Power Quality Enhancement Using Custom Power Devices Electrical Engineering

Introduction to Power
Quality: Problems,
Analysis & Solutions
Course: PQ103
Presented by:
PowerCET® Corporation
3350 Scott Blvd., Bldg. 55 Unit 1
Santa Clara, CA 95054 USA
408/988-1346 | FAX 408/988-4869
E-mail: training@powercet.com
E-mail: consulting@powercet.com
Web Page: http://www.powercet.com
© 2007 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (070320)

PQ103 - Introduction to Power Quality: Problems, Analysis & Solutions
Introduction to Power Quality:

Problems, Analysis & Solutions
Course: PQ103
By
PowerCET Corporation
The Electrical Environment & Power

Quality
• What is it? ...Quality or Reliability?
• Why is it important?
• How do we measure it?
• Is it getting better?
• Utility deregulation, what's going to happen?
• Where do electrical problems come from?
• What can we do about it?

1
Power Quality (def.)

• "Poor Power Quality" generally mean there
is sufficient deviation in the power
(electrical) supply to cause
equipment/process mis-operation or failure.
• "Good Power Quality" means that the
power (electrical) supply is sufficient for the
equipment/process to operate satisfactorily.
• Equipment design is a major determinant
between good and bad power quality.
Power Quality & Reliability

• Power Reliability is the presence of
sufficient voltage at the meter.
• Power Quality is the value of the voltage
(and other electrical parameters) as a
percent of nominal at the meter.

2
Power Quality - Translated

• If you can achieve what you want--making
widgets, etc.--in the existing electrical
environment then power quality would be
considered good!
• If you can not achieve the desired results in
the existing electrical environment then
power quality would be considered bad!
• It can change from good to bad in an
instant!
Some Additional PQ Observations

• 95% of the PQ problems are on the
customer side of the meter.
• 80% of the $$$ losses are caused by the
5% of the problems from the utility side of
the meter.
• The vast majority of the problems from the
utility are voltage sags.

3
Sources of Power Quality Problems in

Order of Frequency of Occurrence
• User loads
• User electrical distribution and grounding
• Weather related...lightning, wind, rain, etc.
• Utility distribution.
• Utility transmission.
• Utility generation.
The Cost of Poor Power Quality

• Various studies (annual
costs to U.S. business)....
– Clemmensen (1993) $25.6
Billion
– EPRI (1995) $400 Billion
– Swaminathan and Sen
(1998) $150 Billion
– Douglas (2000) $50 Billion
• The truth is no one really
knows...our cost
accounting systems just
do not capture the data to
provide an accurate
indication of the true cost
of poor power quality.
8

4
The Cost of Poor Power Quality

Compressor manufacturer:
Sags and interruptions cost
some $1,700,000/year.
($100,000 per event.)
DuPont: Saved $75

million/annually by
Automotive Industry:
implementing PQ
Momentary interruptions cost
solutions. ($50,000
some $10 million/year ($50,000
to $500,000 per
to $500,000 per event.)
event...additionally
risk of accident and
pollution.)
Paper Industry: Billinton

study determined cost of
Air Traffic Control: Lost control
2 second outage to be
at a major airport can cost
approximately $30,000
$15,000-$50,000/minute
Source: EPRI Power Electronics Applications Center

9
Power Interruption Cost Calculator

• Disturbance Statistics • Cost of Losses
– Downtime duration (Hrs.) – Other lost material value ($)
– Recovery time (Hrs.) – Canceled orders
– Number of idled personnel – Late delivery / performance
– Average hourly rate ($/Hr) penalty payments
– Number of recovery – Lost customer confidence
personnel • Recovery Costs
– Average hourly rate ($/Hr) – Equipment
– Payroll overhead & benefits repair/replacement costs
($/Hr) – Software / restarting costs
– Scrap material (units) (labor & material)
– Scrap material unit cost
($/unit)
10

5
Power Quality & Reliability
11
The "9s" of Reliable Power

Disruption
Reliability Applications
Duration/Year
Three 9s 99.9% Homes 9 Hours
Four 9s 99.99% Factories 59 Minutes

Standby Generator
Hospitals,
Five 9s 99.999% 5 Minutes
Airports
Multiple Redundancy UPS, Standby Generators
Six 9s 99.9999% Banks 32 Seconds
Mirrored Sites, Multiple Redundancy UPS, Standby Generators
Nine 9s 99.9999999% On-line Markets 30 Milliseconds

Source: Reliable Power Meters
12

6
Failing to "Look" Beyond the Traditional

Power Quality Environment
Power
Problem
13
Looking Beyond Traditional Power Quality
14

7
Why is the Quality of the Environment

Important?
Load
Electrical
Sensitivity
Environment
RELIABILITY
Load
Electrical
Environment Sensitivity
PRODUCTIVITY
Infrastructure Equipment
PROFITABILITY
Management Compatibility
Infrastructure Equipment
Management Compatibility
15
What Determines Electrical Environment

Quality?
Generation Climatic & Geographic Traditional

Loads
T&D Facility Wiring Electronic

& Construction Loads
16

8
U.S. Lightning Flash Density - 1989-98
17
Lightning Activity
• It is not a question of
if, but when?
18

9
Electrical Loads
• Traditional
– Lights
– Motors
L
N
L
Electronic AC
N DC
19
Sources of Electrical Problems

• External
– Utility sources
– Other utility customers
– A.O.G.
• Internal
– Wiring errors and poor
construction practices
– Other loads
– EMI / RFI
20

10
Evaluating the Changes Over the Past 30-

Years
• Equipment
characteristics
• Technology
• Environment
21
Equipment Characteristics
• Past... • Present...
– Inefficient power – Compact, high
supply, voltage efficiency design
regulation generally – More sensitive to high
required. frequency electrical
– Large physical size noise
– Increasing applications – Increased temperature
– Limited networking sensitivity
(stand alone systems) – Voltage regulation
generally not required
– Increasing networking
applications
22

11
The Technology
– Discrete components -- – Increasing IC densities
relatively robust, high – Increasing processor
power logic speed and data rates
– Slow data rates and – Switch mode & PFC
processor cycle times power supplies
– Increasing network
applications
– New technology
• Wireless , Cellular,
Power line networks...
23
The Environment
– Engineering, Construction & – Limited internal engineering,
Maintenance if any
• Internal (Except for very – Out-source most
large jobs or additions) construction
• Good records – Deferred maintenance
• Good infrastructure
– Little internal control over
management
electrical environment
– Installation by Folklore and
Tradition
– Lack of understanding of the
Real World Environment
24

12
The Future...
• Increasing complex applications
• Component technology continues to evolve
• Increasing operating speeds and data rates
• Increased networking applications
• Power supplies--CE Mark complications /
harmonic limits
– Decreased filter capacitors to reduce harmonics also
decreases effective ride-through...voltage regulation???
– Application of "choppers" to provide sinusoidal current
draw results in increased low frequency emissions and
voltage source interactions
25
Increased Data Rates and Processor

Speed
Data Rate (bps) Time Approximate

Distance
60 16.7 mS 3100 Miles
2400 417 uS 78 Miles
1M 1 uS 982 Feet
10 M 100 nS 98 Feet
100 M 10 nS 10 Feet
1G 1 nS 1 Foot
26

13
Power Supply Technology

LINEAR D.C. POWER SUPPLY
LARGE 60Hz
TRANSFORMER
L
LINEAR
N REGULATOR Vo
N:1
SMALL HF
L TRANSFORMER
N Vo
SWITCH MODE D.C. POWER SUPPLY
PWM
27
The Changing Electrical Environment

• Changing electrical loads (SCRs)
– Variable speed drives (ac & dc)
– Frequency modulators
– Large UPS systems
• Loss of control over the internal electrical
environment
• Decreased infrastructure management and
control
• Changing residential electrical environment
28

14
The Electromagnetic Environment

Facility
Electrical Electric
Wiring,
Service Utility
Grounding &
Configuration Reliability
Construction
Telco Facility
Interface Mission Critical
Loads
& Protection Eqpt & Sys
(Harmonics)
EMI Electrostatic
Network
& Discharge
Facilities
RFI (ESD)
Dist & Prot
Control
29
The Future of Power Quality

• The Utility
• The Mitigation Equipment Supplier
• The Consulting Engineer
• The Electrical Contractor
• The User
30

15
The California Experience
31
Electric Utility Deregulation
32

16
Electric Utility Deregulation

Deregulated Electric Utility Industry
Power Producers
(GENCOs or IPPs)
Vertically Integrated Regional Transmission Network

Electric Utility Operators (TRNSCOs)
Generation Bulk Power Trader

Deregulated (POWERCOs)
Transmission
& Industry
Distribution Restructuring Distribution System Operators
Customer Service (DISTCOs)
Retail Power Marketers

(RETAILCOs)
Energy Service Companies

(ESCOs)
33
Power Quality and the Utility

• Reliability and quality will decrease with
deregulation
• Increased monitoring and performance
measurement requirements
• Most will offer enhanced and/or contract services
(SEFI&O)
• Stability of the utility power industry will be a
problem, at least in the short-term
• Displaced workforce as competition and
deregulation become a reality
34

17
PQ and the Mitigation/Protection

Equipment Supplier
• Market segmentation • Push vs. Pull
• Suppressors • Direct vs. Indirect
• Filters • Market channels
• UPS equipment • Positioning and
• Margins continue to product differentiation
erode -- commodity • Vertical market
pricing segments
• F.U.D.
35
Monitoring Equipment Suppliers

• New competitors will continue to enter the
market
• More permanently installed monitoring &
control systems
• Equipment will evolve slowly providing an
opportunity for additional competition
• New low cost monitoring equipment will do
well in this market as long as complex
programming or setup is not required
36

18
PQ and the Consulting Engineer

• Work will become more competitive and
less profitable
• Larger firms will dominate
• Some will offer PQ services as a method of
maintaining customer/account control
• Some will probably have a sales operation
for protection/mitigation products or a
relationship with suppliers (additional
revenue source)
37
PQ and the Electrical Contractor

• Increased awareness of Power Quality opportunity
– TEGG
• Most will have some "bad" experiences with PQ
• Some contracting operations (medium size, 10 to
50 employees) will develop PQ capabilities in an
effort to
– Increase revenue and
– Differentiate themselves from the competition
38

19
PQ and the User

• Will become more demanding
• Will increase reliance on electrical energy
• Will have a greater variety of loads
• May, in some instances, make Power
Quality a PRIORITY!
39
You Never Have a Problem...
Until You Plug it IN!

20
I The Electric Utility System
The Consumers View of the Utility

1-1
Managing the Electric Utility Grid
The US National Grid

• Transmission level
interconnections
• Evolving mission from
backup to power
transfer
• Three major
interconnections

1-2
Electric Utility Energy Sources
Electric Utility Customers & Usage

1-3
The Utility
Power Quality & Utility Reliability

1-4
Electrical Conditions that can Disrupt a

Process.
• Voltage sags, i.e., 90% of nominal for 6-12 cycles
• Single phasing, i.e., loss of one of three phase
sources
• Voltage interruption of several cycles caused by a
utility reclosure operation
• Complete extended power outage
• Transients caused by:
– Lightning
– Utility grid and capacitor switching
– Non-linear loads
9
Std. Nominal System Voltages

Voltage Class 2-wire 3-wire 4-wire
120* 120/240* 240/120

Low Voltage (LV) 480 208Y/120
600 480Y/277
2400 4160Y/2400
4160 8320Y/4800
Medium Voltage 4800 12000Y/6930
(MV) 6900 12470Y/7200
13800 13200Y/7620
23000 13800Y/7970
34500 24940Y/14400
46000 34500Y/19920
69000
115000
High Voltage (HV) 138000
161000
230000
345000
Extra High 500000
Voltage (EHV) 765000
1100000
10

1-5
Power Quality and the Utility

• Transformers
– Transmission &
distribution
– Service
• wye
• delta
• open delta
• red-leg (high-leg) delta
OR
11
Service Transformers
• Single phase • Three phase
12

1-6
Service Transformers
Pad mount
3-phase pole mount
3-phase red-leg delta
13
Protective apparatus
• Fuses and circuit breakers
• Lightning arresters and suppressors
• Insulators, conductors and switches
14

1-7
Circuit Breakers / Reclosure

• 5 to 6 Cycles for operation after application of the
fault condition
– Customer experiences a sag during this interval
• Open duration from 20 cycles to 2 to 5 seconds
– Actual duration depends on location of fault and local
utility practices
• Multiple operations (typically 3) may be
experiences if the fault does not clear during initial
operations
15
Reclosure
16

1-8
Customer Impact of Utility Faults

To HV Transmission
&
• Faults on adjacent Power Generation
feeders and circuits A B
generally result in 230k

Transmission
voltage sags Distribution
13.8k
• Faults on serving
feeder results in sag 1 2 3 4 Circuit
Breakers
followed by
Customer
interruption 480 V
Customers
= Single line-to-ground fault (SLGF)
17
Utility Fault Clearing: Reclosure Operation
18

1-9
Utility Reclosure Operation

• Utility fault on
customer feeder
V & I = Source
19
Utility Reclosure Operation

• Fault on adjacent
feeder
V & I = Source
20

1-10
Utility Reclosure Operation / Lightning
21
Sag Correcting Devices

• Softswitching Dip Proofing
Technologies Technologies, Inc.
22

1-11
Corrective apparatus
• Voltage regulating equipment
• Power factor correction capacitors
23
Power Factor Correction Capacitors
24

1-12
Power Factor Correction Capacitors
25
Power Factor Capacitor Switching

• Zero Voltage Sensing
Control--before & after
26

1-13
Utility Fault
27
Utility Transient
Source related
transient
V & I = Source
28

1-14
II Building & Facility Wiring
Service Entrance
• Main disconnect and overcurrent protection
(circuit breakers).
• Building electrical system earth reference
(neutral-to-ground bond).
• Earth grounding system.
• Equipment grounding system.
• Wiring errors and electrical code violations
(NEC Article 250).
2

2-1
Building (Facility) Wiring

MAIN
ELECTRICAL
BUILDING SERVICE UTILIZATION
SERVICE BRANCH
PANEL EQUIPMENT
TRANSFORMER FEEDER SUB-PANEL CIRCUIT
NEUTRAL
N
BUS
N G
N-G
BOND
PLUG/
G RECEPTACLE
EQUIPMENT GROUNDING
EARTH GROUND
SYSTEM (GREEN WIRE)
GROUNDING BUS
SYSTEM
EARTH
GROUND 3
Ground Fault Interrupt (GFI)

• Required for all 480V • GFI problems
services rated at – Excessive current from
1000A or more. voltage sag or load
operation.
– Harmonic distortion
confuses current
summing circuitry.
– Electrical noise
(interference) confuses
the GFI controller

2-2
Ground Fault Interrupt (GFI)

Troubleshooting
• Monitor neutral-to-ground bond to determine
if tripping is the result of a fault or wiring
errors.
• Monitor for distortion levels.
• Monitor service voltage levels.
• Have GFI circuitry tested and calibrated.
• Do not disable GFI equipment or adjust
threshold limits to their maximum range.
5
Distribution Transformer Uses

Voltage
• Isolation Line
Transformation
• Voltage transformation Neutral

(step-up/step-down). Ground
Neutral-to-Ground
• Limit neutral-to-ground Voltage
Differential =
voltage differentials. Near Zero
ØA
• Limit and control ØA
ØB
undesirable neutral
ØB ØC
return currents (delta- ØC Neutral
to-wye Eqpt Grounding Conductor

2-3
Other Transformer Considerations

• Separately derived systems must be
grounded as outlined in NEC Article 250 or
645.
• Transformers 1000VA and larger must be
grounded to the nearest grounding
electrode (NEC Article 250).
• Health care facilities have special
requirements.
Panelboards (sub-panels)
• Configuration
– 1-phase, 3-wire
– 3-phase, 4-wire
Ampere Ratings of Mains
– 12 to 42 pole positions
– 100 to 400 Amp typical

2-4
Panelboards (sub-panels)
• 1, 2. Incoming Hot wires. There is 240
volts between these wires, or 120 volts
between either wire and the neutral line.
• 3. Neutral wire. This is at the same
electrical potential as the ground. At the
main breaker only, the neutral is connected
to ground.
• 4. Ground Bus Bar. This strip of metal has
a row of screws for connecting the ground
wires of the various circuits.
• 5, 6, 7. Neutral Bus Bars. This panel has 3
short bus bars for neutral wire connections.
Some panels have only one long bar.
• 8. Circuit Breakers. Each single-pole
breaker connects to one of the two hot bus
bars. Each double-pole breaker connects
to both of the bus bars (thus providing 240
volts between hot wires).
• 9. The last available space in this panel.
Our new breaker will go here.
9
Neutral to Ground Bonds

• Only ONE allowed!
• Extra bonds are common through mis-wiring
& equipment problems
• Use separate neutral & ground buses
• Monitor circuit and ground conductors
10

2-5
Overcurrent Protection: "Do's & Don'ts"
• Circuit breakers must be ganged for poly-

phase circuits.
• Avoid using fuses in feeders as
supplemental protection in poly-phase
circuits unless phase loss detection is
installed.
• Overcurrent devices can only be loaded to
80% of their rated capacity.
11
More: "Do's & Don'ts"

• Inspect panelboards for loose, noisy or
excessively hot circuit breakers (IR or Ultra-
sonic scans).
• Inrush (nuisance) tripping -- replace older
breakers.
• Excessive voltage drop across circuit
breaker -- replace (it will be the HOT one).
12

2-6
Ultrasonic Detectors (Translators)
In Amp Mixer Amp Out 5KHz

45KHz
40KHz
Osc
13
Mechanical Connections
• Conduit instead of
grounding conductor
– Screw thread
– Clamp
– Compression sleeve
– Flexible
• Wiring termination
practices
– Mixed wires & double-
lugging
– Solid vs stranded
– Copper vs aluminum
14

2-7
Feeders & Branch Circuits

• Recommended voltage drops
– Feeders 3%
– Branch circuits 3%
– Overall 5%
• Methods to decrease voltage drop
– Increase wire size
– Decrease load
– Decrease length of circuit
• Shared Neutral Circuits (Feeders)
15
Shared Neutral Facilities

• Multi-wire circuits and non-linear loads
• Non-canceling neutral return currents
• Symptoms of high impedance (open)
shared neutral conductors
– High incidence of power supply failure
– Erratic equipment operation
– Load interaction
16

2-8
High Impedance Neutral

Medium Heavy Light
Load Load Load
A
B
C
N
G
VOLTAGE PHASE A PHASE B PHASE C

L-N 143 73 166
L-G 122 122 123
N-G 54 54 54
17
Results of an Open Neutral

• High Impedance Neutral
18

2-9
Neutral Current - Sinusoidal Loads

• No Imbalance
– Phase currents offset
• Phase Imbalance
– Imbalance = neutral
19
Neutral Current and Computer Loads

• Current pulses do not
offset
A
• Current in neutral can B
reach 1.73 times the C
size of individual G
phase currents
• Frequency of current is
3x fundamental
– 150 Hz for 50 Hz
– 180 Hz for 60 Hz
20

2-10
Solutions for Multiwire Problems

• Delta-wye transformers
• Eliminate shared facilities / oversize neutral
conductors
• Filtering
• Equipment redesign
• Managing the environment
21
Receptacles (NEMA Notation)

TYPE OF CONNECTOR
CONTACT TYPE
"R" denotes receptacle, or
"L" denotes locking type;
female.
nothing denotes straight blade.
"P" denotes plug, or male.
L21-30R
VOLTAGE TYPE
CURRENT CAPACITY
5 = 120V
15 Amps
6 = 240V, 208V
20 Amps
14 = 240/120V, 208V
30 Amps
21 = 208/120V, 3-Phase
22

2-11
Standard & IG Receptacles
23
IG Receptacle Construction
24

2-12
lll Harmonics
Harmonics
• Harmonics
– Integer multiples of a
fundamental -- added to
fundamental create distorted
sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal
waveform
– Harmonics are caused by
Non-linear load currents &
Non-linear voltage sources
– Measurements of harmonic
content does not always
indicate the presence of
problems

3-1
Effects of Harmonics
• Current
– Current flow without work (low power factor)
– Transformer & wiring losses
– Negative sequence currents that reduce torque in
motors
– Excessive neutral current
• Voltage
– Peak voltage loss and "ride-through” reduction
– Phase voltage imbalance
– Motor plugging or cogging
– Zero voltage cross distortion and frequency errors
Odd Harmonics
• Symmetrical
– 90°, 180°, 270°
– Leading/trailing edge
– Positive/negative cycle
• Single phase loads
– 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th...
• Polyphase loads
– Frequency doublets
– 5th & 7th, 11th & 13th

3-2
Even Order Harmonics

• Asymmetrical
– 90°, 180°, 270°
– Can shift the position of the
fundamental causing loss of
120° phase shift between
phases
– Can cause dc bias problems
in motors and transformers
– Can cause phase control
problems for SCR/Triac
loads
Harmonic Order
Harmonic Harmonic 3 Pulse &
6 Pulse 12 Pulse 18 Pulse 24 Pulse
• Balanced harmonics # Sequence L/N Loads
3 0 x
– Frequency doublets: 6n +/- 5 - x x
1 7 + x x
9 0 x
– 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 25 ... 11 - x x x
– Positive & negative 13

15
+
0
x
x
x x
sequence 17 - x x x
• Zero Sequence Harmonics 19

21
+
0
x
x
x x
– Triplens: 6n-3 (odd multiples 23 - x x x x

25 + x x x x
of 150/180 Hz) 27 0 x
– Ground referenced (neutral) 29 - x x

31 + x x
• Even order harmonics 33 0 x
35 - x x x x
– Conduction angle 37 + x x x x
differences 39 0 x
41 - x x
– Diode failure 43 + x x
– 3 pulse rectifiers -- IEEE519 45

47
0
-
x
x x x x
49 + x x x

3-3
Power Factor
• Power Factor (PF)
– PF = Watts / Volt*Ampere
• Displacement Factor (f)
– Cosine of angle (E & I)
• Distortion Factor (d)
– d = Afund / Arms
Power
Displacement Distortion
Factor
Distorted Voltage Waveform

• High impedance
distribution system
– Load currents interact
with impedance
– Peak voltage loss and
extended voltage
waveform
– Dominant harmonics
third, fifth and ninth

3-4
Computer Load Current

• Load current
developed by
computers
• Dominant harmonic
currents:
– Third, fifth and ninth
Power Calculations
• Fundamental and harmonic contributions to power
– Power = E * I * cosine of angle between E & I
• Phase angle affects power contribution
– 0° to 90° (+) : 90° (0) : 91° to 180° (-) : 180 (-1)
– 181° to 270° (-) : 270° (0) : 271° to 360° (+)
Harmonic Voltage Phase Current Phase Mean
Power
Fundamental 121.8 87 32.75 103 3,832
3 12.1 48 14.1 306 -35
5 2.8 264 8.3 167 -3
9 1.7 52 1.6 0 2
Total 3,796
10

3-5
Power Factor Determination

• Mean power delivered = 3,796 watts
• RMS voltage = 122.6 volts
• RMS current = 36.7 amps
• Apparent power = 122.6*36.7 = 4,499 VA
• Power factor = 3,796/4,499 =0.84
• Distortion factor d = 0.89
• Displacement PF = cos(ffun) = cos16 = 0.96
11
Single Phase Angle Control Loads

• Light dimmers and
heater controls
• Odd order harmonics
dominant
• Power factor and THD
depend upon phase
angle
• Even order harmonics
present when firing
angle varies
12

3-6
Full Wave Power Supply

• Computer loads
• Harmonics
– Odd orders dominant
• 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th...
• Zero sequence harmonics
• Triplens - 3rd, 9th, 15,
21st...
• THD can exceed 100%
– Referenced to fundamental
• Power factor typically 0.7
13
Half Wave Power Supply

• Half cycle pulsed current
– Asymmetrical current
– DC bias
• Power Factor
– 0.5 true power factor
– Displacement power factor if
load is inductive
• Harmonics
– Odds - 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th...
– Evens - 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th...
– Source of zero sequence
harmonics (triplens) - 3rd,
9th, 15, 21st...
14

3-7
6 Pulse Voltage Fed Load

• Each half cycle
– Double pulsed current
– Symmetrical current
• Power Factor
– 0.8 true power factor -
typical
– No displacement power
factor
• Harmonics
– Odd harmonics Phase A
– Frequency doublets (6n +/-

Phase B
Phase C
1)
• 5th, 7th; 11th, 13th...
15
6 Pulse Current Fed Load

• Pulsed current each half
cycle
– Asymmetrical current due to
commutation differences
• Power Factor
– 0.6 to 0.8 true power factor
– Displacement power factor
due to motor load
• Harmonics
– Odd harmonics
• Doublets (6n +/- 1)
Phase A
• 5th, 7th; 11th, 13th... Phase B
– Even harmonics - limited Phase C
amounts
16

3-8
12 Pulse Current (UPS)
• Top trace -- 100kVA

UPS - Normal
operation
• Bottom trace --
100kVA UPS with
problems
– Input SCRs failed --
even order distortion
about 40%
17
Power Monitor & Harmonic Analysis
18

3-9
THD Graphical Displays
Vthd
Ithd
Wthd
19
Harmonic Flow -- Power Monitor

CHA Volts CHA Amps CHA kWatts CHA Volts CHA Amps
(%FND) (%FND) (%FND) Phase(Deg) Phase(Deg)
THD 3.73 29.21 -0.304 0 0
FND 0.00 0.00 0.000 90 105
H02 0.04 0.27 -0.000 142 9
H03 1.32 21.46 0.024 11 286
H04 0.00 0.06(Blank)
0.000 50 98
H05 2.69 18.59 -0.319 262 134
H06 0.05 0.17 -0.000 55 202
H07 1.32 5.18 -0.007 88 352
H08 0.09 0.11 0.000 107 190
H09 0.23 1.41 -0.002 331 206
H10 0.08 0.17 0.000 189 114
H11 1.31 3.29 -0.003 271 177
H12 0.05 0.11 0.000 312 257
H13 0.18 0.39 -0.001 328 158
H14 0.20 0.32 0.000 37 336
H15 0.31 0.66 -0.000 39 302
20

3-10
Transformer Sizing
• De-rating
– ANSI C57.110-1986
– Standard ignores harmonic voltages and even orders
• K-factor
– Based upon UL1561
– K-factor affected by source impedance
– Calculated number may be low
– Allow for increased transformer impedance
– Avoid the “Goldilocks” approach
21
K-Factor Calculations
• Low-Impedance Power
Source
– K-Factor = 9.43
– Voltage = 117.8 V rms.,
162.2 V pk, 1.38 CF
– Current = 4.38 A rms., 11.2
A pk, 2.55 CF
• High-Impedance Power
Source
– K-Factor = 3.73
– Voltage = 114.1 V rms.,
145.2 V pk, 1.27 CF
– Current = 3.83 A rms., 7.9 A
pk, 2.06 CF
22

3-11
K-Factor Correction
• Compensation process
– Vthd is <2% the K number is OK
– Vthd is >2% and <6% then K+1
– Vthd is >5% then K+2
• Rule of thumb K rating
– Standard K-Factors: 4, 9, 13, 20, 30, 40 & 50.
– At service with load diversity
• K = 4 or 9
– At load
• K = 13 or 20
23
Power Supply W/O Power Factor

Correction
24

3-12
Power Supply With Power Factor

Correction
25
Neutral Current
• Old style switch mode power supplies
– Draw current in unique pulses
– Ratio of neutral vs. phase current can reach 1.73:1
• New style supplies with PFC
– Power supplies with power factor correction circuitry (PFC) draw
current in a more sinusoidal form.
– Concentrations of PFC corrected supplies will offset and not
contribute to neutral current.
– Ratio of neutral vs. phase current may be less then 1 : 1.
• The need to double neutral conductor size may decrease
with PFC corrected equipment.
• The need to double the neutral conductor size for theaters
is a code requirement.
26

3-13
Harmonic Propagation
• Harmonic effects increase with load/source
interaction
• Odd harmonics develop naturally with rectangular
waveforms
• Even harmonics develop with asymmetrical
waveforms
– Asymmetry results in direct voltages and currents (dc)
– DC conditions can adversely affect magnetic devices
– Even harmonics often indicate load problems
• Harmonic content normally decreases with
increased frequency (1/3 of the third, 1/5 of the
fifth...)
27
Harmonic Problems Summary

• Overheated, noisy • Drift or hunting in
transformers electronic controls
• Overloaded or burned • Rapid motor failure or
(hot) neutrals insufficient torque
• Timing errors in logic • Insufficient distribution
controlled equipment capacity
• Blown SCRs • Power factor or
• Capacitor failure harmonic rate
• Variable speed drive penalties
(VSD) dropout
28

3-14
Harmonics and Power Factor

• Mitigation methods • Displacement Factor =
– Delta-wye transformers Power Factor
– Eliminate shared – Correction capacitors
neutrals should work
– Filtering • Distortion Factor =
– Phase angle blending Power Factor
for control of harmonics – Harmonic filters or
– Equipment redesign phase shifting required
(linearize)
• Displacement &
– Management of the Distortion Present
environment
– Proceed with caution
29
IEEE 519
V
harmonic
PCC
I
harmonic
30

3-15
IEEE 519 Harmonics Standard

• Utility responsibility • Customer responsibility
– Limit overall voltage – Limit current injection into
distortion utility
– General limit 5% THD at – Limits based on short-circuit
PCC capacity and maximum
– Maximum single harmonic demand
3% of fundamental – Limits based on total
• Voltage distortion reflects demand distortion
– Individual harmonics limited
– User-injected harmonic
currents – Even harmonics limited to
25% of odd
– Utility system impedance
– No half-wave converters!
31
IEEE519 Current Distortion Limits (120V

Through 69000V)
Maximum Harmonic Current Distortion in Percent of IL
Individual Harmonic Order (Odd Harmonics)
ISC / IL <11 11 ≤ h < 17 17 ≤ h < 23 23 ≤ h < 35 35 ≤ h TDD

<20* 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0
20<50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0
50<100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
100<1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
>1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0
Even harmonics are limited to 25% of the odd harmonic limits above.
Current distortions that result in a dc offset, e.g., half-wave converters, are not allowed.
*All power generation equipment is limited to these values of current distortion, regardless of actual Isc /
IL .
where
Isc = maximum short-circuit current at PCC
IL = maximum demand load current (fundamental frequency component) at PCC.
32

3-16
IV Grounding
Grounding Considerations
• Safety grounding • Signal & performance
("earthing") grounding
– Low frequency currents – High frequency currents
– Personnel safety – Equipment
– Reference the power performance
system ground – Reference is local
– Requires low resistance equipment chassis
paths – Low impedance paths
• Low inductance
• High capacitance

4-1
Grounding System
• Earth grounding system • Equipment grounding
– Grounding electrode (conductor) system
conductor – Grounds exposed metal and
– Grounding electrode(s) cabinets
• Driven rod(s) – Starts at the neutral-to-
• Metal buried water pipe ground bond
• Structural steel – Must be run in same conduit
• Concrete encased as phase/neutral conductors
electrode (Ufer) – May use conduit
• Buried ring or linear
– Connected to electronics dc
conductor
& logic reference
Earth Grounding System

4-2
Facility Grounding
• NEC
– 25 Ohms or supplement
– NEC 250-56 [2002]
• Health Care
– IEEE Std. 602-1996 (White)
– Section (10.4.5.2)
– No more than 10 ohms
– 5 Ohms or less preferred
• Industrial Plants
– ANSI/IEEE Std. 141-1986 (R1999)
(RED)
– Section 7.5.2
– 1 ohm or less for substations
– 5 ohms or less for industrial plants
• Sphere of influence
– Radius equals length of buried rod
Facility Grounding – Ground Rods

4-3
Lightning Protection System Grounding
Resistance Measurements
• 3-Point Fall of • Single Point
Potential Measurement

4-4
Soil Type vs. Resistivity

(IEEE Std. 142-1991Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems)
Soil Type Average Resistivity 5/8" x 10' Driven Rod

Ohms per CM Ohms Resistance
Well graded gravel, gravel-sand 60,000 -- 100,000 180 -- 300
Loose gravel, gravel-sand 100,000 -- 250,000 300 -- 750

Clayey gravel, sand-clay 20,000 -- 40,000 60 -- 120
Silty sands, sand-silts mixtures 10,000 -- 50,000 30 -- 150
Clayey sands, sand-clay 5,000 -- 20,000 15 -- 60

mixtures
Silty or clayey fine sands 3,000 -- 8,000 9 -- 24
w/plasticity
Fine sandy or silty soils, elastic 8,000 -- 30,000 24 -- 90
silts
Gravelly clays, sandy clays, silty 2,500 -- 6,000 (moisture related) 17 -- 18 (moisture related)
clays, lean clays
Inorganic clays, high plasticity 1,000 -- 5500 (moisture related) 3 -- 16 (moisture related)
Effects of Soil Moisture & Temperature

• Soil temperature • Moisture content
8' Ground Rod Resistance 8' Ground Rod Resistance
10,000 1,000
1,000
Ohms
Ohms
100
100
10 10
10 30 50 70 0 10 20 30
20 40 60 80 5 15 25
Temperature in F % Moisture Content by Weight
10

4-5
Optimal Facility Grounding Means

• Building Footer • Ground ring & rods
– Ufer Ground – Bonded at corners
11
Enhanced Conductivity Concrete
12

4-6
Grounding Electrode System

• Driven Ground
• Water Pipe Bond
• Structural Steel Bond
• Metering
– Must not impede grounding
path
– NEC 250-50(a)(1)[1999]
• Underground gas pipes
– Not part of GES
– NEC 250-51(a) [1999]
• Gas pipes inside facility
– Bonding after shutoff valve
– NEC 250-104(b)[1999]
13
Mains Grounding Variations
Floated Service
Resistance Grounding
Ground Fault Interrupt
14

4-7
Mains Grounding Variations

• Floated Delta Service
– Absence of solid ground reference allows ground
referenced voltage fluctuations
• Load related fluctuations usually within voltage envelope of
service
• Utility related fluctuations reflect primary voltages
• Lightning transients create severe dv/dt
• Impedance Grounded Service
– 480/277Vac service
– No neutral connected loads
– Creates ground referenced voltage during faults
15
Safety Grounding System

• Equipment grounding conductor
– Grounds exposed metal and cabinets
– Starts at the neutral-to-ground bond
– Must be run in same conduit as phase/neutral
conductors
– May use conduit
– Connected to electronics dc & logic reference
16

4-8
Grounding Issues
• Grounding conductor • Conduit instead of
size grounding conductor
– Is bigger better? – Screw thread
• Transformer grounding – Clamp
• Ground loops – Compression sleeve
– Flexible
• "Isolated" grounds
17
Low Frequency Ground Current - 1

LEGEND: 1
LOAD CURRENT A
NEUTRAL RETURN CURRENT
GROUND
SUB-PANEL
UTILIZATION
BUILDING EQUIPMENT
ELECTRICAL
SERVICE
TRANSFORMER LINE
2
NEUTRAL
GROUND GROUND
N-G
BOND
C B D
SUB-PANEL
EARTH GROUND
(MAIN BUILDING ELECTRICAL GROUND)
18

4-9

LEGEND: 1
LOAD CURRENT A

GROUND
SUB-PANEL
UTILIZATION
BUILDING EQUIPMENT
ELECTRICAL
SERVICE
TRANSFORMER LINE
2
NEUTRAL
N-G GROUND GROUND
BOND
C B D
SUB-PANEL
EARTH GROUND
(MAIN BUILDING ELECTRICAL GROUND)
19

LEGEND: 1
LOAD CURRENT A
GROUND
SUB-PANEL UTILIZATION
BUILDING EQUIPMENT
ELECTRICAL
SERVICE
TRANSFORMER LINE
2
NEUTRAL
GROUND GROUND
N-G
BOND
C B D
SUB-PANEL
F E
EARTH GROUND
(MAIN BUILDING ELECTRICAL GROUND) "ISOLATED" GROUND,
GROUND ROD, COLD
WATER PIPE, ETC..
20

4-10

LEGEND: 1
LOAD CURRENT A
GROUND
SUB-PANEL UTILIZATION
BUILDING EQUIPMENT
ELECTRICAL
SERVICE
TRANSFORMER LINE
2
NEUTRAL
GROUND GROUND
N-G
BOND
C B D
SUB-PANEL
F E
EARTH GROUND
(MAIN BUILDING ELECTRICAL GROUND) "ISOLATED" GROUND,
GROUND ROD, COLD
WATER PIPE, ETC..
21
High Frequency Ground Current

• Sources
– Transients from
lightning and switching
– Electromagnetic
interference
– Radio frequency
interference
22

4-11
High Frequency Interference Current - 2

(RS-422 Interference)
23
Signal Reference Grid -- Erico

A very good reference grid
24

4-12
Safety Ground Vs Reference Grid
25
Connections to Reference Grid

• Short flat straps best
• Metal braid OK
• Bond at opposite
corners of equipment
• Bond all equipment
within room
26

4-13
Problem of Networked Computers --

Differential ground voltage
Transient
Arrives here first
27
Differential Ground Voltage Solutions

• Reference grid (computer rooms)
• Fiber optic networks
• Twisted pair networks (10baseT)
• Ferrite cores
• Over-voltage protectors
• Grounding Inductance
28

4-14
High Frequency Interference Measurement

• Signal voltages small and mingled with
noise
• Voltage probe insertion may hurt signals
• Currents much larger, easier to measure
• Couple using high-frequency transformer
• Measure using digital storage oscilloscope
• Some applications, use spectrum analyzer
29
Controlling Network Interference

• OVP Protectors (SAD)
• Filters (ferrite cores -- shunt capacitors)
30

4-15
Ferrite Cores
• Ferrous metal baked in
ceramic fixture
• Functions by creating
high frequency losses
• Inductive & resistive
characteristics
31
Filter Pin Connector

• Normally use capacitive elements internally
• Specify desired level of capacitance
• Some designs add series inductance
32

4-16
Data Cable Protectors

• Silicon Avalanche
Diodes
• MOV Components
33
5 Pin Protector (Classic)

• Gas tube OVP
• Sneak current coils
• Protects
– Tip to ground
– Ring to ground
34

4-17
5 Pin Telco Protectors (Variations)
35
5 Pin Hybrid Protector

• Gas tube
• Silicon Avalanche diode & low capacitance diodes
• Capacitors
36

4-18
High Frequency Interference Measurement
37
High Frequency Monitoring
38

4-19
High Frequency Monitoring / Scatter Plot
39
High Frequency Interference Current

(facility ground interference)
40

4-20
Communications Media Sensitivity

• Most sensitive: RS- 232, Thinnet & similar
single-ended unbalanced systems
• Less sensitive: RS 422 & similar balanced
systems
• Better still: Signal transformer or opto-
isolated systems (10 Base-T)
• Best: Non-conducting media, fiber-optic
and radio
41
Data Line Shielding

• Shields effectively conduct • Electrical Code Data Line
high frequency current Safety Issues
• Shields do not effectively – On entering building:
limit effects of low • Shields require grounding
• Listed protectors must be
frequency current used
• Must be grounded BOTH – Where there is:
ends • Exposure to lightning
– Or - ungrounded ends • Exposure to power lines
MUST be protected
• Suppression may also be
needed
42

4-21
Shield Grounding
• 1kV ESD Pulse --
Shield Grounded
(normal conditions)
• 1kV ESD Pulse -- 2"

Shield Pigtail (shield
drainwire)
43
AC & Communications Grounding

Very Bad!
yNEC 2002 AC
POWER TELCO
y250.56, 800.40 & 830.40

CATV
Code compliant,
Single point is the
but still bad!
preferred
application AC
TELCO POWER TELCO
AC
POWER
CATV
CATV
44

4-22
Concluding Statements
• Current Flows in Paths
– Kirchhoff's Laws Prevail
• Ground is a path not a terminus
• Understanding the paths is the key to good
grounding
• Electrical Codes cannot be compromised by
grounding practices
45

4-23
V Power Problems
Terms for Power Problems

Glitch
Ev
ulse
en
Confusion Im p
t
???
e
Surge tag
Ou
Blink
rtion
Disto Sag
Swell
No
Transient
tc
hi
ng
Glitch
"Power Hit"
Anomaly

5-1
Voltage Tolerance Curves
Voltage Tolerance Curves

5-2
Power Problems
• Events are anomalies
– Event recording is dependent on the threshold settings
of the monitoring equipment and the nature of the
electrical environment.
• Disturbances are undesirable consequences of
events
– Correlation establishes the relationship between
EVENTS and equipment DISTURBANCES. Single
correlation is not conclusive -- it may be "coincidence!"
• Power Problems are a consequence of
disturbances -- a set or class of disturbances.
Power Problems Depend On:

• Nature and source of event
– External (source)
– Internal (load)
• Susceptibility of load to the event
– Load does not react...no problem
– Load reacts...activity / process interruption
• Effect on process or activity
– Stops the activity / process
– Easy "work around"
• Cost sensitivity to this effect
– BIG $$$
– No real identifiable costs...can not justify $$$ to mitigate problem

5-3
Power Problems
• Source
– Internal or external
– Utility or load
• Coupling
– Direct
– Induced
• Characteristics
– Low Frequency
– High Frequency
Power Problems - Coupling

• Directly conducted
• Electromagnetically coupled or induced

5-4
Power Problems: Low Frequency

• Variation of amplitude • Types of event:
near power system – Swells (surges)
frequency – Sags & brownouts
• Important – Dropouts & outages
Characteristics – Frequency variation
– Magnitude, Duration
and Source
Power Problems: Frequency

• Not usually a problem • How do power
with utility - a "stiff" monitors measure
source frequency?
• Typical problem – Cycle-by-cycle
sources: – Averaged over a multi-
– Engine generators cycle sample
– UPS systems
– Small, remote or
isolated power systems
10

5-5
Typical RMS Voltage Disturbances
11
Power Problems: Utility

• Power factor
correction capacitor
switching
• Circuit breaker
operation and grid
switching
• Arcs and line fault
clearance
• Lightning and storms
12

5-6
Storm-Related Problems - Lightning
13
Storm Related Event
14

5-7
Facility Exposure to Lightning
15
Power Problems: Facility

• Loose connections
• Overloaded circuits
and transformers
• Wiring errors
• Ground loops (low and
high frequency)
16

5-8
Facility Power Problems

• Breaker trip & fuses blow on motor start-up
17
Facility Power Problems-2

• ATS operation during motor start-up
18

5-9

ATS Re-transfer to preferred source
19

Good Start-up!
20

5-10

ATS Wiring Error!!!!
21
Power Problems: Equipment

• Equipment turn on/off
• Equipment current
distortion
• Phase-angle controlled
loads
• Low immunity to
disturbances
22

5-11
Load Related Events - 1

Load related event--
load "turn-on"
V & I = Load
23
Load Related Events - 2
24

5-12
Load Related Events (Harmonic Eval.)
25
Induction Motor Response to Outage
26

5-13
Equipment Response to Notch
27
Sub-cycle and Other Disturbances
28

5-14
Transient modes
• Normal mode • One mode often
– AC line to line converts to another
– AC line to neutral through:
– Telco tip to ring – Circuit voltage drop
• Common mode – Capacitive coupling
– Any line to local ground – Mutual inductive
coupling
• Differential ground
mode
– Between physically
separated grounds
29
Interference Modes
L L L
v
N N N
v
G G G
v
Measurement Normal Mode Common Mode Longitudinal Mode

Techniques
Voltage Line-to Neutral or Neutral-to-Ground Imbalance between
Differential Phase-to-Phase conductors or
another reference
point
Current Phase or Neutral Line & Neutral Multiple Conductor

Current Summation or Summation
Ground Current
30

5-15
Power Problems: High Frequency - 1

• Important
characteristics
– Peak voltage, current &
energy
– Rise time (dv/dt, di/dt)
– Phase angle
– Frequency of
occurrence
31
Transients
• Transient sources
include
– Lightning
– Utility
• Power factor correction
capacitors
• Switching
– User
• load switching
• Equipment operation
• ESD
32

5-16
Transient Effects
• Damage
– AC power supplies
– Data, telephone and
communications
interfaces
• Disruption
– Data loss
– System crash
• Degradation
– Minor damage which
surfaces later
33
Transients
• Transient Propagation
– Obeys circuit laws
– Current flows in circuit Transient generator Load
– Capacitance may
complete circuit
• Transient Protection
Basics
Block
– Current block
• Series high impedance Transient
generator Load
– Current divert
• Parallel low impedance
34

5-17
Placement of Surge Suppressor

Line
Meter
Neutral
6'
20'
35
Surge Suppressor Performance
Let through 6' of Wire

At the suppressor
With 6' of wire
With 20' of wire
20' of Wire
36

5-18
Common Electrical Problems

• Wiring errors • Ground loops
– Electrical system – Leakage
– Data, – Neutral/ground bonds
telecommunications & • Transients
network
– Switching
• Overloaded circuits – Lightning
– Lack of power – Electrostatic discharge
management
– Harmonics
37
Electrostatic Discharge
• Causes:
– Triboelectric (rubbing) effects
– Separation and accumulation of charge
• Results:
– High voltages (up to 50 kV)
– Spark discharges
– High dV/dt and dI/dt
38

5-19
Electrostatic Voltages
ACTIVITY LOW (<20%) HIGH (>65%)

HUMIDITY HUMIDITY
Walking across carpet 35,000 V 1,500 V
Walking over vinyl floor 12,000 V 250 V
Worker at bench 6,000 V 100 V
Handling vinyl envelopes 7,000 V 600 V
Picking up poly bags from 20,000 V 1,200 V
bench
Movements on urethane 18,000 V 1,500 V
padded chair
39
Electrostatic Discharge
• Avoidance & control:
– High humidity (>50%)
– Conductive materials and
flooring
– Protective clothing and
straps
– Ionizers
• Equipment immunity &
hardening
– Keyboards, mice & human
interface
– Ground, shield & suppress
– AC suppression rarely
effective
40

5-20
VI Power Conditioning
Power Conditioning
• Provides improved power quality to load by:
– Separating circuits of sensitive loads
– Establishing controlled reference grounds
– Conditioning power with a treatment device
– Providing alternative source of electrical energy

6-1
Cascaded Protection
• Uses multiple shunt protectors
• Uses blocking impedance
– Power system wiring
– Power system transformers
– Filter or transformer power conditioners
Power Treatment Devices

• Voltage regulators • Transformers
– Ferroresonant – Isolation
– Tap switching – Low impedance
• Surge protective conditioner
devices – Ferroresonant
– Lightning arresters & • Uninterruptible power
surge suppressors sources (UPS)
• Filters – On-line
• Motor generators – Off-line
– Line interactive

6-2
Surge Protection
• Lightning arresters
– Primary and secondary devices
– Applied on utility up to PCC (watt-hour meter)
• Surge suppressors
– Applied in facility beyond PCC
– Service entrance
• Incorrect installation may detract from performance
– Distribution system
– Point-of-use
Arresters & Shunt Suppressors

• Use non-linear shunt
elements
– Varistor
– Spark gap or gas tube
– Silicon-controlled
rectifier (SCR)
– Suppression diode
stacks

6-3
Non-Linear Shunt Elements

• High "off" impedance
Clamping
• Low "on" impedance
• Rapid transition
Voltage
between states System
• Low to moderate
"headroom"
Current
Metal Oxide Varistor

• Best overall modern
device
• Strengths:
– Good clamping and
headroom
– Excellent durability
– Sub-nanosecond switching
• Weakness:
– Low voltage devices not
effective
– High capacitance

6-4
Suppression Diodes
• Applications: special
power and data protection
• Strengths:
– Excellent clamping and
headroom
– Moderate to good durability
– Sub-nanosecond switching
• Weaknesses:
– Low voltage devices most
effective
– High capacitance
Gas Tubes
• Good choice for special
data protection
applications
• Strengths:
– Excellent clamping
– Good to excellent durability
– Microsecond switching
– Low capacitance
• Weaknesses:
– Overshoot on fast
wavefronts
– Not auto-resetting
10

6-5
Component Service Life

• Service Component • Service Degradation
Damage – Varistors & diodes:
– Caused by thermal • Small change in leakage
overstress: current
• Exceeding surge energy • Not limiting service factor
rating – Gas Tubes:
• Exceeding rated voltage • Electrode erosion
– AC overvoltage • Rupture
• Wiring errors
• Accidents
• Utility problems
11
Dedicated Circuit
ELECTRICAL
SERVICE
TRANSFORMER
U IR IR
T HOT L
I O
120 VOLTS 114 VOLTS
L A
I D
NEUTRAL IR IR
T
Y
0 VOLTS 3 VOLTS
GROUND
12

6-6
Surge Suppressor Specs ("Standards")
• Underwriters Laboratories (UL) Std. 1449

• Commercial Item Descriptions (CIDs)
– Performance
– Endurance (reliability)
– Application
– Safety
– Certification
13
Surge Suppressors (TVSS)

• Nonlinear response to
excessive voltage
• Clamping depends
upon energy handling
• Device configuration
determines protection
mode
• Response time based
upon MOV or SAD
14

6-7
Filters
• Normally adds LC
components to TVSS
• May or may not have
sine tracking
• N/G usually weaker
performance
• Adds RF attenuation to
clamping
15
Isolation Transformers
• Isolate common-mode only
• Common-mode coupled by
inter-winding capacitance
• Capacitance may be reduced by
design
• Normal-mode couples
Line Load
magnetically
• Limited normal mode
attenuation
– Inductance and load determine
attenuation
• Common mode attenuation via
coupling capacitance
– Shields or screens improve
attenuation
16

6-8
Ferroresonant Voltage Regulators

• Transformer operates in
Primary Section of
saturated mode Primary Core
Winding
• LC filter produces Magnetic
Shunt
sinusoidal output voltage
Air Gap
• Shielding may improve Output
Winding
common mode Secondary Section of
Core
performance
Resonating
Winding
17
Tap Switching Voltage Regulators

• Control of voltage taps
– SCR
– Triac Electronic Control
Tap Selection
– Relay
• 0.5 cycle response
Line Load
time
• Continual tap changing
Ground
18

6-9
Low Impedance Conditioner

• Uses low-impedance
isolation transformer
• Varistor suppression on
primary
Line Load
• Filtration on secondary
• N-G bond controls
common-mode isolation Ground
transformer
• Sine-tracking output filters
-- low pass filter
• Ground Impedance
19
Motor-Generator
• Isolates load
mechanically
• Provides some
dropout ride-through
20

6-10
Uninterruptible Power Supplies

• Provide backup AC power from storage
batteries
• Automatically power load on loss of utility
source
• May also suppress and condition power
21
Ideal UPS
• Source Input: • UPS Output:
– Disturbed (transients & – Undisturbed
switching) (suppressed & no
– Discontinuous switching)
– Unregulated – Continuous
– < 100% reliable – Regulated
– 100% reliability
UTILITY
UPS
LOAD
22

6-11
Real UPS
• Reliability <100% (MTBF)
• Discontinuous
– Off-line switch output transfer
• On-line switch bypass
• Non-sinusoidal output
• Poor or no regulation
• Poor or no suppression
23
UPS Output Waveforms
SINUSOIDAL
RECTANGULAR
PSEUDO-SINE
24

6-12
UPS Modes of Operation - 1

• On-line (Static UPS)
– Inverter drives the load, rectifier/charger powered by utility
– Load switched to utility bypass on inverter overload
– Output usually filtered, conditioned and regulated
– Output usually transformer isolated
– Bypass possible source of problems
UTILITY BYPASS LOAD
HOT HOT
RECTIFIER INVERTER
+
NEUTRAL - NEUTRAL
AC DC DC AC
GROUND GROUND
25

• Off-line (standby)
– Inverter normally off
– Utility supplies load
– Load source switched when utility lost
– Output may be suppressed but not conditioned
– Output not usually transformer isolated
– Transfer switch possible source of problems
UTILITY LOAD
HOT HOT
TRANSFER
NEUTRAL SWITCH NEUTRAL
GROUND GROUND
RECTIFIER INVERTER
+
-
AC DC DC AC 26

6-13

• Line interactive
– Inverter on but unloaded
– Output suppressed, conditioned and regulated
– Output may be transformer isolated
UTILITY LOAD
HOT HOT
TRANSFER
NEUTRAL SWITCH NEUTRAL
GROUND GROUND
RECTIFIER + INVERTER
-
AC DC DC AC
27
Inertial and Flywheel UPS
28

6-14
Diesel UPS
29
Diesel Generator
30

6-15
UPS Considerations
• Specifications • Maintenance
– Input (distortion & – Battery testing,
power factor) monitoring & alarm
– Output (waveform & – Battery replacement &
filtering) servicing
– Reliability (MTBF) and – Management &
reparability supervision
– Holdup time
– Suppression &
conditioning
– Acceptance testing
31
Synchronizing Waveforms
• Synchronizing rate -- A / (A-B)
– A frequency = utility; B frequency = generator
– 3 Hz delta @ 60 Hz = 20 cycles & 18° per cycle
– 0.1 Hz delta @ 60 Hz = 600 cycles @ 0.6° per cycle
32

6-16
Make Before Break Transfer

• Sources paralleled and synchronized
• Phase offset at moment of transfer - 15°
• Preferred offset - 7° or less
33
UPS -- ATS Problems

• Site symptoms
– Burned contacts on
automatic transfer switch
(ATS)
– Blown fuses and tripped
breakers at utility
– Synchronizing option added
to ATS
– UPS static transfer failed
and UPS transfers to bypass
– Problem worst with transfers
from generator to utility
– Very large current inrush
into UPS
34

6-17
Transfer to Utility - Sync cycle
35
Transfer -- Open Transition
36

6-18
Transfer -- Closing Transition
37
Transfer Complete -- Inrush Current
38

6-19
PQ Solutions Do Not Have to be Expensive
• Determine your equipment's sensitivity to various

power events and the impact on your operation.
• Is the sensitivity of the equipment associated with
the entire unit or just a subsystem.
– In many cases it may be possible to add an inexpensive
device to increase the hold-up time for the line relays.
– Drop-out or time delay relays can protect 3-phase loads
from single phasing
• Understanding the problem that you are trying to
resolve is key to implementing cost effective
solutions.
39
The Cost of Power Quality Solutions

INCREASING COST
Customer Solutions
4 - Utility 3 - Overall 2 - Controls 1 - Equipment

Solutions Protection Protection Specifications
Inside Plant
1
Feeder or
Group of 2 CONTROLS
Machines
Utility
Source
3 MOTORS
4 OTHER
LOADS
Source: Electrotek Concepts, Inc.

40

6-20
VII Safety
WARNING #1
Performing power quality investigations in
and around energized equipment, exposed
electrical buss work , and inside confined
spaces can be dangerous. Testing and
inspection of energized equipment should
only be performed by qualified individuals
familiar with proper safe work-practices.

7- 1
WARNING #2
• Follow all appropriate safety rules and
procedures
– Company
– NFPA / NEC
– OSHA
– Appropriate state and local work rules
Potential Safety Hazards

• Follow applicable safe
work practices and lockout
procedures
• Familiarity with application,
installation and operation
of various diagnostic
equipment
• Use approved clothing and
protective equipment
• Ensure that all tools and
equipment are in proper
working order and
condition
4

7- 2
Safety Equipment / Apparel

• Rubber gloves rated at
600v/20kv
• Leather protectors
• Hard hat
• Hearing protection (when
appropriate)
• Safety face or eye protection
(UV rating)
• Long-sleeved shirts (Nomex or
Indura flame-resistant clothing)
worn while working on or near
0-600 volts
• Specialized safety equipment
for high voltage and other
hazardous environments
Never Assume a Circuit is Dead

7- 3
Jewelry / Surroundings / Conductor /

Neutral
Typical Body Current Paths

7- 4
Effects of Electric Shock

Applied to skin (Macroshock)
6+ Amps: Sustained myocardial contraction followed by
normal rhythm. Temporary respiratory paralysis. Burns,
if small area of contact.
100 - 300 mA: Ventricular fibrillation. Respiratory center
intact.
50mA: Pail, fainting, exhaustion, mechanical injury.
Heart and respiratory function intact.
16mA: "Let go" current, muscle contraction
1mA: Threshold of perception; tingling.
Applied to Myocardium (Microshock)

100uA: Ventricular fibrillation.
10uA: Recommended maximum leakage current.
(Blank)
10

7- 5
VIII Planning & Performing a

Power Quality Survey
What is a PQ Survey?
• A forensic activity (investigation).
• It is much like investigating the scene of a
crime.
– Gather evidence
– Interview witnesses
– Surveillance (monitoring)
– Review the evidence and surveillance data
– Present your findings
– "Arrest the guilty!"

8- 1
Reasons for a PQ Survey

• Normal reason is a loose
forensic activity (problem
investigation)
• Estimating effects of
electrical changes
– New equipment or changes
to the distribution system
– Effects of Harmonics
• Governmental regulations
• Baseline and maintenance
• ISO9000 Compliance
procedures
Survey Justification
• Money, Manpower & • Survey must provide a
Test Equipment ROI
– Labor required to – Immediate problem
perform the survey resolution
– Use of expensive – Energy management
equipment cost reduction
– Disruption of normal • Management
activities participation in survey
goals

8- 2
The Six Steps to a Successful PQ Survey
• 1 - Plan / Prepare
• 2 - Inspect (Survey)
• 3 - Monitor
• 4 - Data Analysis
• 5 - Key Findings & Recommendations (the
Solution)
• 6 - Implementation & Verification
Why have a Written Survey Plan?

• Some surveys have continued for months
without tangible results because they were
not well planned.
• Complex facilities, multiple monitors and
data collection systems require a formal
plan for the activity to be brought to a
successful completion.

8- 3
When a Written Survey Plan May Not be

Needed
Simple uncomplicated monitoring activities
may not require a formal written plan, but all
the same steps will need to be considered
(at least informally) for the activity to reach a
satisfactory conclusion.
Survey Objectives
• What are the objectives for the activity?
– What is to be accomplished?
– Is it measurable? (Deliverables)
• Objectives must be clear, well defined and
most importantly: accepted by the
individual (organization) requesting the
survey

8- 4
Examples of Survey Objectives

• Solve an equipment performance problem
• Identify and correct sources of interference
• Determine overall electrical environmental
quality
• Determine capacity for a facility
• Predict the impact of harmonic loads
(IEEE519)
• Establish an electrical environment
"baseline" for a facility (ISO9000)
9
Determinants of the Scope of Activities

• Size of the facility • Number and length of
• Complexity of electrical event logs
system and equipment • Access to restricted areas
• Quantity of monitoring or equipment
equipment • Specialized options (RF,
• Duration of monitoring current, temperature,
program humidity, etc.)
• Quantity and complexity of • Involvement of staff and
monitor data administrative support
10

8- 5
Power Monitor Placement

• Classic placement • Multiple monitors
– Service Entrance(s) – Improves quality of data
– Transformers – Speeds-up the
– Distribution -- feeders investigative process.
and panelboards • Service entrance, load
center, utilization
– Point of use -- branch equipment
circuits, equipment
– Additional monitors can
be rented for between
$500 and $1000 /
month.
11
Verify Survey Plan

• Is the objective clear and
measurable?
• Is the quantity and
placement of monitoring
equipment clear?
• Are personnel and
responsibilities assigned?
• Is the length of the survey
established?
• Is the data collection
system (event logs)
defined and ready for
testing?
12

8- 6
Equipment Event Logs

• Things to include in the EVENT LOG
– Operator / Location / Activity
– Record of normal operating cycles
– Record of equipment anomalies
– Record of environmental anomalies
• Design log to make the data collection as
easy as possible.
• Use alarm relays, control switches to aid in
time stamping events.
13
Preparing for the Survey

• Documentation and data collection
– Site history
– Equipment/activity event log(s)
– Service/repair history
• Tools and equipment
14

8- 7
Site History
• Has the system or equipment ever worked
satisfactorily?
– When did the problems start?
• Time of occurrence for recurrent problems
– Look for patterns
• Failure symptoms or hardware failures
– Someone somewhere knows what parts were replaced
• Electrical service and configuration
– wye-wye or delta-wye
15
Site History - 2
• Inventory of major loads in the facility
– Operating cycles for major loads in the facility
• Recent equipment changes
• Renovations in the facility
• Telecommunications/data-network facilities
and equipment
– Recent implementation of wireless technology
16

8- 8
Monitoring Tools & Equipment

• Power quality • ELF & VLF field
• Power quantity strength meters
• High frequency • Ultrasonic meter
– DSO • Video camera
– Spectrum analyzer • Ground resistance
• ESD meters meter
• Multi-meters (True • Current probes
RMS) – Current transformer
• Thermographic – Hall Effect (d-c)
recorders • Circuit tester
17
ESD & ELF Meters
18

8- 9
Popular 1Ø Phase Monitoring Instruments
• Fluke 43B
– Power quality analyzer
• Fluke 41B
– Harmonics & energy
19
Flexible AC Current Probes
20

8- 10
3Ø Monitoring Instruments / $2K to $6K

• Ideal Model 805
• Summit Technologies
Power Sight 4000
• LEM Analyst 3Q
• AEMC PowerPad 3945
• Fluke 430-Series
• Dranetz-BMI PowerGuide
4400 & PowerVisa 440
21
Portable 3Ø Power Quality Monitors / $7K

to $15K
RPM (Fluke)
LEM
Power
Topaz 10000
Recorder
Hioki Dranetz-BMI
3196 PowerXplorer
PX5 (PX5-400
for 400Hz
apps.)
22

8- 11
Permanent Power Monitors / $2K to $4K +

Installation & Software
PML ION77 Dranetz-BMI Electro Ind. NEXUS 1250

Signature System
PowerLogic CM4000T RPM (Fluke) Multipoint Dranetz-BMI Encore
23
Monitoring Systems
Power Quality Spectrum

Analyzer Analyzer
Laptop CPU /
Controller
e/w HS Modem
Energy High Speed DSO

Analyzer
24

8- 12
Inspecting the Site - Visual/External

• Type of electrical service (underground,
aerial, low or high voltage?)
• Utility power factor correction capacitor
installations
• Neighboring facilities
• Utility substation in the immediate vicinity
• Physical location of building (exposure)
• Lightning protection system
• Building construction
25
Review the Electrical Service

• Service entrance -- single or multiple?
• How are the service entrances grounded?
• Building Grounding Electrode System?
• Transformer isolation?
• Ground Fault Interrupt?
26

8- 13
Inspecting the Site -- Internal

• Review major facility loads
and how they are
controlled
– Large photocopiers
– Variable speed drives
– UPS
– Elevators / escalators
– Lighting systems
– Welders
– Battery chargers
– Air conditioning
compressors, chillers and air
handlers
27
Inspecting the Site - 1

• Look for obvious problems
– Broken or corroded conduits
– Transformers which are hot or noisy
– Electrical panels with hot or loose circuit breakers
– Loose connections -- EMT without grounding wires
– Conduits which are hot and buzzing
– Transformers or conduits near CRTs with screen
"wiggle"
– Coffee pots plugged in with file servers
– Power cord plug/connectors showing signs of excessive
wear -- check for warm spots
28

8- 14
Inspecting the Site - 2

• Talk with the
equipment/system
operators and users
– Management's perception of
the problem may be quite
different from the people
using the equipment.
– Listen! Listen! Listen!
• Most people want to tell you
about the problem.
• Learn to translate the
information into appropriate
terminology.
29
Monitoring
• Power monitoring configurations
– Match the configuration of the load
– Monitor neutral-to-ground to record "common mode"
events
– Use current probes to record phase, neutral or ground
currents.
• Use multiple monitors - service entrance,
distribution center, utilization equipment
• Monitor threshold settings - sensitive, normal or
tolerant
30

8- 15
Identifying Problems - 1
• Review monitor data
– Look for events which occurred during periods
of equipment malfunction (event log entries)
– Identify severe events.
• Identify events that exceed equipment
performance parameters
• Correlate problems found during the
physical inspection with equipment
symptoms.
31
• Review site history and event logs
• Plot monitor event summaries
– Look for trends
• Compare event summaries to equipment
event logs
– Single Event Correlation is not conclusive
• Compare event data to equipment
performance specifications
• Select key events
32

8- 16
Summary Info w/Event Log Correlation
Event Log#1 X X X
Event Log#2 XX X X X
Event Log#3 X X
33
Key Event
34

8- 17
Symptom Possible Cause
I/O port failure Longitudinal CMI
Processor lockup Software / RF / ESD
Keyboard controller failure ESD
Power supply failure Surge-transient / ESD
System crash Surge-transient (voltage)
Wavy screen EMF
Clock/date reset Battery / conducted RF
Open door/cabinet halt Radiated RF
35
Writing the Report - Software Tools

• AiPower (Kreiss-Johnson
AI based report generator,
supports multiple
manufacturers)
• Dranetz-BMI Technologies
– DranView Versions 4, 5 & 6
• Fluke / RPM
– PAS & Scenario w/Report
Writer
– EN50160 Report Writer
– Flukeview
36

8- 18
PQ Survey Report Organization

• Executive Summary
– Written last after the main report is completed
– Never more than 2-pages
• Overview/Background
• Methodology
• Key findings
• Recommendations
• Summary
• Appendices
37
PQ Survey Report Content

• Quality information NOT quantity!
– The purpose of the report is to identify and present the
significant information, not bury the reader in paper.
• Use summary information
– Easier for people to understand
• Use waveform data (graphics) sparingly to add
emphasis and support recommendations
– Do not include every waveform recorded as it tends to
lessen the value of the data
38

8- 19
Be Wary and Watchful

• Never assume a single cause
– Peel the onion
• Know your instrumentation
• Don't become part of the measurement
• Use equipment symptoms as a guide
• Never assume the equipment is without guilt
39
Make Solutions A Priority

• Inaction is costly
• Reaction is costly GATHER
– Too little, too late for DATA
too much
• Monitor on an ongoing
EVALUATE ANALYZE
basis SOLUTIONS DATA
• Be part of the solution
• Provide ROI
IMPLEMENT
• Manage the facility SOLUTIONS
infrastructure
40

8- 20
Summary
• Apply the TEST OF REASONABLENESS to
all data and information.
• Know the limitations of monitoring and test
equipment.
• Look for the OBVIOUS.
• Don't become the victim of ANALYSIS
PARALYSIS.
• Do the simple thing first.
41
If All Fails...Call an Expert!!!
42

8- 21

Power Quality Enhancement Using Custom Power Devices Electrical Engineering

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Power Quality Enhancement Using Custom Power Devices Electrical Engineering

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Introduction to Power

© 2007 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (070320)

Introduction to Power Quality:

The Electrical Environment & Power

© 2007 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (070320)

Power Quality (def.)

Power Quality & Reliability

© 2007 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (070320)

Power Quality - Translated

Some Additional PQ Observations

© 2007 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (070320)

Sources of Power Quality Problems in

The Cost of Poor Power Quality

© 2007 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (070320)

The Cost of Poor Power Quality

DuPont: Saved $75

Paper Industry: Billinton

Source: EPRI Power Electronics Applications Center

Power Interruption Cost Calculator

© 2007 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (070320)

Power Quality & Reliability

The "9s" of Reliable Power

Four 9s 99.99% Factories 59 Minutes

Nine 9s 99.9999999% On-line Markets 30 Milliseconds

© 2007 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (070320)

Failing to "Look" Beyond the Traditional

Looking Beyond Traditional Power Quality

© 2007 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (070320)

Why is the Quality of the Environment

What Determines Electrical Environment

Generation Climatic & Geographic Traditional

T&D Facility Wiring Electronic

© 2007 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (070320)

U.S. Lightning Flash Density - 1989-98

© 2007 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (070320)

Sources of Electrical Problems

© 2007 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (070320)

Evaluating the Changes Over the Past 30-

© 2007 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (070320)

© 2007 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (070320)

Increased Data Rates and Processor

Data Rate (bps) Time Approximate

© 2007 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (070320)

Power Supply Technology

SWITCH MODE D.C. POWER SUPPLY

The Changing Electrical Environment

© 2007 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (070320)

The Electromagnetic Environment

The Future of Power Quality

© 2007 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (070320)

The California Experience

Electric Utility Deregulation

© 2007 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (070320)

Electric Utility Deregulation

Vertically Integrated Regional Transmission Network

Generation Bulk Power Trader

Retail Power Marketers

Energy Service Companies

Power Quality and the Utility

© 2007 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (070320)

PQ and the Mitigation/Protection

Monitoring Equipment Suppliers

© 2007 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (070320)

PQ and the Consulting Engineer