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2 (1998) 232-241
Alan H. Simmons
Department of Anthropology, University of Nevada at Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nevada 89154, USA
Abstract
Throughout the circum-Mediterranean region, human ecological impacts can be documented in the
archaeological record since at least Neolithic times. In Cyprus it has been demonstrated that pre-
Neolithic peoples also made considerable impact, and were largely responsible for the extinction of
endemic fauna, notably the pygmy hippopotamus. Current research on the island now indicates the
presence of cattle, previously undocumented, during the early Neolithic. All these recent investigations
focused on relatively small sites that under earlier research paradigms might have been ignored. These
studies suggest that human and faunal interactions within fragile island ecosystems were far more com-
plex than previously believed, and that to understand fully such interactions requires the investigation
of a full range of site types.
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
CYPRUS
Ais Yiorkis
Shillourokambos N
10 Km
Aetokremnos
Figure 1. Map of Cyprus, showing the approximate locations of Akrotiri Aetokremnos, Kritou Marottou Ais Yiorkis,
and Parekklisha Shillourokambos.
Figure 1 shows the location of the major sites popotami, as well as numerous other species
under discussion. (which include dwarf elephants and numerous
birds), in association with over 1,000 chipped
stone artifacts and numerous cultural features.
Akrotiri Aetokremnos
A series of 31 radiocarbon determinations
Recent excavations at Akrotiri Aetokremnos, dates Aetokremnos to ca. 10,500 Cal BC (Sim-
a collapsed rockshelter on the southern coast mons and Wigand 1994). These data clearly
of Cyprus, have demonstrated convincingly indicate that in Cyprus, at least, humans were
the co-existence of humans and extinct Pleis- consuming large numbers of pygmy hip-
tocene animals, an often claimed but rarely popotami during the early Holocene, prior to
demonstrated scenario. While the implica- the establishment of sedentary Neolithic vil-
tions of such an association are significant lages on the island. It is apparent that the
from several perspectives, Aetokremnos is also occupants of Aetokremnos were a contributing
important from a methodological perspective factor to the extinction of these unique ani-
because it is a small, limited-activity site of mals that once roamed not only Cyprus, but
the type rarely investigated on many of the many of the Mediterranean islands (Simmons
Mediterranean islands, where research atten- 1988; 1991a; 1999; Simmons and Reese 1993).
tion has tended to focus on more visible and It is only on Cyprus, however, where a con-
substantial remains (Simmons 1991b). nection between humans and pygmy hip-
Interdisciplinary research at the site has doc- popotami has been demonstrated thus far,
umented the presence of over 500 pygmy hip- although cultural remains have been associ-
234 Simmons
ated with other now extinct endemic species believed that cattle were not imported to the
on other islands (e.g. Burleigh and Clutton- island before the Bronze Age (Croft 1991: 63;
Brock 1980; Walden 1994). Knapp 1994: 418). Recent French excavations
at the relatively small Aceramic Neolithic set-
The Cypriot Neolithic tlement of Parekklisha Shillourokambos, near
the south-central coast, however, have claimed
For many years, researchers maintained that the presence of cattle (Guilaine et al. 1995),
there were no pre-Neolithic peoples in Cyprus; and now current studies at Ais Yiorkis have col-
indeed, convincing evidence for them on most laborated this evidence by clearly document-
of the Mediterranean islands is lacking. ing the presence of Bos through radiocarbon
Aetokremnos, however, has documented an dating on a bone of that species.
occupation some 2,000 years earlier than the
traditionally recognized Neolithic. This occu-
pation, however, apparently was not ancestral Kritou Marottou Ais Yiorkis
to the Cypriot Aceramic Neolithic, or Khi- During a two week period in the summer of
rokita Culture (Cherry 1990: 154; Held 1989: 1997, archaeologists from the University of
147-50, 223-26; Knapp 1994: 404-406). This Nevada at Las Vegas conducted a series of
culture, appearing around 7,000 Cal BC, con- tests on two Aceramic Neolithic sites near
tained few Levantine or Anatolian parallels Paphos in the western part of Cyprus. The
and in many ways appeared less sophisticated sites were originally recorded during the
than its mainland counterparts (LeBrun et al. Canadian Palaipaphos Survey Project (Fox
1987). Current research, however, suggests 1987: 19-22; Held 1992: 149; Rupp et al.
that the Aceramic Neolithic was, in fact, more 1984). These two sites, Kannaviou Kochina
complex than originally thought. and Kritou Marottou Ais Yiorkis are located
One reflection of this complexity was in within view of each other. Unlike most other
economic strategies. Conventional wisdom Aceramic Neolithic sites investigated in
held that the Aceramic Neolithic settlers of Cyprus, these localities are in an upland envi-
the island had a relatively simple, if efficient ronment consisting of Aleppo pine, Hermes
economic system. They arrived on an island oak and wild olive (Held 1992: 149). Kochina
with few resources; certainly the endemic is at an elevation of ca. 340 m, while Ais
fauna had been all but eradicated before their Yiorkis sits at ca. 460 m; both overlook the
arrival. These settlers brought with them an Ezousas River. While only limited excava-
economic package consisting of domesticated tions were conducted at both sites, evidence
plants and animals, including caprines and from Ais Yiorkis, which appears to be a limited
pigs, and, apparently, wild deer, which they activity area rather than a village, indicates
hunted. They settled at several sites, with that the Aceramic Neolithic occupants of
major settlements usually being located Cyprus had a far more sophisticated economic
within 10 km of the Mediterranean Sea base than previously believed, and this
(Cherry 1990: 154-57; Held 1992; LeBrun et included cattle within their larder.
al. 1987; Stanley-Price 1977a; 1977b; 1979; Although Kochina initially was believed to
Todd 1987: 186-88). Research attention represent a fairly substantial settlement, our test
accordingly has focused primarily on lowland excavations revealed only limited intact
village-sites. remains. Ais Yirokis, however, proved far more
One animal conspicuously absent from the interesting. The recorders of Ais Yiorkis
Neolithic economic suite is Bos. It was widely believed it to reflect a small ‘hamlet’ site, possi-
Of Tiny Hippos, Large Cows, and Early Colonists in Cyprus 235
bly related to deer and pig exploitation (Fox ornamental artifacts. Of particular interest in
1987: 22, 26). Thus, the site was of particular the bone was the presence of relatively abun-
interest since it appeared to be a relatively small dant deer and pig remains (Fox 1987: 20-22).
and specialized, precisely the type that has been Since the site was recorded, a large part of it
under-studied in Cyprus. As such, data from Ais appears to have been bulldozed. This distur-
Yiorkis could contribute to a more balanced bance had the virtue of exposing a large verti-
understanding of the overall settlement pattern cal section. In this section, for approximately
of Neolithic peoples on the island. 30m, there is clearly visible a thick (ca. 0.5 m)
As with Kochina, Ais Yiorkis has been deposit that contains abundant bone and
severely damaged by modern agricultural activ- chipped stone. All of this material appears to
ities. The site is located on two adjacent ter- be Aceramic Neolithic.
races, both of which have been farmed in We conducted a series of ‘surface scrapes’, a
modern times. The original surveyors recorded cost-efficient yet thorough method that
an approximately 60 cm thick buried cultural involved screening all loose surface matrix.
horizon and noted the presence of chipped We collected seven such 5 × 5 m units, all on
stone and animal bone in an exposed cut; they the lower terrace. We then cleaned two por-
also collected numerous artifacts. These con- tions of the exposed sections (‘Sections A and
sisted of a technologically well-crafted chipped B’), and excavated a 1m wide section of both.
stone assemblage, including one obsidian Section A had a depth of ca. 2.5 m, of which
bladelet sourced to the Çiftlik region in Ana- cultural material and bone occurred through-
tolia, ground stone, three picrolite artifacts, out, although it was denser in some portions.
including a ‘thimble shaped object’, and other The remnants of a possible wall were also
Scrapers— 21.4
end scraper 4 tertiary flake-2; tertiary blade-2
blunt-nosed end scraper 2 tertiary flake; secondary blade
side scraper 3 tertiary flake-2; tertiary blade-1
Burins— 9.5
straight 3 tertiary blade-3
angle 1 tertiary blade
Tangs 2 tertiary blade-2 4.8
Backed Blades 2 tertiary blade-2 4.8
Denticulates 1 tertiary flake 2.4
Notches 1 secondary flake 2.4
Truncations-straight 2 secondary flake-1; tertiary blade-1 4.8
Perforator fragment 1 tertiary blade 2.4
Retouched Blades 8 tertiary blade-7; core trimming element-1 19.0
Retouched Flakes 5 tertiary flake-5 11.9
Varia— 9.5
‘wedges’ 2 tertiary flake-2
miscellaneous 2 tertiary blade-2
Unidentifiable tool fragment 3 indeterminate 7.1
Total 42 100.0
recorded here. Section B had a depth of ca. scrapers, burins and two possible ‘tangs’. Cores
1.65 m, and cultural materials and bone also were largely nondescript. Of note is the fine
were abundant. Towards the bottom of this workmanship in much of this assemblage.
section, the possible remnants of another wall Many of the blades and flakes are very thin
and a floor were located. and well-crafted. The blades in particular
We also excavated a 1 × 1 m unit in the reflect a high degree of sophistication. While
lower terrace. This contained relatively abun- flakes are more common than blades, the later
dant material for over 0.5 m in depth. This are quite abundant; bladelets also are rela-
indicated that while the bulldozer cut has tively common. The presence of microflakes
removed much of the site, there also is a con- suggests final tool preparation and/or resharp-
siderable amount remaining. Finally, we exca- ening. Specialized production and core rejuve-
vated three small (ca. 5 × 5 m) test probes on nation, as reflected by core trimming elements
the upper terrace. These suggest that cultural and a single core tablet, suggest a technologi-
materials occur about 20 m upslope from the cally sophisticated blade production strategy.
bulldozer cut, but rapidly thin out. Interestingly, burin spalls are relatively com-
A total of 2,015 chipped stone artifacts were mon, although only 4 burins were recovered.
recovered during our investigations (Table 1). Debris, or ‘shatter’, makes up 46.7% of the
Of these materials, tools (Table 2) included chipped stone assemblage.
Of Tiny Hippos, Large Cows, and Early Colonists in Cyprus 237
In addition to the chipped stone, ground from bone, from Ais Yiorkis (Table 3). One
stone vessel fragments were relatively com- (DRI 3441) was on a Bos metacarpal. All
mon, and a polished axe was also recovered, as three determinations are close in time, and
was an incised picrolite ‘thimble’. This tiny place the site firmly within the Aceramic
artifact is very similar to the one recorded dur- Neolithic.
ing the survey (Fox 1987: 33, ills. 2-5). Some The importance of a well preserved faunal
worked bone artifacts also were retrieved. assemblage at Ais Yirokis should not be under-
A large amount of bone was also recovered estimated, since it indicates that even at a
and analyzed by Paul Croft. Of particular note small site, such economic indicators can be
is the presence of cattle, which is potentially retrieved. This was perhaps best exemplified
very significant and could affect our under- by the huge faunal assemblage from Akrotiri
standing of Neolithic subsistence patterns Aetokremnos, a site even smaller than Ais
substantially. The principal question, of Yiorkis.
course, was whether or not the bone was A total of 340 identifiable pieces were
intrusive. recovered at Ais Yiorkis, and these are listed by
This dilemma was solved by radiocarbon taxon in Table 4. The faunal assemblage
dating. We have three determinations, all includes a high proportion of bones of fallow
Taxon N
deer 149
pig 128
caprine 54
cattle 4
cat 3
fox 1
bird 1
Total Identifiable 340
Unidentifiable:
large (cattle-sized) animal 5
medium-small animal 1,511
Total 1,516
238 Simmons
keeping cattle in villages. It may have been occupants of Cyprus, as represented by pre-
that these animals were not compatible with Neolithic Akrotiri Aetokremnos, had a more
early Cypriot village life, and that they were dramatic impact, in that they contributed to
kept only at smaller, specialized sites. What- the extinction of the native fauna. As popu-
ever their significance, however, these data lations grew in post-Neolithic times, it also
indicate that the economic parameters of the seems clear than the impact of agriculture and
Aceramic Neolithic were far broader than animal husbandry took its toll on the island.
previously documented. It may well be, however, that the Aceramic
The presence of Bos also has considerable Neolithic offered a brief respite from both
implications for the sea-faring abilities of these earlier and later ecological deterioration.
Neolithic peoples, who must have brought
these animals with them on boats. Although it
Acknowledgments
is possible that wild cattle, independent of
human intervention, could have swum to the I would like to thank the Department of
island, this appears extremely unlikely, since Antiquities of the Republic of Cyprus for
Bos remains have not been found in paleonto- their support of the project. Financial and
logical contexts. Thus, the Neolithic coloniz- logistical support came from Mr. B. Johnson
ers of the island must have arrived with and Exalt Tours. I also would like to thank the
veritable Noah’s arks containing not only Cyprus American Archaeological Research
sheep/goat and pigs, but also wild deer, cats Institute (CAARI) for their assistance, and
and, now, cattle. Presumably the cattle repre- Stuart Swiny (SUNY-Albany) for encourag-
sented domesticated animals, as it is unlikely ing my research on Cyprus.
that wild cattle would have been amenable to
a sea voyage, even a short one. The present About the Author
sample of Bos remains, however, is too small to
determine clearly if the cattle were domesti- Alan H. Simmons received his B.A. from the
cated. As such, the Bos from both Ais Yiorkis University of Colorado at Boulder, M.A.s
and Parekklisha Shillourokambos appear to be from the University of Toronto and Southern
amongst the earliest evidence, albeit indirect, Methodist University, and his Ph.D. from
of domesticated cattle anywhere. Southern Methodist University. All of his
There is little indication that the Aceramic degrees are in anthropology, and he is cur-
Neolithic occupants of Cyprus had a substan- rently a professor of Anthropology at the Uni-
tial negative impact on the island’s ecology, versity of Nevada at Las Vegas. He has
despite a consensus view that severe impacts specialized in the study of early food producing
on a global basis accelerated during the economies in the Levantine Near East, the
Neolithic. Certainly this is the case on the Mediterranean and the American Southwest.
nearby Levantine mainland, where a consid- Other research interests include small-site
erable number of Neolithic ecological archaeology, cultural heritage management,
impacts can be documented (Köhler-Rollef- archaeological ethics, lithic analyses, and mul-
son 1988; Köhler-Rollefson and Rollefson tidisciplinary research. Current publications
1990; Rollefson 1997; Simmons et al. 1988). include an article comparing surface and sub-
It may well be that Neolithic population den- surface materials in Cyprus, Jordan and the
sities on Cyprus, or any of the Mediterranean American Southwest in A.P. Sullivan (ed.),
islands, were initially sufficiently low to avoid Surface Archaeology (Albuquerque 1998) and
such ecological havoc. Certainly the first the forthcoming final report on investigations
240 Simmons