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Table of Contents
1 ND LAB SESSION ........................................................................................................................ 2
1.1 Apparatus: ........................................................................................................................ 2
1.2 Specifications: .................................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Theory: ............................................................................................................................. 2
1.4 Procedure:......................................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Observations:.................................................................................................................... 4
1.6 Specimen Calculation....................................................................................................... 4
1.7 Comments: ....................................................................................................................... 5
2 RD LAB SESSION ........................................................................................................................ 6
2.1 Apparatus ......................................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Specifications: .................................................................................................................. 6
2.3 Theory: ............................................................................................................................. 6
2.4 Procedure:......................................................................................................................... 7
2.5 Observations:.................................................................................................................... 7
2.6 Specimen Calculation....................................................................................................... 8
2.7 Comments: ....................................................................................................................... 9
3 T H LAB SESSION ...................................................................................................................... 10
3.1 Apparatus ....................................................................................................................... 10
3.2 Specifications: ................................................................................................................ 10
3.3 Procedure:....................................................................................................................... 10
3.4 Observations:.................................................................................................................. 10
3.5 Specimen Calculation..................................................................................................... 10
3.6 Comments: ..................................................................................................................... 11
2
(𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑠)
𝑥= … … …… 1
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑠 + 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 )
Its value varies from 0 to 1. For saturated liquid, x = 0 and for saturated vapors or
superheated steam x = 1. On the other hand, wetness fraction can be defined as amount
of water within steam. If it is donated by x’. then,
𝑥 ′ = 1 − 𝑥 … … … .2
Calorimeter:
Calorimeter is an instrument used to determine the amount of heat (enthalpy of
process) involved in chemical reaction or other process (melting, boiling, etc.).
𝑄 = 𝑚(ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑖 ) … … … … 3
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 ) … … … … .4
In a steam plant it is at times necessary to know the state of the steam. For wet steam,
this entails finding the dryness fraction. When the steam is very wet, we make use of
a calorimeter. The calorimeter used to determine the dryness fraction of the steam can
be separating calorimeter or throttling calorimeter. The basic principles of both
instrument have been discussed below.
3
1. Separating calorimeter
Construction of separating calorimeter is as shown in figure 2.1:
The steam is collected out of the main steam supply and enters the separator from the
top. The steam is forced to make a sharp turn when it hits the perforated cup (or any
other mechanism that produces the same effect). This results in a vortex motion in the
steam, and water separates out by the centrifugal action. The droplets then remain
inside the separator and are collected at the bottom, where the level can be recorded
from the water glass. The dry steam will pass out of the calorimeter into a small
condenser for the collection of the condensate. However, not all the water droplets
remain in the collector tank. Some water droplets pass through to the condenser, and
hence this calorimeter only gives a close approximation of the dryness fraction of the
steam.
From the results obtained from the two collectors, the dryness fraction may then be
found from
the expression:
𝑀
𝑥= … …… … 5
𝑚 +𝑀
Where, M is the mass of dry steam and m is the mass of suspended water separated
in the calorimeter in the same time.
2. Throttling calorimeter:
Throttling is an iso-enthalpic process in which the enthalpy of initial and final state is
constant. The work done and heat transfer to or from the system are zero and the
process is irreversible and adiabatic in nature. If we have steam that is nearly dry, we
make use of the throttling calorimeter as shown in the figure 2.2.
This calorimeter is operated by first opening the stop valve fully so that the steam is
not partially throttled as it passes through the apparatus for a while to allow the
pressure and temperature to stabilize. If the pressure is very close to atmospheric
pressure, the saturation should be around 100°C, it may be assumed that the steam is
superheated. When the conditions have become steady, the gauge pressure before
throttling is read from the pressure gauge. After throttling, the temperature and gauge
pressure are read from the thermometer and manometer respectively.
4
As h1 = h2,
ℎ𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑝1 = ℎ𝑠𝑢𝑝 . 𝑎𝑡 𝑝2
Further solving,
ℎ𝑓1 + 𝑥ℎ𝑓𝑔1 = ℎ𝑔2 + 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑝 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 )
And thus,
1.4 Procedure:
Open needle valve to induce steam to the throttling calorimeter. Then reduce the
pressure after the expansion by means of needle valve and valve down to designated
pressure. Designated pressure means the value where to stem becomes superheated
steam in combination with the temperature after the throttle. After the temperature
becomes steady, note the pressure before and after the throttle on respective pressure
gauge and note the temperature of outlet superheated steam.
1.5 Observations:
No. of obs. P1 P2 T2 h1 = h2 x
(bar) (bar) (ᴼC) (kj/kg)
1 5.97 1.17 104.5 2682.8 0.965
2 5.97 1.17 105.5 2719.8 0.983
3 5.93 1.22 108 2689.5 0.968
4 5.92 1.32 110 2692.5 0.969
1.6 Specimen Calculation
For 4th reading,
At p2 = 1.32 bar and T2 = 110ᴼC, from steam table;
5
h1 = h2 = 2692.5 kj/kg
At p1 = 5.92 bar, from steam table
hf = 668.22 kj/kg
hfg = 2086.33 kj/kg
using equation 6,
2692.5 − 668.22
𝑥= = 0.969
2086.33
1.7 Comments:
6
hf = 730.4 kj/kg
at x = 0.965;
ℎ1 = 730.4 + 0.965 × 2039.9 = 2698.9 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔
hf = 730.2 kj/kg
at x = 0.968;
ℎ1 = 730.2 + 0.968 × 2040.1 = 2705.0 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔
2.7 Comments:
10
3.3 Procedure:
Close respective valves of the superheater and wait for steam generation from boiler.
Induce steam which goes up to the designated pressure by opening valve super heater
inlet. Open drain valve of super heater. After drained thoroughly, when steam comes
out, close the drain valve. Turn the switch ON. Burner starts function and steam is
superheated. Note the readings of pressure and temperature before and after the
superheater. Note the reading of the volume of the fuel consumed in superheater by
the integral flow meter on the panel.
3.4 Observations:
No.
p1 p2 T2 ms T3 mf h2 h3 η
of x
(bar) (bar) (ᴼC) (kg/hr.) (ᴼC) (kg/hr.) (kj/kg) (kj/kg) (%)
Obs.
1 5.82 5.62 159.9 43.8 184.5 0.44 0.964 2762.0 2817.3 12.9
2 5.82 5.62 159.9 56.3 187.6 0.50 0.964 2762.0 2824.3 16.4
3 5.77 5.42 159.6 80.3 190.8 0.63 0.969 2760.0 2831.4 21.3
4 5.82 5.52 159.7 67.6 189.4 0.61 0.968 2759.8 2828.3 17.7
h2 = 2762.0 kj/kg
h3 = 2817.3 kj/kg
11
h2 = 2760.0 kj/kg
h3 = 2831.4 kj/kg
3.6 Comments: