Reading and Writing

Critical Thinking
- evaluate claims, seek definitions, judge information, demand proof, and question assumptions.
- is a technique for evaluating information and ideas, for deciding what to accept and believe
Critical Reading
- you find out the author’s views on something, ask questions, evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of
the author’s argument, and decide whether to agree or disagree with it
- discover info and ideas in a text
- allows you to enter a dialogue with the author
- you are able to distinguish information that is clearly stated (explicit) in the text from ideas that are
suggested (implicit)
Help you develop critical reading skills
1. Keeping a reading journal – Writing your own feelings and ideas in reaction to reading assignment
2. Annotating the text – making notes on your copy
3. Outlining the text – locating thesis statement, claims and evidences
4. Summarizing the text – getting main points
5. Questioning the text – asking specific questions on points
Claim/Central Argument/Thesis statement
- you find yourself looking for the writer’s point or position regarding the topic.
- It is what the writer tries to prove by providing details, explanations and evidences.
- It is the most important part of the text
- Defines the paper’s direction and scope
- Summarizes the most important thing
Characteristics of a good claim:
1. Argumentative and debatable
2. Specific and Focused
3. Interesting and Engaging
4. Logical
Different Types of Claims
1. Claims of fact
- state a quantifiable assertion or a measurable topic
- assert that something has existed
- rely on reliable sources or systematic procedures
- usually answers a what question
Ex. Television newscasting influences the way Americans think about social and political issues.
Excessive consumption of alcohol can lead to many illnesses.
The existence of nuclear weapons has prevented the outbreak of World War III
Obesity can cause heart disease.
2. Claims of Value
- Assert that something can be qualified
- Consist of arguments about moral, philosophical or aesthetic
- Explain how problems, situations ought to be valued
Ex. Honesty is the best policy
The Bates GRE Study Guide is an excellent tutorial for students preparing to take the GRE
3. Claims of Policy
 - Posit that specific actions should be chosen as solution
- Begin with should, ought to, must
- Defend actionable plans
- Answers how questions
Ex. To attract more nontraditional students, this college must review and revise its course offerings
An improved sewer system would solve these flood drainage problems.
America should protect its domestic industries with tariffs and quotas
Context – social, cultural, political, historical, and other related circumstances that surround the text
Intertextuality
- modeling of a text’s meaning by another text
- connections between language
- author borrows and transforms a prior text
- becomes a dialogue among different texts
Hypertext
- nonlinear way of showing information
- connects topics on screen to related information
- appear as links
Assertions – declarative sentences that claim something is true about something else.
Types of Assertions
1. Fact – statement that can be proven objectively by direct experience, testimonies, verified observations
or results of research
Ex. The sampaguita’s roots are used for medicinal purposes such as an anesthetic and a sedative.
2. Convention
- a way in which something is done, similar to traditions and norms
- depend on historical precedent, laws, rules, usage and customs
- truthfulness is verified by how commonly held definitions and beliefs are interpreted
Ex. The sampaguita belongs to the genus churba of the family of polana
Import liberalization means allowing foreign goods to enter Philippine markets
3. Opinion
- Based on facts but are difficult to objectively verify because of uncertainty
- Result from ambiguities
Ex. The popularity of sampaguita is most evident in places of worship
4. Preference
- Based on personal choice
- They are subjective and cannot be objectively proven or logically attacked
Ex. Sampaguitas are the most beautiful and most fragrant of all flowers
The Aquino government should have toughened it stand against the burgeoning insurgency
Evidence
- Details given by the author to support his/her claim
- Reveals and builds on the position of the writer and makes the reading more interesting
- Crucial in swaying the reader to your side
Includes:
1. Facts and Statistics
2. Opinions from experts
3. Personal anecdotes
Academic Writing
- is conducted in several sets of forms and genres, normally in an impersonal and dispassionate tone,
targeted for a critical and informed audience, based on closely investigated knowledge, and intended to
reinforce or challenge concepts or arguments
- refers to a style of expression that researchers use to define the intellectual boundaries of their
disciplines and their specific areas of expertise
- It informs the audience through critical approach and directs further thinking by emphasizing clarity
Examples of Academic Writing
1. Book/Article Review
- Looks at the quality, meaning, significance of a work of literature
- Examine what the author has tried to do, evaluate how well the author has succeeded and presents
evidence to support this evaluation
- Focusing on purpose, content, and authority in which strengths and weaknesses of the material are
analyzed.
- Introduction-Summary-Analysis-Conclusion
2. Literature Review
- Introduce by pointing out the major research topic that will be discussed
- Identify the broad problem
- Discuss the general importance of the topic
- Pick out the research most relevant to the topic
- Used as evidence in your research
Topical Order - organize by main topics or issues; emphasize the relationship of the issues to the main
“problem”.
Chronological Order - organize the literature by the dates the research was published
Problem-Cause-Solution Order—Organize the review so that it moves from the problem to the solution
General-to-Specific Order— (Also called the funnel approach) Examine broad-based research first and
then focus on specific studies
Specific-to-General Order—Try to make discuss specific research studies so conclusions can be drawn
on specific studies that relate to the topic
3. Position Paper
- discussing both sides of a current issue or event, and then arguing why one is stronger or better than
the other
- objective is not to “win” but to persuade others that your position is strong, credible, and beneficial
- Outline: Introduction - Body Pars - Par before Conclusion - Conclusion
4. Project Proposal
- Proposals for education projects are often written with the purpose of gaining approval and
receiving grant money for a project
- Close the proposal by discussing evaluation methods
5. Research Report
- A condensed form or a brief description of the research work done by the researcher. It involves
several steps to present the report in the form of thesis or dissertation
Professional Writing
- It is a writing for reward or as a profession, it is any form or written communication produced in a
workplace environment or context. Works produced with the professional writing style allow
professionals to make informed decisions.
 - It also involves the use of precise language to convey information in a way that is easily understood by
its intended audience.
- It is applied to a business or setting and is meant to facilitate work though communication
Resume
- It is a French word meaning “summary”.
- Summary of one’s employment, education, and other skills, used in applying for a new position.
- The résumé is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application
for employment, which a potential employer sees regarding the job seeker and is typically used to
screen applicants, often followed by an interview
- A document that contains a brief account of a person’s education, skills, work experiences and other
qualifications.
- Usually sent along with job applications and sometimes with school applications.
- Allows school admissions officers and hiring officers to assess experience and determine how you
will you contribute to their organization
Chronological Resume
- most typical and popular format of a resume.
- It describes your work experience role by role, beginning with the most recent job.
1. Heading. Includes full name, address, home phone numbers, cellphone numbers and e-mail.
2. Objective. Informs the reader of the specific purpose of your resume
3. Education. Lists of high schools you have attended
4. Honors and Awards. Academic and extracurricular recognitions
5. School Activities. Experience in school
6. Work Experience. Any relevant work experiences you had
7. Enrichment activities. Details any other projects, skills and programs
Bio-data
- It is short for biographical data
- It is the old-fashioned terminology for Resume or CV.
- Bio data is biographical data. is “...factual kinds of questions about life and work experiences, as well as
items involving opinions, values, beliefs, and attitudes that reflect a historical perspective
Curriculum Vitae
- Latin word meaning “course of life”
- It is pertaining to education and life
- It is more detailed than a resume.
- is a written overview of a person's experience and other qualifications.
- In some countries, a CV is typically the first item that a potential employer encounters regarding the job
seeker and is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.
Cover Letter – a letter that accompanies your resume and highlights the strengths that you have listed
Goals:
- To introduce and present your resume to the HR personnel or the recruiter
- To land you the interview for that dream job you wanted
- Increase the chances of getting the job
- To help you get the job
Parts and Contents:
1. Heading - states the local address of the sender
Example:
 05895 Neon St., Brgy. Taft
Surigao City
2. Date
Example:
March 19th, 2018
September 18, 2017
3. Inside Address
(Do your Research)
Job Title (Normally the Human Resource Personnel)
Address
Example:
Mr. Ronnie E. Cruz
Human Resource Manager
Metropolitan Corporation
P. Rodriguez St., Cebu City

4. Salutation
Example:
Sir/Maam:
Dear Sir:
Dear Maam:
Dear Sir/Maam:
5. Body
Paragraph 1:
- How you learned about the job opportunity
- Position you are applying for
Paragraph 2:
- Short detail of your education credentials.
- “General Overview” of your experience related to the position you are applying for.
Paragraph 3:
- Specific accomplishments/trainings that are relevant to the prospective job
- Natural interest in the position from qualifications indicated
- Most accomplished experience first related to the job description
Paragraph 4:
- Writing when you will be getting in touch and following up with the recruiter
- Stating you are looking forward to hearing back and ready for an interview
- Lists of your contact details like your full name, phone number, email address and any other
relevant information
6. Complimentary Close
Example:
Yours truly,
Very truly yours,
7. Signature block
Example:
 Ryan S. Villa
Applicant
8. Enclosure
Example:
Encl.
resume, TOR
1. Introduction. Opens the letter and specifies the position that you are applying for.
Ex. Your advertisement churba interests me so much
2. Body. Emphasizes strongest points and shows how you meet the employer’s need and highlights benefits
that the organization will get from accepting you.
Ex. I have taken electives in advanced compositions and research writing
3. Conclusion. Where you request for an interview and includes your contact information.
Type Informal Formal
Prep.
About … Regarding / Concerning …
Idiom
Agree with … Be bound by …
Conj.
And As well as …
Idiom
Bearing in mind Reference being made to …
Conj.
Because … As a result of / due to (the fact) …
Verb
Begin Commence
Conj.
But While / Whereas
Adj.
Careful / Cautious Prudential
Verb
Carry out Effect
Verb
Check Verify
Adj.
Enough Sufficient
Verb
Fill me in Inform / Tell
Verb
Find out Ascertain
Verb
Follow Duly observe
Verb
Get Receive
Verb
Get in touch Contact
Verb
Go over Exceed
Verb
Has to be Shall be
Verb
Have to give Submit
Conj.
If … Should …
Conj.
If … or not. Whether … or not.
Idiom
If you don't … Failing / Failure to…
Idiom
If you've got any questions … Should you have any queries …
Idiom
In accordance with … Pursuant to
Idiom
In the red Overdrawn
Verb
Involve Entail
Idiom
Lost Inadvertently mislaid
Verb
Make sure Ensure
Adj.
Many Several / Numerous
Verb
Order Authorise
Verb
Pay Settle
Idiom
Put in writing Provide written confirmation
Idiom
Sorry! We regret …
Verb
Supply Furnish
Verb
Take away Withdraw
Verb
Tell Disclose
Verb
Trusted Entrusted
Idiom
We don't want to do this … This a course of action we are anxious to avoid
…
Idiom
We'll call the law … We will have no alternative but involving our
legal …
Idiom
When we get … On receipt
Idiom
Whenever we like … Without prior notice …
Verb
Write (e.g. Cheque) Issue (e.g. Cheque)
Verb
Written Shown / Indicated
 Personal Development
Relationship – the way in which two or more people, groups, countries, etc., talk to, behave toward, and deal
with each other
Personal Relationship
- closely associated with the person and which can only have the meaning to this person.
- Involves a degree of commitment to another person
Privacy and intimacy are two characteristics that define personal relationship.
Attachment Styles defined by Ainsworth Blekar, Waters and Wall
1. Secure Attachment
- is when the primary caregiver most of the time present and available and when the emotional
needs of an infant are met, providing a sense of security.
- A child who is exposed to this style will grow up to have more secure and stable relationship
2. Avoidant Attachment
- Primary caregiver is cold and detached, and even unresponsive to a child’s need
- Child senses rejection and leads to premature detachment and self-reliance
- A person who experienced this style will experience unstable relationships in the future
- This echoes to the Intimacy and Isolation stage of Erik Erikson’s theory
3. Anxious-ambivalent attachment
- Caregiver is not consistent in terms of presence and in meeting a child’s emotional need
- Person who experience this style may develop separation anxieties with a loved one
- May have mixed feelings between hesitancy and commitment in relationships
Stages of Falling in Love according to Fisher:
1. Lust – driven by sex hormones, testosterone and estrogen. Affect both sexes
2. Attraction – lovestruck phase which involves neurotransmitter in the brain such as dopamine, serotonin.
It is when a person loses sleep and appetite and also daydreams of the special person
3. Attachment – it is when the couple in love decides to continue with the relationship, they enter
attachment stage where long-lasting commitments are exchanged and may lead to raising a family.
Oxytocin is released
Loving – a natural drive that is as powerful as hunger
Rozenberg Quarterly theories of attraction and liking:
1. Transference Effect
- Past relationships can affect our current interactions with people
- We prefer some and avoid others because of bad experience we had with someone we associated
this person
2. Propinquity Effect
- Proximity is another factor why we like a person
- We develop a sense of familiarity with people who live close to us, work with us, or go to school with
us
- Familiarity equates liking
3. Similarity
- We are attracted because of similarities such as social backgrounds, religious belief, age and
education
- Similarity is a validation of our innermost values and belief system
4. Reciprocity
- We like people who like us back
 - Reciprocity is a stronger basis for liking another person than similarity
- Mutual liking
5. Physical Attractiveness
- Connotes positive health and reproductive fitness
- Bilateral symmetry is found attractive
6. Personality Characteristics and Traits
- Women will forego physical attractiveness for other traits such as warmth, trustworthiness and
status
- Men put a premium over attractiveness and vitality
Love – an emotion, feeling, virtue, action, and experience
Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love
1. Intimacy
- lovely moment when someone understands and
validates us.
- an absolute certainty that no one can know his own
beauty or perceive a sense of his own worth until it
has been reflected back to him in the mirror of
another loving, caring human being.
- Being intimate with another person is about being
open and vulnerable to that person
- Communication is a key component in developing
intimacy
2. Commitment
- An act of deciding to consistently fulfill and live by
agreements made with another person.
- Expressed continuously in caring and loving actions
for the beloved
3. Passion
- Internal state of being that drives and consumes a person to pursue an interest, vision, person.
- In terms of romantic love, it connotes sexual attraction as well as intimacy.
Intimacy = Liking
Passion = Infatuation
Commitment = Empty love
Intimacy + Passion = Romantic Love
Intimacy + Commitment = Companionate Love
Passion + Commitment = Fatuous Love
Intimacy + Passion + Commitment = Consummate Love
Non-love – eighth type of love
Physical Attraction – biologically driven by chemicals in out body called hormones.
Symmetry – another driver of attracted since it has a basis for our survival
Hormones and Physical Symmetry drive physical attraction
Attraction serves as a first step toward liking someone
Reciprocity (mutual liking) is what triggers a couple to move forward romance and intimacy and eventually to
commitment
We have responsibilities for all our relationships and these are primarily anchored on mutual respect, trust and
integrity
Social Relationship – how we interact and behave with other people.
Difference between social relationship and personal relationship is the degree of intimacy and vulnerability we
offer
August Turak proposed that personal development is not a tool for reaching a goal because becoming a
complete human being is the biggest and most noble goal you can aspire for.
Leader – someone who is the head of a group of people by virtue of having strength and wisdom
Leadership – ability of a person in position of authority to influence others to behave in such a manner that
goals are achieved
Theories of Leadership
1. Trait Theory – based on personality traits which are generally suited for all leaders such as decisiveness,
persistence, high level of self-confidence.
2. Behavioral Theory – presupposes that leadership is a learned behavior, and that leaders are defined
according to certain types of behavior they exhibit.
3. Participative Theory – Opposite of autocratic leaders. Participative leader involves other people to make
common decision.
4. Situational Theory – assumes that there is no one style of leadership and that leadership behavior is
based on factors present in a situation, and usually takes into consideration how followers behave.
5. Transactional Theory – involves a transaction or negotiation of resources or position, and usually
employs reward and punishment.
6. Transformational Theory – involves a vision which a leader uses to rally support from followers and the
role of the leader is in motivating others to support vision and make it happen.
Authentic Leadership – primarily determined by how followers view the leader thus attributing a leader’s
authenticity through the eyes of his or her followers
Three Characteristics or Axioms:
1. Leadership is situational. Leader’s behavior will always be influenced by the situation. The leader is
able to assess a situation quickly
2. Leadership is non-hierarchical. Leadership is not based on one’s position in an organization chart
alone but also depends on characteristics and skills
3. Leadership is relational. Leaders and followers establish a relationship where their interests are
mutually met.
Heroic Leadership – members of the society of Jesus live by. Everyone is a leader and everyone gets the
chance to lead
Four Principles:
1. Self-awareness
2. Ingenuity. Not stuck in his comfort zone, flexible and open to new ideas
3. Love.
4. Heroism. Motivating and inspiring other people
Other Types of leaders:
1. Why – usually visionary, the one who believes results can be achieved.
2. How – realist who is able to see how to work out a vision
3. What – is the builder who provides the details on how get things done.
Family
- a group of individuals living under one roof and usually under one head
 - two or more persons who share resources, share responsibilities, share values and goals and have a
commitment to each other overtime.
Different Types of Family Structures
1. Nuclear or Traditional Family
- comprised of a father, a mother and their offspring.
- Father plays the role of the breadwinner while mother stays at home to manage home and
children.
- Adopted children are also considered.
- The values and social skills are directly learned from parents
2. Single Parent – who rears the child while earning for the offspring. The single parent may be supported
by relatives
3. Extended Family - nuclear family plus the parents of either the husband or the wife or both.
4. Childless Family – just the couple
5. Interracial Marriages - is a form of marriage outside a specific social group (exogamy) involving spouses
who belong to different socially-defined races or racialized ethnicities
6. Adoptive Family
7. Same-sex Marriages
Authoritative Parenting
- Key factor in the psychosocial development of an adolescent and is believed to foster a healthy and
positive impact of the adolescent’s development
- These are parents who insist on their child learning important values, norms and rules but are also willing
to listen and negotiate with them should they resist
- Providing curfews and limited time
- Exercising control over a child’s behavior not the child’s emotions, beliefs, and self-control
Genogram – graphical map of a family’s history that traces and illustrates patterns in its structure and
characteristics using special symbols to describe relationships, major events, diseases, traditions, social and
personal beliefs and rituals, cultural heritage, religious belief, value systems etc., of a family over several
generations
Career – is a profession that a person may get into, either because he has found a good match between his life
goals, skills, personality, and interests with a dream job.
Categories of Career Development Theories
1. Trait Factor – skills, values, interests and personality characteristics
2. Psychological – Six personality categories are considered: realistic, investigative, social, conventional,
enterprising and artistic.
a. Realistic (Do’er) – Prefers physical activities that require skill, strength, and coordination. Traits
include genuine, stable, conforming, and practical. Example professions include architect, farmer,
and engineer
b. Investigative (Thinker) – Prefers working with theory and information, thinking, organizing, and
understanding. Traits include: analytical, curious, and independent. Example professions include
lawyer, mathematician, and professor
c. Artistic (Creator) – Prefers creative, original, and unsystematic activities that allow creative
expression. Traits include: imaginative, disorderly, idealistic, emotional, and impractical. Example
professions include: artist, musician, and writer
 d. Social (Helper) – Prefers activities that involve helping, healing, or developing others. Traits include
cooperative, friendly, sociable, and understanding. Example professions include counselor, doctor,
and teacher.
e. Enterprising (Persuader) – Prefers competitive environments, leadership, influence, selling, and
status. Traits include ambitious, domineering, energetic, and self-confident. Example professions
include Management, Marketing, and Sales Person
f. Conventional (Organizer) – Prefers precise, rule-regulated, orderly, and unambiguous activities.
Traits include conforming, efficient, practical, unimaginative, and inflexible. Example professions
include accountant, clerk and editor
3. Decision – based on theory of self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy – the belief in one’s capabilities to plan, organize, and execute a set of actions that will
produce desired results,
4. Developmental or Life-Span of Life-Space Theory – based on the idea that humans are always in
constant change.
Factors Influencing Adolescent’s Career Choices
1. Parental Preferences
2. Family Considerations. For practical and security reasons for example
3. Financial Constraints. Manageable by looking for scholarships to aid in pursuing your dreams
4. Job Market Preference (Immediate Employment). These are priority courses and in demands
5. School Location
6. Peer Pressure. Friends and classmates might exert pressure to take up a course so that you can be
together in college.
7. Gender Bias. Engineering was once purely for males same with nurses purely for females
8. Language Limitation. You want to take up European studies for example but communication worries
you
9. Academic Performance.
 Filipino
DISENYO AT PAMAMARAAN NG PANANALIKSIK
Disenyo ng Pananaliksik
- ay ang pangkalahatang estratehiya na pinipili ng mananaliksik upang pagsama-samahin ang lahat
ng bahagi ng proseso ng pananaliksik sa maayos at lohikal na paraan
- Ito ang nagtitiyak na masasagot ng pananaliksik ang suliranin at matutupad ang layunin na
itinakda nito
- Ang bahaging ito ng pananaliksik ay kadalasang naglalaman ng paraan ng pangongolekta,
presentasyon, at pagsusuri ng datos
- Ayon sa Business Dictionary (2011), ang disenyo ng pananaliksik ang detalyadong balangkas kung
paano isasagawa ang imbestigasyon. Kadalasang nilalaman nito kung sa paanong paraan
mangangalap ng datos ang mananaliksik, ano at paano gagamitin ang napiling instrumento at ang
mga pamamaraan kung paanong susuriin ang datos
Suliranin ng Pananaliksik
- ang nagtatakda sa uri ng disenyong gagamitin ng mananaliksik.
- Kailangang tiyakin na ang kabuuang disenyo ay lohikal na sasagot sa mahahalagang tanong ng
pananaliksik.
- Ang pangangalap ng impormasyon na tutugon sa suliranin ng pananaliksik ay nangangailangan
ng pagtitiyak ng uri ng ebidensiya at impormasyon upang subukin ang mga teorya, tasahin ang
programa, o kaya’y ilarawan ang ugnayan ng mga kalahok sa pananaliksik
- Madalas na nagiging pagkakamali ng mga mananaliksik ang agad na paglusong sa imbestigasyon
at pangangalap ng datos, bago pa man kritikal na pag-isipan kung anong mga tiyak na
impormasyon ang kailangan upang tugunan ang suliranin ng pananaliksik
- Kung hinding magawa ang batayang pangangailangang ito bago gawin ang pananaliksik,
kadalasang hindi sapat na nasasagot ang itinakdang tanong ng pag-aaral o kaya’y mahina at hindi
akma ang nagiging kongklusyon nito
Ayon kay David de Vaus (2011), kung mailalatag nang maayos ng isang mananaliksik ang sistema at
disenyo ng pananaliksik, tiyak na makakamit nito ang sumusunod:
 Matutukoy nang malinaw ang suliranin ng pananaliksik at mapangangatuwiranan ang pagkakapili
nito;
 Madaling makabubuo ng rebuy at sintesis ng mga naunang pag-aaral na may kinalaman sa paksa
at suliranin ng ginagawang pananaliksik;
 Malinaw at tiyak na matutukoy ang mga haypotesis na pinakasentral sa pag-aaral;
 Epektibong matutukoy at mailalarawan ang datos na kailangan sa pagsubok ng mga haypotesis
at maipaliliwanag kung paanong makakalap ang mga datos na ito; at
 Mailalarawan ang mga pamamaraan ng pagsusuri na gagamitin upang alamin kung tama o mali
ang mga haypotesis.
IBA’T IBANG PARAAN AT KATEGORYA NG DISENYO NG PANANALIKSIK
PANGKALAHATANG DISTINKSIYON NG DISENYO NG PANANALIKSIK
1. Kuwantitatibo (Quantitative).
- tumutukoy sa sistematiko at empirical na imbestigasyon ng iba’t ibang paksa at penomenang
panlipunan sa pamamagitan ng matematikal, estadistikal, at mga teknik na pamamaraan na
gumagamit ng kompyutasyon.
- Kadalasang ginagamitan din ito ng mga nasusukat at nakabalangkas na pamamaraan sa
pananaliksik gaya ng sarbey, eksperimentasyon, at pagsusuring estadistika
 - Kapaki-pakinabang ang kuwantitatibong pananaliksik sa mga mananaliksik na nais mag-aral at
mag-imbestiga ng mga malakihan at pangkalahatang padron ng pagkilos at pag-uugali ng tao
HALIMBAWA:
 Sensus sa populasyon
 Mga panlipunang indikasyon gaya ng antas ng kawalan ng trabaho at dami ng paghihirap
 Impormasyong pang-ekonomiya gaya ng paraan ng paggastos ng mga mamamayan
2. Kuwalitatibo (Qualitative)
- Ang kuwalitatibong pananaliksik ay kinapapalooban ng mga uri ng pagsisiyasat na ang layunin ay
malalimang unawain ang pag-uugali at ugnayan ng mga tao at dahilan na gumagabay rito.
- Ang disenyong ito ay pinapatnubayan ng paniniwalang ang pag-uugali ng tao ay laging nakabatay
sa mas malawak na kontekstong pinangyayarihan nito at mga panlipunang realidad gaya ng
kultura, institusyon, at ugnayang pantao na hindi maaaring mabilang o masukat
Klasipikasyon ng Pananaliksik
1. Deskriptibo
- Pinag-aaralan sa mga palarawang pananaliksik ang pangkasulukuyang ginagawa, pamantayan, at
kalagayan.
- Nagbibigay ito ng tugon sa mga tanong na sino, ano, kailan, saan at paano na may kinalaman sa
paksa ng pag-aaral.
- Hindi ito makatutugon sa mga tanong na “bakit” sapagkat naglalarawan lamang ito ng tiyak at
kasalukuyang kondisyon ng pangyayari at hindi ng nakalipas o hinaharap
- Mayaman din ang datos na nakukuha rito upang magiging batayan ng mga rekomendasyon para
sa malakihang populasyon.
HALIMBAWA
- Persepsyon ng mga pag-aaral sa Divorce Bill
- Antas ng paggamit ng apat na core values ng UST ng mga guro sa kanilang pagtuturo
2. Disenyong Action Research
- Kaiba sa deskriptibong pananaliksik, inilalarawan at tinatasa ng isang mananaliksik ang isang
tiyak na kalagayan, pamamaraan, modelo, polisiya, at iba pa sa layuning palitan ito ng mas
epektibong pamamaraan.
- Habang isinasagawa ang pananaliksik ay bumubuo rin ng mga plano at estratehiya ang
mananaliksik kung paanong makapagbibigay ng makabuluhang rekomendasyon.
- Kailangan din ang mga serye ng ebalwasyon kung nakakamit o hindi ang ideyal na awtput.
- Angkop na gamitin ang action research sa larangan ng edukasyon upang mapabuti ang mga
programa o pamamaraan sab pagtuturo
HALIMBAWA
- Tunay nga bang epektibo ang modelong Outcome-Based Education (OBE) sa lalong
pagkatuto ng mga mag-aaral ng arkitektura?
- Anong estratehiya sa pagtuturo ang pinakaepektibo sa pagkatuto ng mga mag-aaral
na may suliranin sa pandinig?
3. Historical
- Ang historical na pananaliksik ay gumagamit ng iba’t ibang pamamaraan ng pangangalap ng
datos upang makabuo ng mga kongklusyon hinggil sa nakaraan.
- Batay sa mga datos at ebidensiya, pinalalalim ang pag-unawa sa nakaraan, kung paano at
bakit nangyari ang mga bagay-bagay, at ang pinagdaang proseso kung paanong ang nakaraan
ay naging kasalukuyan.
 HALIMBAWA
- Pag-unlad ng General Education Curriculum (GEC) sa kolehiyo
- Pag-unlad ng Wikang Pambansa sa Pilipinas
4. Pag-aaral sa Isang Kaso/Karanasan (Case Study)
- Ang mga pananaliksik na nasa ganitong disenyo ay naglalayong malalimang unawain ang isang
particular na kaso kaysa magbigay ng pangkalahatang kongklusyon sa iba’t ibang paksa ng pag-
aaral.
- Ginagamit ito upang paliitin, maging mas espisipiko, o kaya’y pumili lamang ng isang tiyak na
halimbawa mula sa isang napakalawak na paksa.
HALIMBAWA
- Antropolohikal na Pag-aaral ng Iglesia Watawat ng Lahi ni Prospero Covar (1978)
- Kaso ng isang doctor na piniling maging caregiver sa Estados Unidos
- Kahirapan sa Pagkatuto ng Ikalawang Wika: Kaso ng Ilang Mag-aaral ng UST na may Dalawang
Pagkamamamayan
5. Komparatibong Pananaliksik
- Ang komparatibong pananaliksik ay naglalayong mahambing ang anumang konsepto, kultura,
bagay, pangyayari, at iba pa.
- Madalas na gamitin sa mga cross-national na pag-aaral ang ganitong uri ng disenyo upang
mailatag ang mga pagkakaiba at pagkakatulad sa pagitan ng mga lipunan, kultura, at institusyon.
HALIMBAWA
- Komparatibong pagsusuri ng mga panitikang pambata ng mga Tagalog at Bisaya
- Komparatibong pagsusuri ng mga editorial cartoon ng Philippine Star at Philippine Daily
Inquirer sa pagbisita ni Pope Francis sa Pilipinas
6. Pamamaraang Nakabatay sa Pamantayan (Normative Studies)
- Madalas na inihahanay sa deskriptibong uri ng pananaliksik ang disenyong normative dahil
naglalayon itong maglarawan ng anumang paksa.
- Gayunpaman, naiiba ang disenyong ito sapagkat hindi lamang simpleng deskripsyon ang layuning
nito, kung nagbibigay-diin sa pagpapabuti o pagpapaunlad ng populasyong pinag-aaralan batay
sa mga tanggap na modelo o pamantayan.
- Madalas na bahagi ng rekomendasyon ng ganitong pananaliksik ang proyekto o pagpaplano
upang makasapat o makasunod sa hinihinging batayan ng sinumang kalahok sa pananaliksik.
HALIMBAWA:
-Pagsusuri ng Kakayahan sa Matematika ng mga Mag-aaral ng Magsaysay High School Batay sa
Itinakdang Kompetensi ng DepEd
- Bumababang kakayahan ng mga guro sa Ingles sa pagsasalita at pagtuturo ng wikang Ingles
7. Etnograpikong Pag-aaral
- Ang etnograpiya ay isang uri ng pananaliksik sa agham panlipunan na nag-iimbestiga sa kaugalian,
pamumuhay, at iba’t ibang gawi ng isang panlipunang konteksto at mga taong naninirahan dito
sa pamamagitan ng pag-unawa sa kanilang mga pagpapahalaga, pangangailangan, wika, kultura,
at iba pa.
- Nangangailangan ito ng matapat na pag-uulat ng naranasan o naobserbahan ng isang
mananaliksik. Madalas na ginagamit na pamamraan ang partisipasyong etnograpiko o mas kilala
bilang participant observation (Reich 1998; sa pagbanggit nina Tatel, 2011).
HALIMBAWA
- Pagpapakahulugan kay Rizal ng mga Milinaryong Kilusan sa Banahaw
 8. Disenyong Eksploratori
- Isinasagawa ang disenyong eksploratori kung wala pang ganoong pag-aaral na naisagawa tungkol
sa isang paksa o suliranin.
- Ang pokus nito ay upang magkaroon ng mas malawak na kaalaman sa isang paksa na maaaring
magbigay-daan sa mas malawak at komprehensibong pananaliksik.
- Layunin nitong makapaglatag ng mga bagong ideya at palagay o kaya ay makabuo ng mga
tentatibong teorya o haypotesis tungo sa mas malalim na pagkaunawa sa paksa.
HALIMBAWA
- Panimulang Pag-unawa sa Masaker sa Mamasapano Kaugnay ng Usapang Pangkapayapaan
sa Mindanao
METODOLOHIYA NG PANANALIKSIK
KAHULUGAN NG METODOLOHIYA
- Ang metodolohiya ay isang sistematikong kalipunan ng mga metodo o pamamaraan at proseso
ng imbestigasyon na ginagamit sa pangangalap ng datos sa isang pananaliksik.
- Nagmula ito sa mga katagang Latin na methodus na nangangahulugang patakaran o
alintuntunin, at logia na nangangahulugang larangan ng pag-aaral.
- Samakatuwid, ang metodolohiya ay tumutukoy sa isang organisadong larangan ng pag-aaral ng
mga pamamaraan at tuntunin na ginagamit sa pagtuklas ng bagong kaalaman.
- Ang metodo ay tumutukoy sa pamamamaraan ng pagtuklas; ang metodolohiya naman ay
kalipunan at pagkakaayos ng mga kaalamang ito
LIMANG BAHAGI NG NILALAMAN NG METODOLOHIYA
1. Disenyo at Pamamaraan ng Pananaliksik
Ang disenyo ay tumutukoy sa kabuuaang balangkas at pagkakaayos ng pananaliksik. Ang
pamamaraan naman ay kung paanong mabibigyang-katuparan ang disenyo. Narito ang ilang batayang
pamamaraan:
a) Sarbey
Isang modelo na ginagamit upang mangalap ng datos sa sistematikong pamamaraan sa isang
tiyak na populasyon o sampol ng pananaliksik. Ang tagumpay na ito ay batay sa husay ng pagpili ng
representatib ng populasyon (sampling). Sinusuri ang sarbey sa pamamagitan ng iba’t ibang
estadistikal na pamamaraan
- Ilang bahagdan ng mga Pilipino ang nagtitiwala pa sa pangulo ng Pilipinas?
- Gaano karaming mag-aaral ang nakauunawa sa isyu ng Charter Change?
b) Pakikipanayam o Interbyu
Ito ay pagkuha ng impormasyon sa isang kalahok na may awtoridad o di kaya ay may personal na
pagkaunawa sa paksa ng pananaliksik. Kaiba sa sarbey na naglalaman ng mga simpleng tanong,
naglalayon ang pakikipanayam na kumuha ng malalim at malawak na impormasyon mula sa taong
kakapanayamin.
 Structured Interview o Nakabalangkas na Pakikipanayam - Ito ay isang uri ng
pakikipanayam na kung saan halos eksakto o tiyak ang pagtatanong gaya ng mga nasa
talatanungan na ginagamit sa sarbey. Ang kaibahan lamang ay pasalita ang pamamaraan
nito at binabasa ng mananaliksik ang mga tanong sa tagasagot.
 Semi-structured o Pakikinayam na Bahagyang Nakabalangkas- Ito ay isang uri ng
pakikipanayam na mas nagbibigay ng kontrol sa mananaliksik o tagatanong sa magiging
daloy ng panayam. Ginagamitan lamang ito ng mga gabay na tanong upang maging
maayos at sistematiko ang daloy ng panayam ngunit hindi istrikto ang pagsunod nito.
  Unstructured o Walang Estruktura - ng kalahok. Kadalasang impormal ang paraan. Ang
layunin niito ay upang galugarin ang nararamdaman ng kalahok tungkol sa paksa ng
panayam. Maaari ding maging paksa ng panayam ang kuwentong-buhay o partikular na
karanasan an ng pagtatanong sa ganitong uri ng panayam
c) Dokumentaryong Pagsusuri
- Ang dokumentaryong pagsusuri ay isang pamamaraan sa pananaliksik na ginagamit upang
kumapal ng impormasyon na susuporta at magpapatibay sa mga datos ng pananaliksik sa
pamamagitan ng analitikal na pagbasa sa mga nasusulat na komunikasyon at mga dokumento
upang malutas ang mga suliranin.
- Madalas na ginagamit ito bilang sekondaryang pamamaraan sa pagsusuri ng mga kaugnay na
literature o kaya ay pangunahing pinagmumulan ng resulta ng pananaliksik.
- Ang iba’t ibang uri ng dokumentaryong pagsusuri ay: pagsusuri sa nilalaman (content analysis),
pagsusuring semyotiko (semiotics), pagsusuring diskorsal (discourse analysis), at interpretatibong
pagsusuri (interpretative analysis).
d) Dokumentaryong Pagsusuri Nakabalangkas na Obserbasyon at Pakikisalamuhang Obserbasyon
- Ginagamit ito sa mga uri ng pananaliksik na nangangailangan ng field study gaya ng
etnograpiya.
- Ang nakabalangkas na obserbasyon ay pagmamasid ng mananaliksik sa mga kalahok na pokus
ng pag-aaral habang sistematikong itinatala ang kanilang pagkilos, interaksiyon, at pag-uugali
sa pamamagitan ng gabay na obserbasyon.
- Ang pakikisalamuhang obserbasyon ay ang pag-aaral sa kilos, pag-uugali, at interaksiyon ng
mga kalahok sa isang likas na kapaligiran.
- Kasabay ng sistematikong obserbasyon, ang mananaliksik ay nakikisalamuha at nakikisali sa
karaniwang mga proseso o pamumuhay ng mga tao sa isang komunidad.
2. Lokal at Populasyon ng Pananaliksik
- Sa bahaging ito ng metodolohiya, nakasaad ang mga batayang impormasyon tungkol sa kalahok
ng pananaliksik.
- Kabilang sa mga ito ay kung sino, tagasaan, o kaya ay kung sa anong institusyon o organisasyon
ang kalahok.
- Ibinibigay ang batayang impormasyon gaya ng propesyon, edad, at kasarian depende sa
pangangailangan ng mananaliksik.
3. Kasangkapan sa Paglilikom ng Datos
- Sa bahaging ito ng metodolohiya, ilalahad ang uri ng kasangkapan o instrumentong gagamitin
upang maisagawa ang pamamaraan ng pananaliksik,.
- Nakabatay sa disenyo at pamamaraan ang instrumento.
- Binubuo ng instrumento bago ang aktuwal na pangangalap na datos.
- Nagsisilbing bahagi ng apendiks ng pananaliksik ang mismong talatanungan, checklist, o anumang
bagay.
- Sa mismong pananaliksik kung saan tinatalakay ang metodolohiya, kailangang ipanliwanag ng
mananaliksik ang pangkalahatang nilalaman, pagkakahati, at balangkas ng instrument.
4. Paraan sa Paglikom ng Datos
- Nilalaman naman ng bahaging ito ang hakbang-hakbang na plano at proseso sa pagkuha ng datos.
- Maaaring gumawa ang mananaliksik ng dayagram upang maipakita ang mga hakbang sa
pangangalap ng datos o kaya ay ilahad ang mga ito.
5. Paraan sa Pagsusuri ng Datos
 - Kung kuwantitatibo ang pananaliksik, nakapaloob sa bahaging ito ang iba’t ibang estadistikal na
pamamaraan para sa kompyutasyon at pagsusuri ng datos.
- Kung kuwalitatibo naman, madalas na tinutukoy rito kung paanong isasaayos at buuin ang mga
kategorya o maliliit na paksa na magpapaliwanag sa mga datos na nakalap.
- Ilalagay rin sa bahaging ito kung paano gagawing sistematiko ang presentasyon ng datos para sa
mas madaling interpretasyon at pagsusuri.
PAGSUSURI NG DATOS
Upang makuha ang sagot sa antas ng integrasyon ng transpormatibong edukasyon sa nilalaman at
pamamaraan ay ginamit ng mananaliksik ang weighted mean at ginawang salalayan ang sumusunod sa istandard
at deskripsiyon sa pagbibigay ng interpretasyon dito.
 General Chemistry
I. GAS AND GAS LAWS
GASES:
– expand spontaneously to fill their containers
– are highly compressible
– have extremely low densities
– have indefinite shape
– can diffuse and mix rapidly with other gases in the same container (different gases in a mixture do
not separate upon standing)
PRESSURE

To describe gases, we need

• P, pressure of the container
• V, volume of the container
• T, Kelvin temperature of the gas
• n, number of moles in the container
▪ Boyle’s Law
The VOLUME of a fixed quantity of gas at constant temperature is inversely proportional to the
PRESSURE
Formula: P1V1=P2V2
Sample Problem #1: Two hundred milliliter of gas is contained in a vessel under a pressure of 850 mm
Hg. What would be the new volume of the gas if the pressure is changed to 1000 mm Hg? Assume that
the temperature remains constant.
Sample Problem #2: A 2.5 liter sample of a gas is collected at a pressure of 1.25 atm. Calculate the
pressure needed to reduce the volume of the gas to 2.0 liters. The temperature remains unchanged.
▪ Charles’s Law
The VOLUME of a fixed amount of gas at constant pressure is directly proportional to its ABSOLUTE
TEMPERATURE
 Formula: V1/T1=V2/T2
Sample Problem #1: What would be the volume of a ball containing half a liter of air at 25 oC when it is
left in the field with a temperature of 30 oC?
Sample Problem #2: A party balloon is filled with 4 liters of helium gas at 30 ◦C. The balloon is left in a
place where the temperature is 50 ◦C. Assuming the balloon does not burst and the pressure is
unchanged, calculate the volume of helium gas.
▪ COMBINED RELATIONSHIPS
 Is derived from Boyle’s law and Charles’ law equations.
 It states that for a mass of gas, the volume is inversely proportional to the pressure and directly
proportional to its temperature.
𝑷𝟏𝑽𝟏 𝑷𝟐𝑽𝟐
Formula: =
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
Sample Problem #1: A quantity of gas exerts a pressure of 2.4 atm when the its volume is 4.0 liters at 40 ◦C.
Calculate the pressure exerted by the same gas if the temperature is raised to 50 ◦C and the volume is reduced
to 1.5 liters.
Sample Problem #2: A gas sample occupies a volume of 20 m3 at
40 ◦C and at a pressure of 1.60 atm. What volume will it occupy at
STP?
▪ Avogadro’s Law
The VOLUME of a gas at constant temperature and pressure is
directly proportional to the NUMBER OF MOLES OF THE GAS
V = constant x n
Formula: V1/n1=V2/n2
Sample Problem #1: If 0.25 mol of argon gas occupies a volume of 76.2 mL at a particular temperature and
pressure, what volume would 0.43 mol of argon have under the same conditions?

Ideal-Gas Equation
• Ideal Gas Particles:
have no volume and are not attracted/ repelled by each other.
•Brings together gas properties.
•STP (standard temperature and pressure) = 0 °C, 273.15 K, 1 atm.
Formula: PV= nRT
Sample Problem 1:
1. A flashbulb contains 2.4 x 10-4 mol of O2 gas at a pressure of 1.9 atm and a temperature of 19 °C. What
is the volume of the flashbulb in cubic cm?
2. What volume will 1.27 mol of He gas occupy at STP?
3. How many moles of gas are contained in a 50.0 L cylinder at a pressure of 1000.0 atm and temperature
of 30.0◦C?
Densities of Gases
Sample Problems: Homework

1. Diethyl ether, (C2H5)2O, vaporizes at room temperature. If the vapor exerts a pressure of 233 mmHg in a
flask at 25 °C, what is the density of the vapor?
2. If 8.00 L of a gas at STP weighs 19.2 g, calculate the molecular weight of the gas.

▪ Amonton’s Law or Gay-Lussac’s Law

The PRESSURE of a gas at constant volume and no. of moles is directly proportional to the ABSOLUTE
TEMPERATURE OF THE GAS
P = constant x T
Formula: P1/T1=P2/T2
Sample Problem #1: What would be the pressure of a tire having an initial pressure of 3.0 atm at 25 oC after a
long drive in a super highway at noon, with a temperature at 35 oC ?
Sample Problem #2: A sample of gas at 3.00 x 103 mmHg inside a steel tank is cooled from 500.0◦C to 0.00◦C.
What is the final pressure of the gas inside the steel tank?
DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES
 The contribution each gas in a mixture makes to the total pressure is the partial pressure exerted by that
gas.
Formula: Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3
 At constant volume and temperature, the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum
of the partial pressures of the components gases
Sample Problem: Air contains oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and trace of other gases. What is the partial
pressure of oxygen at 101.30 kPa of pressure if PN2 = 79.10 kPa, PCO2 = 0.040 kPa , and Pothers = 0.94 kPa
Sample Problem2: Determine the total pressure of a gas mixture that contains oxygen, nitrogen, and helium if
the partial pressures of the gases are PO2 = 20.0 kPa, PN2 = 46.7 kPa, and PHe = 26.7 kPa.
ACTIVITY. Solve the following problems:
1.) A certain amount of gas has a volume of 85 m3 at temperature of 15 ◦C and a pressure of 800 torr.
Calculate its temperature, in kelvin, if the volume is increased to 120 m3 and the pressure is changed to
700 torr.
2.) A gas has volume of 38 L at 10 ◦C and a pressure of 1.24 atm. At what pressure will its volume be 50
L if the temperature is increased to 25 ◦C?
3.) Compute the pressure needed to keep 7 moles of CO2 in a 10 L container at 75 ◦C.
4.) A 20 mole sample of gas is contained in a 20 liter vessel under a pressure of 1.75 atm. What is its
temperature?
5.) A car is tire is filled with air to a pressure of 28 lb/in2 at 26 degree Celsius. By mid-afternoon the
temperature has reached 35 degree Celsius. What is the pressure inside the car tire?
6.) The gas left in a used aerosol can is at a pressure of 100 kPa at 27 degree Celsius (room
temperature). If the can is thrown onto a fire, what will the internal pressure of the gas be when its
temperature reaches 927 degree Celsius?
7.) Determine the new pressure when a constant volume of gas at 1.00 atm is heated from 20.0◦C to 30.0
◦C.
8.) How many moles of gas would be present in a gas contained in a 100.0 mL vessel at 25◦C at a pressure
of 2.50 atm?
9.) A container with two gases, He and Ar, is 30% helium by volume. Calculate the partial pressure of
He and Ar if the total pressure inside the container is 4.00 atm.
II. QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF AN ATOM
Development of Atomic Models
• JOHN DALTON (1766-1844)
- Considered an atom to be solid indestructible mass. His theory was great advance in explaining
the nature of chemical reaction.
• JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON
◦ Discoverer of electron, realized that the accepted model of an indivisible atom did not take electron and
protons into account.
◦ Proposed the revised model that was referred to as the “plum pudding atom”
• ERNEST RUTHERFORD
• Proposed the nuclear atom in which electrons surround a dense nucleus. He thought of the rest of the
atom as empty space.
• Later experiments showed that the nuclei of atoms are composed of protons and neutrons.
• NIELS BOHR
• A young Danish physicist and a student of Rutherford, came up with a new atomic model.
• He proposed that electrons are arranged in concentric circular paths, or orbits, around the nucleus.
• Electrons in a circular paths have a fixed energy, thus they do not lose energy and fall into the nucleus.
• The energy level of an electron is the region around the nucleus where the electron is likely to be moving.
• A quantum of energy is the amount of energy required to move an electron from its present energy level
to the next higher one.
• The term quantum leap is used to describe an abrupt change, comes from this concept.
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
• In 1926, Austrian physicist Erwin Schrodinger (1887-1961) took atomic models one step further.
• The modern description of the electrons in atoms, the QMM come from the mathematical solutions to
the Schrodinger’s equation.
• The QMM of atom restricts the energy of electrons to certain values.
• The QMM does not define the exact path of the electron take around the nucleus rather, it estimates
the probability of finding electrons in a certain position.
Atomic Orbitals
• As in Bohr atom, the QMM designates energy levels of electrons by principal quantum numbers (n).
• Each quantum number refers to a major or principal energy level in an atom. These are assigned values
in order of increasing energy: n = 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth. The average distance of the electron from the
nucleus increases with increasing values of n.
• In the QMM the cloud shape shapes are called atomic orbitals which are denoted by letters (s, p, d, f).
• s orbitals are spherical, and the 3 kind of p orbitals are dumbbell shape while the d and f orbitals are
more complex.
• The shape of atomic orbitals depends on the energy sublevel. The lowest principal level (n=1) has only
one sublevel called 1s.
• In s atomic orbital, there is an equal probability of finding the electron in any direction from the nucleus.
• In n=2 has two sublevels, 2s and 2p. The 2p sublevel is of higher energy than 2s and consist of three p
orbitals of equal energy.
• In n=3 has 3 sublevels called 3s, 3p, and 3d. The 3d sublevel consists of five d orbital of equal energy.
Thus, the third principal energy level has nine orbitals (one 3s, three 3p, and five 3d orbitals).
• In n=4 has four sublevels called 4s, 4p, 4d and 4f. The 4f sublevel is composed of seven f orbitals of equal
energy. Thus in n=4 has 16 orbitals (one 4s, three 4p, five 4d, and seven 4f orbitals)
QUANTUM NUMBERS
• The principal quantum numbers, n, is the main energy level of an orbital. It is related to the total energy
of the electron in an atom and can have a value of any positive integer beginning with 1.
• An increase in n means an increase in the energy of the electron in the orbital.
• This number represents the radial distance that the region where the electron is most likely to be found
extends out from the nucleus. The higher the n, the greater is the radial distance.
• To determine the maximum number of electrons that can occupy a main energy level the 2n2 rule is
followed.
• Ex: The maximum number of electrons for an n value of 1 is 2(1)2 = 2; that for an n value of 2 is 2(2)2 = 8
Azimuthal Quantum Number, l
• The azimuthal quantum, l (a.k.a angular momentum number or subsidiary number), represent energy
sublevels and can have values beginning with zero and increases until the integer n—1 is reached.
• Ex: if n = 5, then l = 0,1,2,3,or 4; the highest value that l can have is 4 since 5-1 = 4, if n=5. And if n=4,
then l= 0,1,2 or 3; 3 is the highest value that l can have since 4-1 = 3, if n=4.
• The azimuthal quantum number also defines the shape of the orbital. Thus: if l = 0, the orbital is spherical
in shape; if l = 1, the orbital is dumbbell-shaped, or polar; and so on.
A sublevel in a particular main energy level is defined by its n and l values.
Magnetic Quantum Number, ml
• The magnetic quantum number, ml, describes the orientation of the orbital in space and can have an
integral value from –l to +l, including zero.

• A faster way of determining the number of ml values per sublevel is by using the formula 2l+1.
• The p sublevel has an l value of 1, has 2(1) + 1 = 3 ml values; it means that the sublevel has 3 orbitals of
different spatial.

• The d sublevel which has l = 2, has 2(2) + 1 = 5 ml

values; the sublevel therefore has five orbitals of different spatial orientations.
 • The ml = 0 value for the s sublevel does not mean that it has no spatial orientation; rather, it means that
it has one (2(0) + 1 = l) orientation – that which radiates in all directions, thus its spherical shape.
Spin Quantum Number, ms
• Experiments show that if an electron is placed in a magnetic field, only two orientations are possible for
the electron spin.
• The two orientations are designated by two possible values of the spin quantum number, ms : ms = +1/2
and ms = -1/2.
• There are two possible for this quantum number corresponding to the only two possible orientations for
the electron spin.
• Sometimes the two orientations are loosely designated as clockwise and counterclockwise spins. This
two orientations are also represented by an arrow pointing up (↑) and an arrow pointing down (↓)
• When an electron is assigned to an orbital in an atom, it may take any of the two possible orientations.
It may therefore be assigned an ms = +1/2 or an ms = -1/2.
• If the second electron is assigned to the same orbital, it can only have an orientation opposite to that of
the first. Thus these two electrons are said to have opposite spins, one with ms +1/2 other with -1/2.
They are also to be paired.
• No other electron may be assigned to the same assigned to the same orbital.
3.) The third quantum number, m, is the orbital quantum number and can have integral values from –l
through +l. It gives information about the orientation in space of an orbital.
4.) The fourth quantum number, s, is the orbital quantum number. Spin is either clockwise or
counterclockwise and is designated +1/2 and -1/2.
• The letters s, p, d, and f, were taken from the words sharp, principal, diffuse, and fundamental, which
are related to the spectra of the photons emitted when certain elements were heated or otherwise
energized.
Rules Governing Electronic Configuration
1.) Aufbau Principle. It requires that the electrons occupy the lowest possible energy level before filling up
the next.
2.) Pauli’s Exclusion Principle. Posits that no two electrons can have the same set of four quantum numbers;
the spin quantum number limits the number of electrons in an orbital to a maximum of two.
3.) Hund’s Rule. When electrons occupy orbitals of equal energy, one electron enters each orbital until all
the orbitals contain one electron with spins parallel.
III. ELECTRON STRUCTURE AND PERIODICITY
Periodic Trends in Atomic Size
GROUP TRENDS
• Atomic size generally increases as you move down a group of periodic table. As you descend, electrons
are added to successively higher principal energy levels, and the nuclear charge increases.
• The outermost orbital is larger as you move downward.
• The shielding of the nucleus by electrons also increases with the additional number of occupied orbitals
between the outermost orbital and the nucleus.
PERIODIC TRENDS
• Atomic size generally decreases as you move from left to right across periods. As you go across period
you remain in the same principal level.
 • Each element has one proton and one electron more than the preceding element. The electrons are
being added to the same principal level.
• The effect of the increasing nuclear charge on the outermost electrons is to pull them closer to the
nucleus. Atomic size therefore decreases.
• If atomic radii are plotted against atomic numbers, a periodic trend becomes obvious.
• The trend is less pronounced in periods where there are more electrons in the occupied principal levels
between the nucleus and the outermost electrons.
• This is because the inner electrons help shield the outermost electrons and the nucleus from each other.
In any period the number of electrons between the nucleus and the outermost electrons is the same for
all the elements. Consequently the shielding effect of these electrons on the nucleus is constant within
the period.
Periodic Trends in Ionization Energy
• When an atom gains or loses electrons it forms an ion. The energy that is required to overcome the
attraction of the nuclear charge and remove the an electron is called IONIZATION ENERGY.
• It measures the tendency of an atom to lose its outermost electron.
• A higher ionization energy means that the atom is less susceptible to give its electron away, thus making
the atom more stable and less reactive.
• In periodic table, ionization energy increases in going across a period, but decreases in going down a
family.
• The noble gases have the highest ionization energy in every period. Generally, metal have low ionization
energy.
• IE give an indirect proof of the existence of electron shells. The closer an atom is to having a full energy
level, the more tightly held are its valence electrons.
• Greater atomic number means more energy levels, and the last electrons are far from the nucleus, and
the therefore not so tightly held.
Periodic Trends in Ionic Size
• The atoms of metallic elements have low ionization energies. They form positive ions easily.
• The atoms of nonmetallic elements readily form negative ions.
• Positive ions (cations) are always smaller than the atom from which they form. This is because the loss
of the outer shell electrons result in the increased attraction by the nucleus for the fewer remaining
electrons.
• Negative ions (anions) are always larger than the atom from which they are formed. This is because the
effective nuclear attraction is less for an increased number of electrons.
• A periodic relationship for the ionic radii of the elements can be seen in the previous slide.
• Going from left to right, across a row, there is a gradual decrease in the size of positive ions.
• Then, the beginning with Group 4, the negative ions (which are much larger) gradually decreases in size
as you continue to move right.
• The ionic radius of both anions and cations increases as you go down each group.
Periodic Trends in Electronegativity
• The electronegativity of an element is the tendency for the atoms of the element to attract electrons
when they are chemically combined with one another.
 • Electronegativities have been calculated for the elements. They are expressed in arbitrary units on the
Pauling electronegativity scale.
• The electronegativities are arranged in the form of periodic table. Note that noble gases are omitted
because they do not form many compounds.
• Cesium is the least electronegative element (0.7) and fluorine is the most electronegative element.
• As you go across a period from left to right, the electronegativity of the representative elements
increases. The metallic elements at the far left of the periodic table have low electronegativities.
• The nonmetallic at the far right (excluding the noble gas) have high electronegativities.
• Ordinarily, electronegativity decreases as you as you move down a group.
Electron Affinity
• It is the energy released when an atom gain an electron.
• Is the opposite of ionization energy. It has a negative value while ionization energy has a positive value.
• Nonmetals usually have high electron affinities (more negative value).
• The periodic shows that the elements to the right of the zigzag line are nonmetals. This corresponds to
a trend of increasing electron affinity in going across a periods to the right, the highest being the Group
VIIA elements.
Activity 1 Activity 3
Arrange the following in the order of increasing Which of the following has the largest radius in
atomic size: each atom/ion pairs?
1.) Ar, Na, Al 1.) Na and Na+
2.) I, Cl, Br, F 2.) S and S2-
3.) Al, Br, O, N 3.) I and I-
4.) S, Cl, Al, Na 4.) Al and Al3
5.) Does your arrangement demonstrate a 5.) Br and Br-
periodic or group trend? Which of the following elements is the most
Activity 2 electronegative?
Arrange the following in the order of increasing 6.) F, P, S, As
ionization energy. 7.) Ge, Ca, S, Si
1.) Be, Mg, Ca 8.) Cl, I, Se, O
2.) N, P, As, Bi 9.) O, B, N, C
3.) Li, Be, B, Na 10.) I, Br, Cl, F
4.) How does atomic size relate to ionization
energy?
IV. IONIC AND COVALENT BONDING

IONICBOND
bond formed between two ions by the transfer of electrons
Formation of Ions from Metals
Ionic compounds result when metals react with nonmetals
Metals lose electrons to match the number of valence electrons of their nearest noble gas
Positive ions form when the number of electrons are less than the number of protons
Ions from Nonmetal Ions
  In ionic compounds, nonmetals in 15, 16, and 17 gain electrons from metals
 Nonmetal add electrons to achieve the octet arrangement
 Nonmetal ionic charge:
3-, 2-, or 1-
Ionic Bond
 Between atoms of metals and nonmetals with very different electronegativity
 Bond formed by transfer of electrons
 Produce charged ions all states. Conductors and have high melting point.
 Examples; NaCl, CaCl2, K2O
1). Ionic bond – electron from Na is transferred to Cl, this causes a charge imbalance in each atom. The Na
becomes (Na+) and the Cl becomes (Cl-), charged particles or ions.
Fill out the following table with the required number of electrons to lose or gain to acquire stability.

Draw the Lewis Structures of the following:

COVALENT BOND
bond formed by the sharing of electrons
Covalent Bond
• Between nonmetallic elements of similar electronegativity.
• Formed by sharing electron pairs
• Stable non-ionizing particles, they are not conductors at any state
• Examples; O2, CO2, C2H6, H2O
Single Covalent Bond
• Is formed when a pair of electrons is shared between two atoms. Ex. H2 molecule
H• + •H H:H
• The chemical formula of ionic compounds are correctly described as formula units.
• The chemical formulas of covalent compounds are correctly described as molecular formula.
• In addition to hydrogen, atoms of the nonmetallic elements in Groups 4A, 5A, 6A, and 7A of the PTE are
particularly prone to form covalent compounds.
• Gilbert Lewis summarized the tendency in the octet rule to form covalent bonding: Sharing of electrons
occurs if the atoms involved acquire the electron configurations of noble gas.
• The halogen also form single covalent bonds in their diatomic molecules.
• Each F atom contributes one electron to complete the octet. Each F nucleus shares only that pair of
valence electron.
Double and Triple Covalent Bonds
• Double covalent bond – involve two shared pairs of electrons.
• Triple covalent bond – include three shared electrons.
• O2 is an example of a molecules that should have double covalent bond according to the octet rule.

 The nitrogen molecule contains a triple covalent bond. A nitrogen atom has five valence electrons. Each
nitrogen atom in the nitrogen molecule needs 3 more electrons to attain the electron configuration of Ne.
Draw electron dot structures for these diatomic halogen molecules.
1.) chlorine
2.) bromine
3.) iodine
Bonds in all the polyatomic ions and diatomics are all covalent bonds
Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
• When similar atoms share electrons, their electron clouds are equally distributed or equally attracted by
the bonding nuclei.
• This indicate that the electrical charges are uniformly distributed in the molecule.
Ex. H2, O2
Covalent bonds- Two atoms share one or more pairs of outer-shell electrons.
Polar Covalent Bond
• When atoms share their electrons, the electrical charges are unevenly distributed in the molecule.
• This is due to the difference in the electronegativity of the atoms of different elements.
Ex. HCl - water is a polar molecule because oxygen is more
How to classify polar and nonpolar covalent bonds? electronegative than hydrogen, and therefore
1.) Nonpolar molecules can be formed: electrons are pulled closer to oxygen.
a.) by two atoms of similar elements
b.) when the molecules are electrically uniform as a result of similar bonds oriented equally in space (ex. CH4).
Lone pairs of electron in the central atom where all the electrons are bonded to another atom.
2.) Polar molecules can be formed:
a.) by two atoms of different elements (ex. HF)
b.) when the molecules are electrically nonuniform or as a result of unsymmetrical shape.
c.) when the central atom is bonded to different substituent atoms (CH 3Cl).
METALLIC BOND
bond found in metals; holds metal atoms together very strongly
Metallic Bond
• Formed between atoms of metallic elements
• Examples; Na, Fe, Al, Au, Co
 • Metals are composed of a lattice of atoms of the same element where electrons are loosely held and are
freely moving or delocalized.
• Good conductors at all states, lustrous, very high melting points
Metals Form Alloys
Metals do not combine with metals. They form
Alloys which is a solution of a metal in a metal.
Examples are steel, brass, bronze and pewter.
Properties and Uses of Substances Based on their Chemical Bonds

V. LEWIS DOT STRUCTURE

Electron shells
a) Atomic number = number of Electrons
b) Electrons vary in the amount of energy they possess, and they occur at certain energy levels or electron
shells.
a) Electron shells determine how an atom behaves when it encounters other atoms
Electrons are placed in shells according to rules:
1) The 1st shell can hold up to two electrons, and each shell thereafter can hold up to 8 electrons.
2) Octet Rule = atoms tend to gain, lose or share electrons so as to have 8 electrons
 C would like to Gain 4 electrons
 N would like to Gain 2 electrons
 O would like to Gain 3 electrons