Classical Physics I (Spring 2015)

Set your clicker to channel 21.

Do not use a smartphone or other messaging
devices in class. Please turn them off.

PHY 131
Lecture 33
Finish Chapter 15 (not *15-10, *15-11); Do a bit of Chapter 16
Wave Motion; Sound

4/27/15 Lecture 33 1
 Are you here with your clicker set to channel 21?

1. Yes

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4/27/15 Lecture 33 2
 PHY 131 midterm exam 3, 9:00-9:53 am, 4/29/15,
is being held in two different buildings. Make sure
you arrive in the proper place by 8:50 am.

4/27/15 Lecture 33 3
 PHY 131.01 Classical Physics I (Spring 2015)
4/29/15 Midterm Exam 3: Chaps. 10-14
Put your name, ID, Recitation section number on every problem sheet.
A named cover sheet is on every exam package. Do not remove it.
Start working at 9:50:00; stop working at 9:53:00.
As you leave drop your exam (with the cover sheet left on) in the box.

For the 4/29/15 midterm exam 3 in Simons Center room 103 or Frey Hall room 100 on Chaps. 10-14:
1. You MUST be on time: arrive at least 10 minutes before 9:00 am in the proper building and room.
2. Exam sheets with names on cover sheets will be on the desktops by alphabetical order (last name).
3. You must sit at the desktop where your cover-sheeted exam sheets have already been put.
4. Bring your student ID, calculator (no formula storage) and 3 sharp pencils.
5. All smartphones/devices must be in your backpack/bag left in the front of the room, NOT “on you”.
6. One 3”x5” index card (both sides) of hand-written “formulae” is permitted.
7. You are NOT allowed to speak to another student during the exam
8. You may speak ONLY to a proctor during the exam.
9. Stop working at 9:53 am. An accurate clock will be projected on the screen.
10. All students must exit the hall through the door indicated by the Proctor.
11. With the cover sheet left on, your exam solution sheets will be collected as you exit through that door.
12. Good luck!
4/29/15 Midterm Exam 3
 RE-CAP: Traveling Wave Function y(x,t) Δx =

Consider a shape y(x,t) that propagates in the x-direction with speed v. The
shape remains the same as it propagates: How to represent it mathematically?
– at a point Δx = vt further along (here, to the “right”), a given “feature” on the
disturbance (the crest of the wave, say) will arrive later, delayed by time Δt = Δx/v
– Thus, the shape function is y(x,t = 0) at time t = 0, and it travels with velocity v. At
a later time t = Δt, the shape remains the same but all values of x have moved to
the right (greater x) by Δx = vt: y(x,0) = y(x – Δx, Δt) = y(x – vt, Δt)
Thus, the wave function y(x,t) must be the function y(x – vt) that travels to the right.
For the case of sinusoidal waves traveling in the + x direction, we have
y(x – vt) = A cos{k(x – vt)} = A cos(kx – kvt)
– where A is the amplitude,
– where k = 2π/λ and, therefore, kv = kλ/T = 2π/T = ω ⟹ y(x,t) = A cos(kx – ωt)
Thus, displacement at x and t is: y(x,t) = A cos(kx – ωt) = A cos(2πx/λ – 2πt/T)
– where A (and a possible initial phase angle φ) are determined by initial conditions,
– and where v= λ/T=ω/k is determined by the properties of the medium.
Note: a wave traveling in the –x direction is given by : y(x,t) = A cos(kx + ωt)
4/27/15 Lecture 33 5
 A water wave passes by with crests separated by
0.5 s. Therefore,
1. the frequency is 0.5 Hz.
2. the velocity is 0.5 m/s.
3. the wavelength is 0.5 m.
4. the period is 0.5 s.

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4/27/15 Lecture 33 6
 Traveling Wave on a String: Use Newton’s 2nd Law
We now find the propagation speed of waves with small amplitude (small
transverse displacement) traveling on a string under (horizontal) tension FT .
– Relevant physical characteristics of the medium (string) are: the internal tension
force FT and the mass-per unit-length μ=M/L of the string.
– Dimensional analysis:
 v in m/s, FT in N = kgm/s2, and μ has dimensions kg/m ⟹
 the only combination of FT and μ that gives m/s is √FT/μ
– Newton’s 2nd Law: Net force = ma on a piece dm = μdx of Fy(x+dx) F(x+dx)
the string. Ignore gravity because it’s weak relative to tension.
FT
y
FT
ay shape of the
string y(x,t)

F(x) Fy(x)

x x+dx
– note: ax = 0; thus Fx,net = 0
– general solution of
this wave equation:
4/27/15 Lecture 33 7
 Superposition Principle Holds for the Wave Equation
• Note that any cosine/sine function having ω/k = v = √FT/μ is a
good solution to the wave equation found on the previous slide.
• Indeed, any SUM of cosine and sine functions (if they all have the
same v) would be a good solution !!
– Fourier Theorem: any repetitive function can be represented as an
(infinite) sum (a “superposition”) of sine and cosine functions!
• This is a formulation of the SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE and
applies because the wave equation is linear (first-power) in y(x,t):
– E.g., superposing two solutions of

4/27/15 Lecture 33 8
 Energy (Power) is Transported by a Wave on a String
A wave is traveling in the + x-direction on a piece of string
– as before: Fy(x,t) = – FT dy/dx y
– Force F is doing work on the string FT
vy,
to the right of it and is moving it ay
with (vertical) velocity vy(x,t).
– The power P (time-rate of energy F(x) Fy(x)
transfer) transmitted to the right x
(the motion is dy in the direction of Fy) is

– Power P ≥ 0 varies with x and t and is proportional to A2 and to ω2

 Maximum: Pmax = √μFT ω2A2 ; minimum: Pmin = 0
 Average power ⟹(from average of sin2 = ½) : Pavg = ½ Pmax
– Intensity at a particular point is power-per-unit area at that point.
4/27/15 Lecture 33 9
 Intensity in General
(waves in more than 1d)
Intensity is power-per-unit area (⊥ to the wave):
– From a point-source of power Pavg radiating in all
directions equally (3d isotropic), the intensity I at a
distance r from the source is I(at distance r) = Pavg/Area = Pavg/4πr2
– If the source does not radiate equally in all directions (non-isotropic),
intensity still drops, often as the inverse square of the distance:
 True for many types of waves: sunlight and flash light beams (EM
waves), sound (compression) waves from a loudspeaker, …
 Indeed, sunlight intensity received by Earth varies over its orbit because
the Earth-Sun distance varies (periodically!) during each year.
– But note:
 We’ve ignored absorption or reflection of wave intensity along the way.
 By focusing a beam of waves, one can INCREASE the intensity with
distance, but only as far as the “focal point”. Beyond that, intensity
drops off again with the square of the distance.
 “Non-spreading” beams of certain waves can be made, but it’s tricky.
4/27/15 Lecture 33 10
 Reflections and Interference of Pulses and Waves
Traveling pulses or waves encountering a discontinuity in the
medium will be partially or fully reflected.
Consider two extreme cases for a pulse traveling on a string:
– A string tied to a fixed post: each arriving piece of the pulse exerts an
(action) force on the post, which gives rise to an opposing (reaction)
force on the string that creates a piece of reflected pulse having the
v
opposite (inverted) displacement
t=t1

x
fixed end
– An open-ended string (one free end): As the pulse nears the free end,
that end of the string begins to rise. The increased tension leads to a
reflected wave that is NOT inverted (has the same displacement
direction or “polarity”) and travels back to where it came from.
 Was the reflection inverted or not in the Vinycombe Wave Machine video?
– The next slide compares fixed-end
4/27/15
and open-end reflections.
Lecture 33 11
 “Movie” of Construction of Triangular Pulse Reflections
Fixed End v Open End v
incident: blue t=t1 t=t1 open end
fixed end
reflected: red x x
SUM: Green
reflected
Note: reflected
consequence v v
t=t2 and t=t2
of the inverted
“Superposition x x
Principle”!
reflected
reflected
intermediate case:
t=t3 and t=t3
partial reflection
x inverted x
reflected
v
t=t4 reflected t=t4
x and x
v inverted

v
t=t5 fixed end t=t5 open end
x x
4/27/15
v Lecture 33 12
 x=0
Standing Waves: Spatial-Temporal
Resonance on a String
with n = 3
Mathematically: a post located at x=0, the string stretches towards –x:
– incident wave: yinc(x,t) = A cos(kx–ωt) (traveling in the +x direction)
– wave reflected by post: yref(x,t) = –A cos(kx+ωt) (traveling in the –x direction)
– Superposition (interference): ytot(x,t) = yinc(x,t) + yref(x,t)
(kx −ωt) + (kx +ωt) (kx −ωt) − (kx +ωt)
A cos(kx −ωt) − A cos(kx +ωt) =
ytot = −2 A sin sin
2 2
−2 A sin(kx) sin(−ωt) =
= 2 A sin(kx) sin(ωt) = (spatial envelope) x (temporal oscillation)
This represents a STANDING WAVE, a wave NOT traveling: the “blue” part is
a position-dependent amplitude: 2Asin(kx); the “red” part is SHM: sin(ωt) !
– at x=0 (the post) the string is always at rest (y=0), and is called a NODE (a point that
does NOT move: it’s stationary). ANTINODES are extrema of the spatial envelope.
– the hand is at x = – L (left end of the string; L = length); that too is a node:
ytot (x=−L, t) = − 2 A sin(kL) sin(ωt) = 0 ⇒ sin(kL) = 0 ⇒ kn L = nπ , n =1, 2,3,...
2π L
⇒ kn L = L =nπ ⇒ =n, n =
1, 2,3,... n counts the number of antinodes
λn λn 2
This means that “a whole number of half-wavelengths must fit on the string” for
waves that survive multiple reflections. Fig. 15-25 has n = 3 antinodes.
4/27/15 Lecture 33 13
 Standing Waves, continued
After the previous slide we arrive at the following picture :

λ1/2
λ2/2 λ4/2

A harmonic series appears (we show the 1st, 2nd, and 4th
harmonic; the previous slide showed the 3rd), governed by the
statement that a “whole number of half-wavelengths must fit on
length L of the string”:
– i.e., L = n(λn /2), with: n=1,2,3,… (n=1 is called the “fundamental”)
– or, λn = 2L/n = λ1/n
– or, fn = v/λn = n v/(2L) = n f1 (the harmonic frequencies are prop. to n)
4/27/15 Lecture 33 14
 Standing Waves:
Example

4/27/15 Lecture 33 15
 a bit of Chap. 16 Remember that (resonant) sound

Sound waves broke the wine glass in

the video demo in Lec. 30

Waves
• Sound waves are PRESSURE waves, i.e., traveling pressure variations, caused by
longitudinal motion: compression and expansion of particles in the medium
(gas/fluid/solid) around their individual undriven (equilibrium) positions.
– For a gas: higher pressure (with respect to ambient pressure) makes molecules
aggregate together; lower pressure allows them to disperse from each other.
– A longitudinal wave propagating down a “slinky” is a useful model example, as is a
series of balls interconnected with tiny massless springs. Longitudinal waves will
propagate down both model systems. (Such waves happen in heavy auto traffic!)
• Pressure (change) is proportional to the fractional volume change ΔV/V; the
medium-dependent proportionality constant is the “Bulk Modulus” B:
ΔP ≡ –B (ΔV/V) (units Pa); i.e., it’s Hooke’s Law for gases, fluids, solids!
• For a sound wave propagating into the +x-direction we have (text, p. 427):
ΔV/V = [Sy(x+Δx,t) – Sy(x,t)]/(SΔx) , where S is an arbitrary cross sectional area of
the air moving because of the longitudinal displacement y of the molecules
from equilibrium positions; below, A is the displacement amplitude (NOT area):
– Thus: ΔV/V = Δy/Δx with y = Acos(kx–ωt)
B ≡ –ΔP/(ΔV/V) = –ΔP/(dy/dx); and ΔP(x,t) = BkAsin(kx–ωt) (traveling pressure wave)
– Maximum pressure: ΔPmax = BkA (ΔPmax is called the “pressure amplitude”.)
4/27/15 Lecture 33 16