile. There was overall bulging here, most severe where the ground was especially poor or where large quantities of coal had been piled. : It is considered that almost all the port and harbor facilites suffered the damage de- scribed above because the ground in the area consisted of loose, fine sand and because of inconsistencies in the design of the structures resulting from the repeated raising. 3. Railroads Railroad damage was great on the Echigo and Uetsu Lines, including dislocation of tracks, settling of embankments and roadbeds, and injury to bridges and tunnels. How- ever, it was fortunate there were no train accidents in spite of the fact that 255 trains were running in creas of seismic intensity of MM V or higher. The bending of rails and cave-ins of roadbeds and embankments were seen at numer- ous places in the city of Niigata, An especially large-scale failure of an embankment ‘occurred near the epicenter: here an embankment 7 m high and 150 m long crumbled in ‘one direction and the tongue of the earth flow reached as far as 115 m. With regard to the damage to tunnels, the Nezugaseki Tunnel on the Uetsu Line suf- fered cracking of the portal and spalling of concrete at the crown of the lining over a great length, Again, in the Terasaka Tunnel, spalling of concrete was seen along the crown. It was subsequently found that the invert at the bottom of the side wall on the mountain side had been crushed over a fairly long distance. ‘As for bridges, the Shinanogawa Bridge of the Echigo Line suffered damage. This bridge was a 15-span steel plate girder bridge of 20 m span length. The bridge piers have well foundations, the depths being 10 m for the first pier from the left bank and 18 m for the other spans, Only this first pier suffered damage and leaned toward the middle of the river. The main cause is thought to have been the landslide which occurred on the left bank.GREAT EARTHQUAKES IN JAPAN AND RESULTING DAMAGE 87 4, Roads Roads were damaged in the City of Niigata where they ran through areas of soft ground. In the case of asphalt pavements, roadbed soil was exposed directly at the pave- ment surface through large cracks, cave-ins, and upheavals. Offsets and separation of joints were caused in concrete pavements through cave-ins and upheavals. Also, since there were large-scale topographical changes occurring in the city, some sections were thrown out of alignment both horizontally and longitudinally. With respect to bridges, the Sasaguchi Overpass in the compounds of Niigata Station and the three large bridges of Bandai, Yachiyo and Showa in the City of Niigata were seriously damaged, The only one which could barely sustain traffic immediately after the earthquake was Bandai Bridge. Sasaguchi Overpass was a single-span, 26-m composite girder bridge. The piers at both ends opened up and the movable end fell, crushing a diesel car (see Fig. 4-13). Showa-Ohashi Bridge was a 12-span composite simple girder bridge with a total length of 306.4 m. Each pier consisted of a row of 9 steel pipe piles driven an average of 10 m into the ground. As a result of the earthquake, five spans fell. Yaechiyo Bridge was a steel plate girder bridge 307.4 m long (7.48 x 2+ 27.54 +8 X 21.49 + 27.54 + 2 x 8.72). The substructure consisted of reinforced concrete piers on pile foundations. The foundation piles were reinforced concrete piles 60cm in diameter and 18 min length. The earthquake caused the pier on the left bank side to slide forward and break, while the ninth pier from the right bank moved noticeably toward the midcle of the river and the girders were on the verge of falling. Bandai Bridge was a reinforced concrete arch bridge 307 m long (47 m x 6and 17m x x2) with well foundations approximately 15 m deep. Some normal settlinghad been rec- ognized from the past, but in this earthquake greater settlement occurred. Because of this cracks were formed at several places in the arches. The damage was greatest at the two end spans. The left bank abutment settled about 1.2 m and was tilted backward, This caused a large crack at the spring of the arch. Fig. 4-13 Falling of the gitder of the Sasaguch! overpass in the Clty of Nilgata (Niigata earthquake of 1964). 5. Water Supply and Sewerage Niigata City had three water purification plants, Since all were located on firm ground, there was almost no damage. Transmission and distribution pipelines buried in soft88 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING ground in the city, however, were subjected to enormous damage: 68% of a total length of 470 km was damaged. The type of pipe in most cases was ordinary cast iron pipe with couplings made by socket joints, but there were also a few mechanical joints. The damage, in decreasing order, consisted of pull-out of joints, breaking of corporation cocks, pull-out of joints between corporation cocks and lead pipes, breaking of special pipes, and breaking of control valves and pipes. Compared to the breaking of pipe there were many more pull-outs. As for joints, it was observed that mechanical joints were relatively stronger than socket joints. Great damage was also suffered by the asbestos-cement piping which had been in- stalled in some places, With asbestos-cement pipe, pull-out of joints was greater in fre~ quency for pipe diameters of 150 mm or more, while there was more breaking of small- diameter pipe of 100 mm or less. The sewer facilities of the city of Niigata were also subjected to heavy damage, and the areas bordering the Shinano and Tsfisen Rivers totally lost their capacities for drainage. Drainage pump wells installed along the banks of the two rivers were tilted toward the discharge sides of the rivers, and sedimentation boxes were broken into several pieces. Sewers of both box-type culverts and circular pipe were violently affected by earthquake motion; and separation, cracking, snaking, variation in height, and upheaval due to liquefaction occurred. The upheaval phenomenon was especially prevalent. Pipelines placed on foundation piles were heaved up together with the piles, and in some cases, parts of pipes were exposed above road surfaces (see Fig. 4-14). Fic. 4-14 Heaving of a sewer in the City of Niigata (Niigata earthquake of 1964). '. Electric Power Facilities Niigata Thermal Power Station is a large-scale steam power facility of 125,000 kW built on the east bank at the mouth of the Shinano River. The turbines and generators were on sound raft foundations, 13 m deep, and there was no damage at all. However, the cooling-water line was damaged, and for this reason a period of 50 days was required before operation was resumed. The 154-KV transmission line had sound foundation work and there was no damage, but 59 steel towers of the 66-KV and 33-KV transmission lines were tilted (see Fig. 4-15). There was also a 66-KV underground transmission line in the city along the Shinano River which sustained such damage as impairment of insulation, leakage of oil, and cracking of ducts. The major damage to underground cables consisted of tensileGREAT EARTHQUAKES IN JAPAN AND RESULTING DAMAGE 89 Fic. 4-15 Damage to power transmission lines (Niigata earthquake of 1964). breakage in the longitudinal direction and buckling damage at duct openings or manholes. 7. Buildings Damage to buildings consisted of that caused by vibration and settlement from the shifting of sandy ground. In the area between Murakami and Tsuruoka, which was hard ground, there was damage due to vibration; very slight diagonal cracks were found in reinforced concrete school buildings. In Niigata City there was severe damage to buil- dings, but this was limited to those located on loose, sandy ground. In areas of well- consolidated ground there was no damage, not even falling roof tiles. On the other hand, in areas of loose ground, many heavy buildings settled or tilted (see Fig. 8-37). 4.9 Tokachi-oki Earthquake (1968) At 9:49 a.m. on May 16, 1968, an earthquake of magnitude 7.9 occurred undersea 170 kmeast of the City of Hachinohe. Considerable damage resulted inthe two prefectures of Iwate and Aomori and in the southern coastal area of Hokkaidd. Tsunamis hit the east coast of the Tohoku region. Figure 3-4 and Table 4-3 show the intensity distribution of this earthquake. Taae 4-3 Earthquake acceleration recorded by SMAC seismograph (Tokachi-oki earthquake of 1968). — 7 ‘Maximum acceleration (gal) distance (km) NS EW ‘Aomori 250 189 2 Akita 330 28 29 Sakata 400 26 25 Hachinohe 180 25 183 Miyako 190 120 90 Kushiro 280 40 35 Muroran 290 I 203 14390 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING Earthquake damage to the quaywalls and breakwaters of ports and harbors, embank- ments of roads and railways, and reinforced concrete buildings was marked. The destruc- tion of many reinforced concrete buildings such as the Hachinohe City Hall, Hachinohe Public Library, Hachinohe Technical High School, and Hakodate University, all built by medern techniques, caused a great commotion in building engineering circles, The major damage to public works facilities consisted of the following. 1. Railroads Major trunk and branch lines of southern Hokkaids and the northern Téhoku region suffered cracking, settling, washout of roadbeds, failure of slopes, deformation of rails and steel bridges, burying of siphon culverts, and settling of the embenkments of stations. The most noticeable damage was the sliding out of high banked slopes of sandy soil built on soft ground, breaking or cracking of embankments, and settlement of road- beds. Great damage was seen at the northern part of the Tohoku Trunk Line, especially on alluvial soils deposited in drowned valleys. Further, it is believed the heavy rainfall of 150 to 200 mm experienced in this area on the day previous to the earthquake was closely related to the great damage to embankments, In regard to structures, the Ogawara elevated railway bridge constructed over marsh- land suffered damage. This was a reinforced concrete, two-span, continuous frame clevated railway bridge built on ground of extremely soft peat with 25 m steel pipes driven as foundation piles. The embankment of the older track was adjacent, and the sliding of the ground including this embankment caused the steel pipe piles to break and the foundations of the bridge to slide about 70 cm to the east. The alignment was thus bent as shown in Fig, 4-16. Fic. 4-16 Piers of Ogawara elevated railway bridge shifted to one side (Tokachi-oki earthquake of 1968), 2. Port and Harbors Damage to port and harbor facilities was heavy at Hachinohe, Aomori, Mutsu, Noheji, Hakodate, Muroran, and Tomakomai. The seismic coefficients used in design at the various ports and harbors were 0.15 at Kushiro, Tomakomai, Muroran, and Kuji; 0.10 at Hachinohe, Hakodate, Miyako, and Ofunato; 0.075 at Aomori; and 0.05 at Ominato and Noheji. At the port of Noheji, the revetment of a lighter landing wharf with a length of 325 } constureted of blocks of unanchored sheet piles, tilted forward, and the apron at theGREAT EARTHQUAKES IN JAPAN AND RESULTING DAMAGE 91 back settled. However, the sheet piling revetment of a newly constructed landing wharf 4/min depth was not damaged, At Shimokita wharf at the port of Ominato, 570 m in total length, a sheet pile revetment 360 m in aggregate length tilted forward at both ends of the wharf while the back area settled. At the port of Aomori, a 5.5-m quaywall (block and caisson) tilted slightly forward, 100 m of a 2.5-m revetment block was forced one meter out of alignment through bulging, and the apron settled about one meter. The Hamacho wharf was a steel sheet pile cellular quaywall designed for k = 0.075 and was not harmed. Tsutsumi wharf had been known for its poor ground, consisting of a silt layer, and the 7.5-m sheet pile quay- wall had consequently been driven 15 m into the ground. This wharf was designed for k = 0.075 and there was again no damage. The shed of the shore bridge for the Aomori- Hakodate ferry, however, was badly damaged by formation of cracks. The port of Hachinohe had a good sandy layer of 10 m depth under which there was hard ground. The damage from the earthquake was mostly to the revetments and quaywalls of the old port, and bulging to a maximum of about 70cm and settling of about the same degree occurred. The damage to the new port was due to tsunamis; one caisson of the north breakwater and two caissons at the tip of the 10-m quaywall inside the port were washed away. At Kawahara breakwater, too, caissons over a length of 122 mat the shore end and 217m inthe middle, a total length of 339 m, were overturned and washed away. The washing away occurred at the time when the third wave of the tsunami struck. The wave height was approximately 5 m, and the difference in water level between the outside and inside of the harbor was about 4 m. The sea water kept overflowing into the harbor from the outside for some time, after which the breakwater simply crumbled away. In addition to the effect of scouring of the sea bottom and riprap for foot protection by the overflow, the caissons of 6 m in height were under the pressure of the flowing water, estimated to have had a velocity of 6 to 7 m/sec, causing them to slide and fall. In Hokkaido, the port of Hakodate has poor ground conditions and suffered heavy damage. The 5.5-m quaywall of Kitahama pier was a battered anchor pile-type steel sheet pile bulkhead designed for k = 0.1. It showed bulging of the face line of about 60 cm and settling of aprons over a length of 330 m, The caisson foundation (— 8.0 m) of the Japanese National Railways ferry pier also settled unevenly, and a brick shed was damaged. Tomakomai Port has an artificially dredged harbor with firm sandy ground. The B quaywall of the anchorage basin was a simple sheet pile seawall designed for k = 0.15, at which tie rods were cut; the ground above the anchoring sheet piles driven 9.20 mto the rear cracked, and the ground behind them settled, The revetment at the petroleum distribution base failed along a sliding plane of circular form. In this industrial port area, besides jib cranes, there were various types of cranes installed with their foundations on the quaywall on one side and on filled land on the other. Many of them were unable to function due to settling of the fill, and because of this there was serious obstruction to handling of cargo, despite the fact that berthing facilities were undamaged. 3. Earth Dams and Drained Land Reclamation Dikes Sixteen low dams for irrigation were damaged in Aomori Prefecture. These dams were almost all built prior to 1940. Of these, 12 dams slid and all the others cracked (see Table 4-4), Tae drained land reclamation dikes of Lake Hachirdgata in Akita Prefecture were also damaged. In the southeastern part of the lake, the dike settled from 1.0 to 1.9 m over,