Introduction to Non-Traditional Machining

Processes

Prof. J. Ramkumar

Department of Mechanical Engineering

IIT Kanpur

March 26, 2018

So Far
Limitations of Conventional Machining Methods

I Increased workpiece hardness : decreased economic cutting

speed. Hence, lower productivity.
I Rapid improvements in the properties of materials (hardness,
strength, etc)
I Requires much superior quality of tool materials.
I Tool material hardness should be greater than workpiece
hardness.
Evolution of Advanced Machining Processes(AMPs)

I Many Engineering materials are having much superior

properties such as ultra high strength , hardness, very high
temperature resistance difficult to machine by convenventional
machining methods.
Ex :Tungsten Carbide, Stainless Steel, Titanium and its alloys
etc
I If work piece material hardness is greater than the tool
material hardness. How are we going to machine such a work
piece material ?
Product Requirement

I Complex shapes
I Machining in inaccessible areas
I Low tolerances (say, 0.01 mm)
I Better surface integrity (no surface defects, etc.)
I High surface finish (Nano-level Ra value)
I Miniaturization of products (examples: landline phone &
mobile, old computers & laptop, etc.)
I High MRR
I High production rate while processing difficult to machine.
I Low cost of production .
I Precision and ultraprecision machining
I Requires material removal in the form of atoms and / or
molecules
Machining of Complex Shaped Workpieces
Important characteristics of Advance Machining Processes

I Process performance is independent of workpiece :Strength &

Hardness are not a barrier.
I Performance depends on thermal, electrical and chemical
properties of workpiece materials.
I Uses different kinds of energy in direct form.
I In general, low MRR but better quality products .
I Comparatively high initial investment cost of machine tools
and high operating cost
Classification of AMPs,Based on the Kind of Energy used
Classification of AMPs, Based on Properties of work
material

I Applicable only for Electrically Conducting Materials : ECM,

EDM, EBM.
I Applicable for both electrically conducting & non - conducting
materials: USM , AJM, LBM, etc.
I Applicable for Non Magnetic materials : MAF, MRF, etc.
I Thermal conductivity, Reflectivity, etc. also play an important
role in some processes: LBM
Classification of AMPs, Based on Electrical Conductivity
Classification of µ-Machining
Mechanical Machining

Prof. J. Ramkumar

Department of Mechanical Engineering

IIT Kanpur

March 26, 2018

Outline

Abrasive Jet Machining

Water Jet Machining

Abrasive Water Jet Machining

Ice Jet Machining

Ultrasonic Machining
Mechanical Machining
I Jet Machining and Ultrasonic Machining (USM) are typical
examples of single action, mechanical non traditional
machining processes.
I The machining medium is solid grains suspended in an
abrasive slurry.
Abrasive Jet Machining: Machined products
Abrasive Jet Machining: Machined products
Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

I In AJM, the material removal takes place due to impingement

of the fine abrasive particles.
I The abrasive particles are typically of 0.025mm diameter and
the air discharges at a pressure of several atmosphere.
Mechanics of AJM

I Abrasive particle impinges on the work surface at a high

velocity and this impact causes a tiny brittle fracture and the
following air or gas carries away the dislodged small work
piece particle.
Mechanics of AJM

I Flaring of the Jet:- Cavity dimension changes with a change

in NTD.
I Abrasive particles repeatedly hit on the work surface.
I Brittle fracture separates out tiny particles (wear particles) to
produce a cavity. Cavity width greater than or equal to Nozzle
inner diam. (Depends on NTD).
I Cavity depth depends on work piece feed rate, abrasive
particle mass (or density) and pressure (or velocity of the jet).
I Stray Cutting: Due to increase in NTD the jet diameter goes
on increasing.
AJM System
AJM Process Parameters
I For successful utilization of AJM process, it is necessary to
analyse the following process criteria.
1. Material removal rate.
2. Geometry and surface finish of the workpiece.
3. Wear rate of the nozzle.
I AJM processes are generally influenced by the following
process parameters.
I Abrasives:
Material shape size(µm) ṁ(g /min)
Abrasives Al2 O3 , SiC Irregular 10 − 50 2 − 20
AJM Process Parameters contd.

I Carrier Gas:

Composition ρ(kg /m3 ) V (m/s) P(bars)

Carrier Gas Air,CO2 ,N2 1.3 500 − 700 2 − 10
I Abrasive Jet:

SOD(mm) Impinge V (m/s) Mixing ratio

Abrasive Jet 0.5-15 60 − 90◦ 100 − 300 V̇abr /V̇gas
I Nozzle:

Material Diameter(mm) Life(hrs) NTD(mm)

Nozzle WC,Sapphire 0.2-0.8 12-300 0.25-75
I Note: SOD-Stand of Distance, NTD: Nozzle to Tip Distance
Mathematical Modelling of AJM

I Assumptions:
1. Abrasives are rigid and spherical in shape having diameter
dg (grit diameter).
2. Kinetic energy of particle is used to cut the material.
3. for brittle materials, volume of material removal is
considered to be hemispherical in shape having diameter equal
to the chord length of the indentation (2r).
4. For ductile materials, volume of material removal is
assumed to be equal to the indentation volume due to
abrasive partical impact.
Mathematical Modelling of AJM

Case-1: Brittle Materials

I Indentation depth(δ) estimation:

AB 2 − AC 2 = BC 2 (1)
Mathematical Modelling of AJM contd.

!2 !2
dg dg
− −δ = r2 (2)
2 2
!2 !2
dg dg dg
− − (δ)2 + 2δ = r2 (3)
2 2 2

r 2 = −δ 2 + dg δ (4)
As δ is small, we can neglect δ 2

r 2 = dg δ (5)
p
r = dg δ (6)
Mathematical Modelling of AJM contd.

I For Brittle material:

Volume of material removal in brittle material is the volume of
the hemispherical impact crater and is given by:

     
1 4 3 1 4 3 1 4 3 2 3
ΓB = πr = π(r 2 ) 2 = π(dg δ) 2 = π(dg δ) 2
2 3 2 3 2 3 3
(7)
Assume the grits Velocity(V). So the Kinetic Energy is

1
KE = MV 2 (8)
2
where M is expressed by this expression
M = mass of single abrasive grit=volume of grit * Density of
abrasive material(ρa )
Mathematical Modelling of AJM contd.

I For Brittle material contd.:

where Volume of grit is
 3
4 d
Volume of grit= 3 π 2g = π6 dg3
Then the KE for single grit is
!
1 1 π 3
KE = MV 2 = d ρa V 2 (9)
2 2 6 g
On impact, work material should be subjected to maximum
force F, which would lead to indentation of δ.
Mathematical Modelling of AJM contd.
I For Brittle material contd.:

Here, you can see that the force is linearly varies with δ
(F = aδ)
Rδ
Work done = 0 aδdδ = 2a δ 2
As F = aδ, so a = Fδ
So, the work done is F2δ
So, Work done by the single grit during such indentation is

Fδ
W = (10)
2
Mathematical Modelling of AJM contd.
I For Brittle material contd.:
Also we know the flow stress/Brinell hardness of
material(σw ). So,

F = stress ∗ area = σw πr 2 = σw πdg δ (11)

Using Eq. 10 and Eq. 11, we get

Fδ σw πdg δ 2
W = = (12)
2 2
It is assumed that kinetic energy of the abrasives is fully used
for material removal.
Kinetic energy of the particle = Work done by the particle
Using Eq. 9 and Eq. 12, we get
!
1 2 1 π 3 σw πdg δ 2
MV = dg ρa V 2 = (13)
2 2 6 2
Mathematical Modelling of AJM contd.
I For Brittle material contd.:
Simplify the equation 13. we get δ as
r
ρa
δ = Vdg (14)
6σw
I MRR in AJM: MRR=(Volume of material removed per
grit)*(Number of abrasive particle impacting per unit time).
6ṁa
Z(Z = πd 3 ρ ) is the number of abrasive particle impacting per
a
g
unit time.(where ṁa is the abrasive mass flow rate)
 
2 3
MRR = π(dg δ) 2 ∗Z (15)
3
using δ from Eq. 14, we get
 3
2 3 ρa 4
MRR = πZ dg3 V 2 (16)
3 6σw
Mathematical Modelling of AJM contd.

I For Brittle material contd.:

ṁa V 3/2
MRR∝ 1/4 3/4
(17)
ρa σw
Mathematical Modelling of AJM contd.

I For Ductile material:

For ductile material, volume of material removal in single
impact is equal to the volume of the indentation and is
expressed as:

πdg δ 2
 
2 dg δ
ΓD = πδ − = (18)
2 3 2
Home Work: Derive the MRR for ductile material in AJM
Process?
Given: ΓD , Eq. 19
Hint: Similar to Brittle material

ṁa V 2
MRRD = (19)
2σw
Parametric Analysis in AJM

I Effect of Nozzle Tip Distance (NTD) on cavity diameter

Parametric Analysis in AJM
I Effect of Nozzle Tip Distance (NTD) on MRR

I The NTD not only affects the MRR from the work surface but
also the shape and size of the cavity produced.
I when the NTD increases, the velocity of the abrasive particles
impinging on the work surface increases due to their
acceleration after they leave the nozzle. This increases the
MRR. With a further increase in the NTD, the velocity
reduces due to the drag of the atmosphere which initially
checks the increase in MRR and then decreases it.
Parametric Analysis in AJM

I Effect of Abrasive flow rate on MRR

I As the flow rate increases upto maxima, More number of

abrasive particles hit the surface. this increases the MRR.
I If flow rate is greater than the optimum, velocity of the jet
decreases hence MRR also decreases.
Parametric Analysis in AJM

I Effect of Nozzle Pressure on MRR

I Little effect on MRR

I Kinetic Energy removes material: Due to erosive action
I Certain minimum velocity for the given material of workpiece.
Parametric Analysis in AJM
I Effect of Mixing Ratio on MRR

I Note: Mixing Ratio(m) is the ratio of volume flow rate of

abrasive to the volume flow rate of carrier gas.(α =mass
ratio)α is the ratio of mass flow rate of abrasive to the mass
flow rate of abrasive and gas carrier
V̇a ṁa
m= α= (20)
V̇g ṁa+g
Process Capabilities of AJM

I Low MRR
I Intricate Details Can be Produced
I Narrow Slots (0.12 to 0.25 mm) can be made
I Low Tolerances (−0.12 to +0.12mm) can be obtained
I Minimization of Taper Angle of Nozzle wrt Work Piece
I Thin Sectioned, Brittle Material, Inaccessible areas can be
easily machined
I Almost no surface damage
Applications of AJM

I Manufacture of Electronic Devices including Fragile

components
I Deburring of Plastics, Nylon, Teflon Parts
I Deflashing of Small Casting
I Drilling Glass Wafers, etc.
I Cutting, marking, engraving, cutting thin sectioned.
I Glass frosting
Water Jet Machining

I It has multidirectional cutting capacity with no heat produced.

I Cuts can be started at any location without the need for
predrilled holes.
I The burr produced is minimal.
I Grinding and polishing are eliminated, reducing secondary
operation costs.
Water Jet Machining-Products
Abrasive Water Jet Machining

I Cut virtually any material.

I Cut thin or thick stuff and No heat generated.
I Abrasive Water jet cutting can be easily used to produce
prototype parts very efficiently.
Abrasive Water Jet Machining- Products
Ice Jet Machining

I In AWJ, waste of water is very high as waterjet contains

abrasive particles. To reuse the water very complicated water
cleaning system has to be employed While in IJ, ice is used
instead of Abrasives. So as ice melts into the water, water
treatment gets eliminated and we can reuse the water
I solid waste is produced in the AWJ technology and it pollutes
the environment while IJ technology is environmental friendly.
Ultrasonic Machining (USM) Process
I The basic USM process involves a tool vibrating with a low
amplitude and very high frequency and a continuous flow of
an abrasive slurry in the small gap between tool & work piece.
I The tool is gradually fed with a uniform force.
I The impact of the hard abrasive grains fractures the hard and
brittle work surface, resulting in the removal of the work
material in the form of small wear particles.
I The tool material being tough and ductile wears out at a

much slower rate

USM:Products
USM:Products
Ultrasonic Machining (USM) Process contd.

I Mechanics of USM: 1. The hammering of the abrasive

particles on the work surface by the tool.
2. The impact of free abrasive particles on the work surface.
3. The erosion due to cavitation.
4. The chemical action associated with the fluid used.
Ultrasonic Machining (USM) Process contd.

I Mechanics of USM contd.: 1. The position 0 A0 indicates

the instant the tool face touches the abrasive grain.
2. The period of movement from 0 A0 to 0 B 0 represents the
impact.
3. The indentations, caused by the grain on the tool and the
work surface at the extreme bottom position of the tool from
the position 0 A0 to position 0 B 0 is 0 h0 (the total indentation).
Ultrasonic Machine

I It consists of the following machine components: The acoustic

head, feeding unit, tool, abrasive slurry and pump unit, body
with work table.
USM Acoustic Head

I The Acoustic heads function is to produce a vibration in the

tool.
I It consists of a generator for supplying a high frequency
electric current, a transducer to convert this into a mechanical
motion (in form of a high frequency vibration).
USM Acoustic Head
I A concentrator to mechanically amplify the vibration while
transmitting it to the tool.
I The ultrasonic vibrations are produced by the transducer. The
transducer is driven by suitable signal generator followed by
power amplifier. The transducer for USM works on the
following principle:
Piezoelectric effect, Magnetostrictive effect and
Electrostrictive effect
USM Abrasive Slurry

I The most common abrasives are Boron Carbide (B4 C ), Silicon

Carbide (SiC), Corrundum (Al2 O3 ), Diamond and Boron
silicarbide.
I B4 C is the best and most efficient among the rest but it is
expensive.
I SiC is used on glass, germanium and most ceramics.
I Diamond dust is used only for cutting Daimond and Rubies.
I Water is the most commonly used fluid although other liquids
such as Benzene, Glycerol and oils are also used
M.C. Shaw Model of USM Contd.

I Assumptions:
1. The rate of work material removal is proportional to the
volume of the work material per impact.
2. The rate of work material removal is proportional to the
no. of particles making impact per cycle.
3. The rate of work material removal is proportional to the
frequency (no. of cycles per unit time).
4. All impacts are identical.
5. All abrasive grains are identical and spherical in shape.
Thus, volume of work material removal rate (Q)

Q ∝ VZ ν (21)

I Note:V = volume of the work material removal per impact, Z

= number of particles making impact per cycle, ν = frequency
M.C. Shaw Model of USM Contd.

I Consider the impact of a rigid, spherical abrasive grain

diameter d on the work surface and D is diameter of the
indentation at any instant and hw (= h in figure) is the
corresponding depth of penetration.
 2  2  2
D d d
= − − hw (22)
2 2 2
M.C. Shaw Model of USM Contd.

D 2 = d 2 − (d − 2hw )2 or D 2 = 4dhw − 4hw

2
(23)
2 is very small. so, neglect it
Since hw is small, so 4hw
p
D≈2 dhw (24)
Volume of material removal from the work piece in brittle material
is the volume of the hemispherical impact crater and is given by:
 3
2 D 2
Γw = π = π(dhw )3/2 (25)
3 2 3

So, from Eq. 21 and 25

2
MRRw (Q) = Γw Z ν = π(dhw )3/2 Z ν (26)
3
M.C. Shaw Model of USM Contd.

Since the abrasive has irregular shape. So, the actual indentation is
occurs by the effect of spherical projections(with diameter d1 ) as
shown in the figure.(it is observed that d1 = µd 2 )
So, the actual Volume of material removal from the work piece is:
 3
2 D 2
Γw = π = π(d1 hw )3/2 (27)
3 2 3
So, Actual MRR from Eq. 27 2
MRRw (Q) = Γw Z ν = π(d1 hw )3/2 Z ν (28)
3
M.C. Shaw Model of USM Contd.
I Since the mean speed of the tool is low, the mean static feed
force F applied to the tool must be equal to the mean force of
the tool on the grains.
I Duration of an impact is ∆T and the maximum value of the
impact force F is Fmax .
M.C. Shaw Model of USM Contd.

I The nature of variation of F with time is shown in fig.

6.10.(previous slide) So, It will not be very much erroneous
to assume the nature of variation of F to be traingular.
Now,
1 T
Z
1 ∆T
F = F (t)dt ≈ Fmax (29)
T 0 2 T
I where T is the time period of each cycle.
M.C. Shaw Model of USM Contd.

If the distance travelled by the tool from the position A to the

position B is h(the total indentation), then

h = hw + ht (30)
If A is the amplitude of oscillation of the tool. then the average
velocity of the tool during the quarter cycle O to B is given by
A/(T /4)
M.C. Shaw Model of USM Contd.

So, the time required to travel from A to B is

 
h T hw + ht T
∆T ≈ . = (31)
A 4 A 4
Subsitute equation 31 in 29, we obtain
 
1 hw + ht T 1
F ≈ Fmax (32)
2 A 4T
or

8FA
Fmax ≈ (33)
hw + ht
M.C. Shaw Model of USM Contd.

I Z is the number of abrasive grains are simultaneously in

contact during a period ∆T . So, Force per grain is Fmax /Z
I The approximate area of contact on the work surface per
grain is π4 D 2 = πd1 hw .
I Therefore, the maximum stress developed in the work piece is
given as

Fmax
σw = (34)
πZd1 hw
Using the Equation 33 in 34, we get
8FA
σw = (35)
πZd1 hw (hw + ht )
M.C. Shaw Model of USM Contd.

I It is quite reasonable to assume that the depth of penetration

is inversely proportional to the flow stress of the material as
long as other parameters are constant. So, h ∝ 1/σ.
I If σt and σw are the stresses developed in the tool and work,
the ratio of the corresponding indentation is given as
ht σw
= =λ (36)
hw σt
Since the flow stress σ and the brinell Hradness
H(σw = Hw , σt = Ht ) are the same, equation 35 and 36
yield

2 8FA
hw = (37)
πZd1 Hw (1 + λ)
M.C. Shaw Model of USM Contd.

I Again, it may be assumed that the number of grains acting is

inversely proportional to the square of the diameter of each
grain for a given area of the tool face. Therefore,
C C
Z∝ or Z = χ 2 (38)
d2 d
where C is the concentration of the abrasive grains in the
slurry and χ is a constant of proportionality.
I A d1 = µd 2 . so the hw becomes
s
8FA
hw = (39)
πχC µHw (1 + λ)
MRR in USM process
So, From Equation 28 and 39, we get
  1/2 3/2
2 2 8FA C
MRR(Q) = π µd χ 2ν (40)
3 πχC µHw (1 + λ) d

3 3 1
2 1 3 1 dF 4 A 4 C 4
MRR(Q) = π 4 µ 4 χ 4 3 ν (41)
3 4
Hw (1 + λ)
3
4

3 3 1
dF 4 A 4 C 4
MRR(Q) ∝ 3 3
ν (42)
Hw4 (1 + λ) 4
d is the nominal diameter, d1 is the average diameter of
projection(diameter of the indenting projections), C: concentration
of the abrasive grains in the slurry. F: mean static feed force, A:
amplitude of oscillation of tool, Hw : work piece hardness, λ = HHwt ,
χ is a constant, Z: number of grains are simultaneously in contact
USM Process Parameters

I Frequency
I Amplitude
I Static loading (feed force),
I Hardness ratio of the tool and the workpiece,
I Grain size,
I Concentration of the abrasive in the slurry.
USM MRR vs Frequency and Amplitude

I With an increase in frequency of the tool head the MRR

should increase proportionally. However, there is a slight
variation in the MRR with frequency.
I When the amplitude of the vibration increases the MRR is
expected to increase.
I The actual nature of the variation is shown in Figure
USM MRR vs abrasive diamter and concentration

I MRR should also rise proportionately with the mean grain

diameter 0 d 0 .
I When 0 d 0 becomes too large, the crushing tendency increases.
I Concentration of the abrasives directly controls the number of
grains producing impact per cycle. MRR is proportional to
C 1/4 so after C rises to 30 percantage MRR increase is not
very fast
USM MRR vs Feed Force

I MRR increases with increasing feed force but after a certain

critical feed force it decreases because the abrasive grains get
crushed under heavy load
USM, Dependence of Surface Finish on Grain Size

I The figure shows that the surface finish is more sensitive to

grain size in case of glass which is softer than tungsten
carbide. This is because in case of a harder material the size
of the fragments dislodged through a brittle fracture does not
depend much on the size of the impacting particles
Summary of USM
Electric Discharge Machining

Prof. J. Ramkumar

Department of Mechanical Engineering

IIT Kanpur

March 26, 2018

Electric Discharge Machining (EDM):Products
Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)
I Electro Discharge Machining (EDM) is an electro-thermal
non-traditional machining process, where electrical energy is
used to generate electrical spark and material removal mainly
occurs due to thermal energy of the spark.
I EDM is mainly used to machine difficult-to-machine materials
and high strength temperature resistant alloys. EDM can be
used to machine difficult geometries in small batches or even
on job-shop basis.
I Work material to be machined by EDM has to be electrically
conductive.
Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)

I Plasma formation and Spark generation in EDM:

1. Voltage across the electrodes reaches the breakdown
Voltage
2. Dielectric Breakdown: Formation of plasma
3. Spark Generation at the point of lowest IEG
4. Melting and Vaporization of Work Piece Material
5. Bubble generation and their Expansion
6. Plasma Channel Explodes
Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)
I Plasma formation and Spark generation in EDM contd.:

I EDM gap phenomenon and material removal mechanism with

positive polarity Stages 1 to 4: normal discharges; Stage 5:
repeated discharges leading to debris accumulation; and Stage
6: excess debris causing spurious discharges through clusters
of debris (middle) as well as by individual debris particle
Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)
Elements of EDM Process

I Tool Electrode: 1. Good Electric conductivity, High thermal

Diffusivity, High melting and boiling point, good machinablity
etc
2. Examples are graphite, brass, copper, tungsten etc
I Work piece Material: Any material which is electrically
conductive can be machined through EDM
I Power Supply: Resistance capacitance(RC) and Transistor
type circuits are used. Transistor circuits(TC) are incapable to
produce nano pulses. TC is used where high MRR required.
I Servo System: To maintain a constant spark gap between
electrodes.
I Dielectric Fluid: It acts as the insulator medium between
tool and work piece. Examples are Kerosene, De-ionized
Water, air, mineral oil etc.
Variants of EDM process
Different power generators in EDM
I Resistance Capacitance based power supply
The RC circuit is basically a relaxation oscillator with a
resistor and a capacitor, as illustrated in Fig.. It is a simple,
reliable, robust, low-cost power source for EDM. It can
provide very small pulse energy and is used extensively in
micro EDM and finishing EDM to achieve fine surface finish.
The drawback of RC generator is the lack of precision control,
particularly for timing and slow charging.
Different power generators in EDM contd.

I Analysis of RC Circuit contd.:

Loop-1(charging crircuit) Loop-2(Discharging Circuit)
ic = uo −u
R
c
= C du
dt
c
ie = −C du c uc
dt = Rs
uc = uo (1 − e −t/RC ) uc = ue e −t/Rs C
uo −t/RC ue −t/Rs C
ic = C du
dt =
c
Re ie = uc
Rs = Rs e

where, ic is the charging current in loop-1,ie is the current in

loop-2 uo is the supply voltage,ue is the break down voltage
and uc is the charged and discharged voltage of the condenser
at time t. R and Rs is charging resistance and sparking
resistance and C is capacitance of the condenser.
RC Circuit in EDM contd.

I Power Delivered to the Discharging Circuit:

The energy delivered to the discharging circuit at any time t is
given by
dE = ic uc dt (1)
Substituting the values of uc and ic and integrate both side

uo2
 
−t/τ τ −2t/τ
E= − τe + e + k(constant) (2)
R 2

Note: τ = RC (time constant), k is a constant, and can be

evaluated by using the boundary condition (E = 0 at t = 0),
Substitute the value of k in (2) to get

uo2 τ 1 1 −2t/τ
 
−t/τ
E= + e −e (3)
R 2 2
Analysis of RC Circuit contd.
I Suppose the energy E is delivered to the discharging circuit for
time t. then the average power delivered (Pavg ) is given by

uo2 1 1 −2x
 
E −x
Pavg = = + e −e (4)
t xR 2 2

where, x = t/τ . The condition for the maximum power to be

delivered to the discharging circuit is given by
dPavg
=0 (5)
dx
After solving Eq 5, we get x = 1.26. Substitute this value of x
in uc (x = t/τ ) we get

uc = uo (1 − e −1.26 ) ≈ 0.72uo (6)

Thus, the discharging voltage for the maximum power delivery

is about 72% of the supply voltage.
Analysis of RC Circuit contd.

I The energy Ed of each individual spark discharge is given by

1
Ed = Cue2 (7)
2
Analysis of RC Circuit contd.

I Material Removal Rate in RC Circuit: uc for loop-1 can be

rewritten as  
1
t = RCln (8)
1 − uc /uo
Frequency of charging (fc ) is given by
" #
1 1 1
fc = =   (9)
tc RC 1
ln 1−ue /uo

At t = tc , uc = ue
Note: tc is the charging time
Analysis of RC Circuit contd.
I Material Removal Rate in RC Circuit contd.: Material
removal rate should be proportional to the total energy
delivered in the sparking per second.
1
MRR ∝ Ed fc = Cue2 fc (10)
2
Substitute the value of fc , and let K be a constant of
proportionality. Then,
" #
2 1 1
MRR = KCue .   (11)
RC 1
ln 1−ue /uo

Thus,MRR ∝ 1/R, i.e R should be decreased to increase

MRR, however, at very low value of R, it will result in arcing.
The minimum value of the resistance(R) that willqprevent
L
arcing is known as critical resistance. (Rmin > 30 C)
Voltage and Current variation with time in RC Circuit

I This is the actual variation of current and volatge with time.

Transistor Based power based EDM

I Pulse Chain of Voltage and Current

Fig: Pulse chain and six key EDM process parameters

Different power generators in EDM contd.

I Transistor Based powered EDM process parameters:

I Open voltage (uo ): The voltage when the EDM circuit is in
the open state and energy has been built up for discharging.
I Discharge voltage (ue ): The voltage during discharge.
I Discharge current (ie ): The current during discharge.
I Discharge delay time (td ): The time duration when the circuit
is energized to open voltage and waiting for discharge.
I Discharge time (te ): The time duration for discharge.
I Pulse interval (to ): The waiting time to be energized to open
voltage.
Note: Ed is energy per pulse
Duty factor (DF) is defined as the ratio of time with discharge:

DF = te /(te + td + to ) Ed = ue ie te (12)
Servo Reference Voltage in EDM

I Transistor-based EDM Generator:

I The motion control of an EDM machine electrode is controlled
by adjusting the average cycle voltage to keep adequate gap
distance. The average cycle voltage ū is defined as:
ue te + uo td
ū = (13)
te + td + to
I A shortcoming of the transistor-based EDM generator is the
limit to deliver very low discharge energy for finishing EDM to
generate fine surface finish or micro features due to the cost
and performance of high frequency MOSFET transistor. RC
generators could be more cost-effective in finishing EDM
applications. Some EDM machines incorporate both the
transistor generator for roughing EDM and RC generator for
finishing EDM.
Volatge and current Pulses of RC and transisitor Generator:

(a) is Isofrequency pulses by RC generator and (b) is Transistor

generator enabled Isopulse.
The machining mode schematically presented in figure (b) is called
Isopulse, because every discharge has the same on-time,
independently of the pre-breakdown duration
General Characteristics of MRR in EDM
EDM Surface Integrity
I Due to the high temperature, metallurgical changes occur in
the subsurface layers of the EDM workpiece. Commonly there
are three zones that can be observed:
(1) Recast zone
(2) Heat-affected zone
(3) Conversion zone.
Applications of EDM
Applications of EDM
...........

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Laser Beam Machining

Prof. J. Ramkumar

Department of Mechanical Engineering

IIT Kanpur

March 26, 2018

Laser Beam Machining

I A laser is a device that emits light through a process of

optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of
electromagnetic radiation. The term ”laser” originated as an
acronym for:
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
I Lasing process describes the basic operation of laser, i.e.
generation of coherent (both temporal and spatial) beam of
light by ”light amplification” using ”stimulated emission”.
I The laser differs from other incoherent light because it is:
1) Monochromatic
2) Coherent
3) Directional or collimated
4) Bright
Schematic Diagram of Laser Beam Machine
-
Principle of LASER

I The electrons at ground state can be excited to higher state

of energy by absorbing energy form external sources like
electronic vibration at elevated temperature, through chemical
reaction or by absorbing photons.
I On reaching the higher energy level, the electron reaches an
unstable energy band. And it comes back to its ground state
within a very small time by releasing a photon. This is called
spontaneous emission.
Spontaneous vs. Stimulated Emission
Working of LASER
LASER beam and depth of focus

−8r 2
 
I (r ) = I0 exp (1)
w2
where I0 is the maximum intensity, r is defined as the distance
from the center of the beam in gaussian distribution of laser beam,
and w(minimum spot or gaussian beam diameter) is the diameter
at which the Intensity is 1/e 2 of its maximum value.
Types of LASERS
Light Spectrum
Machining with long pulse lasers and short pulse laser
Machining with long pulse lasers and short pulse laser
Laser Material Interaction
Process characteristics

Geometry of a drilled hole using LBM process

 
α (e − c)
tan = (2)
2 2d
Power Density and MRR in LBM
I The input and focus of LBM are converted to thermal energy
to vaporize the work piece material. The size of the spot
diameter ds is determined by

ds = F l θ (3)
I where Fl is the focal length of lens and θ is the beam
divergence angle (rad).The area of the laser beam at focal
point, As , is
π
As = (Fl θ)2 (4)
4
Power Density and MRR in LBM

I The power of the laser beam, Lp , is given by

Lp = Es /∆t (5)
I where Es is the laser energy (in the unit of J) and ∆t is the
pulse duration of the laser.
I The power density of the laser beam, Pd (in the unit of
W/mm2 ), is given by

Lp 4Lp
Pd = = (6)
As π(Fl θ)2
Power Density and MRR in LBM

I The drilling feed rate f (in the unit of mm/s) can be described
as follows:

Cl L p Cl Pd
f = = (7)
Ev As Ev
I where the conversion efficiency Cl is a constant depending on
the material and conversion efficiency and Ev is vaporization
energy of the work piece material (J/mm3 ).
I The MRR can be calculated as follows:

Cl Lp
MRR = fAs = (8)
Ev
Parametric Analysis:Cutting front vs cutting speed
Parametric Analysis:Laser Cutting
Parametric Analysis
LASER applications
LASER applications
-
-
...........

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Electrochemical Machining

Prof. J. Ramkumar

Department of Mechanical Engineering

IIT Kanpur

March 26, 2018

Electrochemical Machining: Products
Electrochemical Machining

I Electrochemical machining is one of the most unconventional

machining processes.
I The process is actually the reverse of electroplating with some
modifications.
I It is based on the principle of electrolysis.
I In a metal, electricity is conducted by free electrons but in a
solution the conduction of electricity is achieved through the
movement of ions.
I Thus the flow of current through an electrolyte is always
accompanied by the movement of matter.
I In the ECM process the work-piece is connected to a positive
electrode and the tool to the negative terminal for metal
removal.
Electrochemical Machining contd.
Electrochemical Machining contd.
Electrochemical Reactions
Polarization Curve
Electrical Double Layer
Over Potential in ECM
Electrochemistry of ECM process

I The electrolysis process is governed by the following two

laws proposed by Faraday
• The amount of chemical change produced by an electric
current, that is, the amount of any material dissolved or
deposited, is proportional to the quantity of electricity passed.
• The amounts of different substances dissolved or deposited by
the same quantity of electricity are proportional to their
chemical equivalent weights.

m ∝ ItE (1)

where m is the mass of dissolved metal, I is the current, t is

time and E is the gram chemical equivalent (E = A/Z ), A is
the atomic mass of anode and Z is the valency of dissolution
of anode
Material removal in ECM

I Material removal (m) in ECM follows faradays laws of

electrolysis:
ItE
m= (2)
F
where F is the Faraday constant.
I Material removal rate (MRR) can be obtained as

m IE
= ṁ = (3)
t F
Material removal in ECM

I MRR can be obtained as

ρa va ρa Aa ya IE
= = (4)
t t F
I MRRl (linear material removal rate) is obtained as

ya IE
MRRl = = (5)
t F ρa Aa
where, ρa is the density of anode, va = volume of material
removed from the anode in time t, Aa = cross-sectional area
on the anode from which material is being removed in time t,
ya is the thickness of material removed in time t.
Linear material removal rate in ECM
As J = I /Aa (current density),

ya JE
MRRl = = (6)
t F ρa

As (V − ∆V ) is the voltage available for driving current through

the electrolyte. so, the current density can be expressed as

I (V − ∆V ) (V − ∆V ) (V − ∆V )
J= = = y =k (7)
Aa RAa A
kAa a y

So, the MRRl can be written as

  
V − ∆V kAa E
MRRl = (8)
Aa y F ρa

Where ∆V is over potential, k = electrolyte’s electrical

conductivity
Applications of ECM

I Die sinking
I Profiling and contouring
I Trepanning
I Grinding, Drilling and Micro-machining
Applications of ECM contd.
...........

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