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Table of Contents
1 ND LAB SESSION ........................................................................................................................ 2
1.1 Apparatus: ........................................................................................................................ 2
1.2 Specifications: .................................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Theory: ............................................................................................................................. 2
1.4 Procedure:......................................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Observations:.................................................................................................................... 4
1.6 Specimen Calculation....................................................................................................... 4
1.7 Comments: ....................................................................................................................... 5
2 RD LAB SESSION ........................................................................................................................ 6
2.1 Apparatus ......................................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Specifications: .................................................................................................................. 6
2.3 Theory: ............................................................................................................................. 6
2.4 Procedure:......................................................................................................................... 7
2.5 Observations:.................................................................................................................... 7
2.6 Specimen Calculation....................................................................................................... 8
2.7 Comments: ....................................................................................................................... 9
3 T H LAB SESSION ...................................................................................................................... 10
3.1 Apparatus ....................................................................................................................... 10
3.2 Specifications: ................................................................................................................ 10
3.3 Procedure:....................................................................................................................... 10
3.4 Observations:.................................................................................................................. 10
3.5 Specimen Calculation..................................................................................................... 10
3.6 Comments: ..................................................................................................................... 11
 2

1ND LAB SESSION

To determine the dryness fraction of steam ‘x’ with the help of throttling
calorimeter.
1.1 Apparatus:
Steam Generating device
Throttling Calorimeter
1.2 Specifications:
Pressure Gauges 10 kg/cm2 , 2 kg/cm2
Throttle type Needle Valve
1.3 Theory:
Dryness fraction:
Dryness fraction or quality of the steam is defined as the ratio of the mass of vapors
in the mixture of vapor and liquid. It is normally represented by the symbol ‘x’.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as:

(𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑠)
𝑥= … … …… 1
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑠 + 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 )

Its value varies from 0 to 1. For saturated liquid, x = 0 and for saturated vapors or
superheated steam x = 1. On the other hand, wetness fraction can be defined as amount
of water within steam. If it is donated by x’. then,

𝑥 ′ = 1 − 𝑥 … … … .2

Calorimeter:
Calorimeter is an instrument used to determine the amount of heat (enthalpy of
process) involved in chemical reaction or other process (melting, boiling, etc.).

𝑄 = 𝑚(ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑖 ) … … … … 3

For sensible heating,

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 ) … … … … .4

In a steam plant it is at times necessary to know the state of the steam. For wet steam,
this entails finding the dryness fraction. When the steam is very wet, we make use of
a calorimeter. The calorimeter used to determine the dryness fraction of the steam can
be separating calorimeter or throttling calorimeter. The basic principles of both
instrument have been discussed below.
 3

1. Separating calorimeter
Construction of separating calorimeter is as shown in figure 2.1:

Figure 1-1 Separating Calorimeter

The steam is collected out of the main steam supply and enters the separator from the
top. The steam is forced to make a sharp turn when it hits the perforated cup (or any
other mechanism that produces the same effect). This results in a vortex motion in the
steam, and water separates out by the centrifugal action. The droplets then remain
inside the separator and are collected at the bottom, where the level can be recorded
from the water glass. The dry steam will pass out of the calorimeter into a small
condenser for the collection of the condensate. However, not all the water droplets
remain in the collector tank. Some water droplets pass through to the condenser, and
hence this calorimeter only gives a close approximation of the dryness fraction of the
steam.
From the results obtained from the two collectors, the dryness fraction may then be
found from
the expression:
𝑀
𝑥= … …… … 5
𝑚 +𝑀
Where, M is the mass of dry steam and m is the mass of suspended water separated
in the calorimeter in the same time.
2. Throttling calorimeter:
Throttling is an iso-enthalpic process in which the enthalpy of initial and final state is
constant. The work done and heat transfer to or from the system are zero and the
process is irreversible and adiabatic in nature. If we have steam that is nearly dry, we
make use of the throttling calorimeter as shown in the figure 2.2.
This calorimeter is operated by first opening the stop valve fully so that the steam is
not partially throttled as it passes through the apparatus for a while to allow the
pressure and temperature to stabilize. If the pressure is very close to atmospheric
pressure, the saturation should be around 100°C, it may be assumed that the steam is
superheated. When the conditions have become steady, the gauge pressure before
throttling is read from the pressure gauge. After throttling, the temperature and gauge
pressure are read from the thermometer and manometer respectively.
 4

Figure 1-2 Throttling Calorimeter

As h1 = h2,
ℎ𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑝1 = ℎ𝑠𝑢𝑝 . 𝑎𝑡 𝑝2

Further solving,
ℎ𝑓1 + 𝑥ℎ𝑓𝑔1 = ℎ𝑔2 + 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑝 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 )

And thus,

ℎ𝑔2 + 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑝 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 ) − ℎ𝑓1

𝑥= … … …… 6
ℎ𝑓𝑔1

1.4 Procedure:
Open needle valve to induce steam to the throttling calorimeter. Then reduce the
pressure after the expansion by means of needle valve and valve down to designated
pressure. Designated pressure means the value where to stem becomes superheated
steam in combination with the temperature after the throttle. After the temperature
becomes steady, note the pressure before and after the throttle on respective pressure
gauge and note the temperature of outlet superheated steam.
1.5 Observations:
No. of obs. P1 P2 T2 h1 = h2 x
(bar) (bar) (ᴼC) (kj/kg)
1 5.97 1.17 104.5 2682.8 0.965
2 5.97 1.17 105.5 2719.8 0.983
3 5.93 1.22 108 2689.5 0.968
4 5.92 1.32 110 2692.5 0.969
1.6 Specimen Calculation
For 4th reading,
At p2 = 1.32 bar and T2 = 110ᴼC, from steam table;
 5

h1 = h2 = 2692.5 kj/kg
At p1 = 5.92 bar, from steam table
hf = 668.22 kj/kg
hfg = 2086.33 kj/kg
using equation 6,
2692.5 − 668.22
𝑥= = 0.969
2086.33
1.7 Comments:
 6

2RD LAB SESSION

To determine the thermal efficiency (ηth) of steam boiler and measure
the evaporating rate.
2.1 Apparatus
Boiler (Steam generating device)
2.2 Specifications:

Maximum Pressure 10 kg/cm2

Equivalent Evaporative Quantity 150 kg/h
Heat Transmission Area 3.06 m2
Rated Heat Output 80, 850 kcal/h
Potential Water Quantity 54 L
Fuel Consumption 10.8 L/h (Kerosene)
Fuel Tank 90 L
Pressure Gauge 15 kg/cm2
2.3 Theory:
Boiler efficiency
Thermal efficiency of the boiler is given by the relation:
𝑚 ( ℎ − ℎ6 )
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 𝑠 1
𝑚𝑓 × 𝐶. 𝑉
Where,
ℎ1 = 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡
ℎ6 = 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝜌𝑤 𝑉𝑤
𝑚 𝑠 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 =
𝑡
𝜌𝑓 𝑉𝑓
𝑚𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 =
𝑡
𝜌𝑓 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 820 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝐶. 𝑉 = 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 42.7 𝑀𝑗/𝑘𝑔

Calorific value
C.V is the calorific value of fuel which is the amount of energy obtained by burning 1
kilogram of fuel. Gross or high calorific value (H.C.V) is the amount of heat release
when products of combustion are cooled down to the normal temperature. Net or low
calorific value is the amount of heat release when heat absorbed by product of
combustion is not recovered and steam formed during the combustion is not
condensed.
 7

𝐿. 𝐶. 𝑉 = 𝐻. 𝐶. 𝑉 − ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Heat Losses in Boiler

The heat losses in the boiler are due to various reason some of them are as follow:
1. Due to unburnt fuel
2. Due to combustion of hydrogen
3. Due to radiation heat transfer
4. Due to dry flue gas
5. Due to moisture in fuel
Due to these reasons, boiler efficiency is less than 100% and the normal efficiency of
the boiler is round about 85%.
Boiler Loading and Efficiency
Boiler loading is the in-use capacity of boiler to boil water. The boiler efficiency is
maximum at 2/3 of its capacity and decreases on either side of this value.
Boiler Blowdown
Boiler blow down is the removal of water from boiler to maintain the water parameters
(water chemistry) within acceptable range to minimize scale, corrosion, carryover, and
other specific problems of power plant components. It is use to remove suspended
solids in the system. Depending upon various parameters like size of plant blowdown
can be continuous (daily bases) and intermittent (monthly bases).
2.4 Procedure:
Boiler Starting up
Open water supply valve and turn the main power supply ON. Open air purging valve.
Open the drain valve. After total blow off, close the air purging valve and drain valve.
Open fuel valve and press feed water switch. Press the combustion button.
Steam pressure goes up and when it gets set value, combustion stops automatica lly.
Open main stream valve gradually. Note feed water inlet temperature from the panel
and note the pressure of the generated steam from the outlet pressure gauge. Note the
volume of feed water fed to the boiler and fuel consumed in the specific time interva l,
from integral flow meters on control panel, to determine their volume flow rate.
2.5 Observations:
No. p1 T6 Dryness Vw Vf t ms mf h1 h6 ηth
of (bar) (ᴼC) Fraction (L) (L) (mins) (kg/min) (kg/min) (kj/kg) (kj/kg) (%)
Obs. x
1 8.42 21.4 0.965 24.23 2.414 30 0.807 0.066 2698.9 89.8 74.7
2 8.11 15.4 0.983 28.87 3.038 30 0.962 0.083 2734.1 64.7 72.4
3 8.41 12.4 0.968 35.05 3.675 30 1.168 0.100 2705.0 52.1 72.5
4 8.36 11.3 0.969 40.71 4.162 30 1.357 0.114 2706.8 47.47 74.1
 8

2.6 Specimen Calculation

For 1st reading,
At p1 = 8.42 bar, from steam table;

hf = 730.4 kj/kg

hfg = 2039.9 kj/kg

at x = 0.965;
ℎ1 = 730.4 + 0.965 × 2039.9 = 2698.9 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔

At T6 = 21.4 ᴼC, from steam table;

h6 = 89.8 kj/kg
𝜌𝑤 𝑉𝑤 1000 × 24.23
𝑚𝑠 = = = 0.807 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑡 30
𝜌𝑓 𝑉𝑓 820 × 2.414
𝑚𝑓 = = = 0.066 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑡 30
𝑚 𝑠 (ℎ1 − ℎ6 ) 0.807 × (2698.9 − 89.8)
𝜂𝑡ℎ = = = 74.7%
𝑚𝑓 × 𝐶. 𝑉 0.066 × 42700

For 3rd reading,

At p1 = 8.41 bar, from steam table;

hf = 730.2 kj/kg

hfg = 2040.1 kj/kg

at x = 0.968;
ℎ1 = 730.2 + 0.968 × 2040.1 = 2705.0 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔

At T6 = 11.3 ᴼC, from steam table;

h6 = 52.1 kj/kg
𝜌𝑤 𝑉𝑤 1000 × 35.05
𝑚𝑠 = = = 1.168 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑡 30
𝜌𝑓 𝑉𝑓 820 × 3.675
𝑚𝑓 = = = 0.100 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑡 30
𝑚 𝑠 (ℎ1 − ℎ6 ) 1.168 × (2705.0 − 52.1)
𝜂𝑡ℎ = = = 72.5%
𝑚𝑓 × 𝐶. 𝑉 0.1 × 42700
 9

2.7 Comments:
 10

3TH LAB SESSION

To determine the efficiency (ηth) of superheater and evaluate its performance
3.1 Apparatus
Steam Super Heater
3.2 Specifications:

Inlet Pressure and Temperature 5 Kg/cm2 Sat. steam at 150ᴼC

Outlet Temperature 250ᴼC
Fuel Kerosene
Power Source AC 220V 50/60 Hz 3-Phase
Pressure Gauge 15 kg/cm2

3.3 Procedure:
Close respective valves of the superheater and wait for steam generation from boiler.
Induce steam which goes up to the designated pressure by opening valve super heater
inlet. Open drain valve of super heater. After drained thoroughly, when steam comes
out, close the drain valve. Turn the switch ON. Burner starts function and steam is
superheated. Note the readings of pressure and temperature before and after the
superheater. Note the reading of the volume of the fuel consumed in superheater by
the integral flow meter on the panel.
3.4 Observations:
No.
p1 p2 T2 ms T3 mf h2 h3 η
of x
(bar) (bar) (ᴼC) (kg/hr.) (ᴼC) (kg/hr.) (kj/kg) (kj/kg) (%)
Obs.
1 5.82 5.62 159.9 43.8 184.5 0.44 0.964 2762.0 2817.3 12.9
2 5.82 5.62 159.9 56.3 187.6 0.50 0.964 2762.0 2824.3 16.4
3 5.77 5.42 159.6 80.3 190.8 0.63 0.969 2760.0 2831.4 21.3
4 5.82 5.52 159.7 67.6 189.4 0.61 0.968 2759.8 2828.3 17.7

3.5 Specimen Calculation

For 1st reading,
At p2 = 5.62 bar, T2 = 159.9 ᴼC, from steam table;

h2 = 2762.0 kj/kg

At p2 = 5.62 bar, T3 = 184.5 ᴼC, from steam table;

h3 = 2817.3 kj/kg
 11

𝑚 𝑠 (ℎ3 − ℎ2 ) 43.8 × (2817.3 − 2762.0)

𝜂𝑡ℎ = = = 12.9%
𝑚𝑓 × 𝐶. 𝑉 0.44 × 42700

For 3rd reading,

At p2 = 5.42 bar, T2 = 159.6 ᴼC, from steam table;

h2 = 2760.0 kj/kg

At p2 = 5.42 bar, T3 = 190.8 ᴼC, from steam table;

h3 = 2831.4 kj/kg

𝑚 𝑠 (ℎ3 − ℎ2 ) 80.3 × (2831.4 − 2760.0)

𝜂𝑡ℎ = = = 21.3%
𝑚𝑓 × 𝐶. 𝑉 0.63 × 42700

3.6 Comments: