Section 6.

6
Partial Orderings

Definition: Let R be a relation on A. Then R is a partial

order iff R is

• reflexive

• antisymmetric

and

• transitive

(A, R) is called a partially ordered set or a poset.

__________________

Note: It is not required that two things be related under a

partial order. That's the partial part of it.

If two objects are always related in a poset, it is called a

total order or linear order or simple order. In this case
(A, R) is called a chain.

_________________

Examples:

• (Z ≤) is a poset. In this case either a ≤ b or b ≤ a so

two things are always related. Hence, ≤ is a total order and
(Z, ≤) is a chain.

Discrete Mathematics by Section 6.6

and Its Applications 4/E Kenneth Rosen TP 1
 • If S is a set then (P(S), ⊆ ) is a poset. It may not be
the case that A ⊆ B or B ⊆ A . Hence, ⊆ is not a total
order.

• (Z +, 'divides') is a poset which is not a chain.

______________________

Definition: Let R be a total order on A and suppose S ⊆

A . An element s in S is a least element of S iff sRb for
every b in S.

Similarly for greatest element.

Note: this implies that <a, s> is not in R for any a unless a
= s. (There is nothing smaller than s under the order R).

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Definition: A chain (A, R) is well-ordered iff every

subset of A has a least element.

___________________

Examples:

• (Z, ≤) is a chain but not well-ordered. Z does not

have least element.

• (N, ≤ ) is well-ordered.

• (N, ≥) is not well-ordered.

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Discrete Mathematics by Section 6.6

and Its Applications 4/E Kenneth Rosen TP 2
 Lexicographic Order

Given two posets (A 1, R 1) and (A 2, R 2) we construct an

induced partial order R on A 1 × A 2:

< x1, y 1> R <x2, y 2> iff

• x 1 R1 x2

or

• x 1 = x2 and y 1 R 2 y 2.

_________________

Example:

Let A 1 = A 2 = Z+ and R 1 = R2 = 'divides'.

Then

• <2, 4> R <2, 8> since x 1 = x2 and y 1 R 2 y 2.

• <2, 4> is not related under R to<2, 6> since x 1 = x2

but 4 does not divide 6.

• <2, 4> R <4, 5> since x 1 R 1 x 2. (Note that 4 is not

related to 5).

__________________

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and Its Applications 4/E Kenneth Rosen TP 3
This definition extends naturally to multiple Cartesian
products of partially ordered sets:

A 1 × A 2 × A 3 × . . . × A n.

__________________

Example: Using the same definitions of A i and R i as

above,

• < 2, 3, 4, 5> R < 2, 3, 8, 2> since x 1 = x2, y 1 = y2

and 4 divides 8.

• <2, 3, 4, 5> is not related to <3, 6, 8, 10> since 2

does not divide 3.

_______________

Strings

We apply this ordering to strings of symbols where there is

an underlying 'alphabetical' or partial order (which is a
total order in this case).

________________

Example:

Let A = { a, b, c} and suppose R is the natural

alphabetical order on A :

a R b and b R c.

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and Its Applications 4/E Kenneth Rosen TP 4
Then

• Any shorter string is related to any longer string

(comes before it in the ordering).

• If two strings have the same length then use the

induced partial order from the alphabetical order:

aabc R abac

Hasse or Poset Diagrams

To construct a Hasse diagram:

1) Construct a digraph representation of the poset

(A, R) so that all arcs point up (except the loops).

2) Eliminate all loops

3) Eliminate all arcs that are redundant because of

transitivity

4) eliminate the arrows at the ends of arcs since

everything points up.

_________________

Example:

Construct the Hasse diagram of (P({a, b, c}), ⊆ ).

Discrete Mathematics by Section 6.6

and Its Applications 4/E Kenneth Rosen TP 5
The elements of P({a, b, c}) are

∅
{a}, {b}, {c}

{a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}

{a, b, c}

The digraph is

{a, b, c}

{a, b} {b, c}
{a, c}
{a} {c}
{b}

Maximal and Minimal Elements

Definition: Let (A, R) be a poset. Then a in A is a

minimal element if there does not exist an element b in A
such that bRa.

Similarly for a maximal element.

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and Its Applications 4/E Kenneth Rosen TP 6
 ____________________

Note: there can be more than one minimal and maximal

element in a poset.

_________________

Example: In the above Hasse diagram, ∅ is a minimal

element and {a, b, c} is a maximal element.

Least and Greatest Elements

Definition: Let (A, R) be a poset. Then a in A is the least

element if for every element b in A , aRb and b is the
greatest element if for every element a in A , aRb.

Theorem: Least and greatest elements are unique.

Proof:

Assume they are not. . .

___________________

Example:

In the poset above {a, b, c} is the greatest element. ∅ is

the least element.

Discrete Mathematics by Section 6.6

and Its Applications 4/E Kenneth Rosen TP 7
 Upper and Lower Bounds

Definition: Let S be a subset of A in the poset (A, R). If

there exists an element a in A such that sRa for all s in S,
then a is called an upper bound. Similarly for lower
bounds.

Note: to be an upper bound you must be related to every

element in the set. Similarly for lower bounds.

_________________

Example:

• In the poset above, {a, b, c}, is an upper bound for

all other subsets. ∅ is a lower bound for all other subsets.

Least Upper and Greatest Lower Bounds

Definition: If a is an upper bound for S which is related

to all other upper bounds then it is the least upper bound,
denoted lub(S). Similarly for the greatest lower bound,
glb(S).

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Example:

Consider the element {a}.

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and Its Applications 4/E Kenneth Rosen TP 8
Since

{a, b, c}, {a, b} {a, c} and {a}

are upper bounds and {a} is related to all of them, {a}

must be the lub. It is also the glb.

Lattices

Definition: A poset is a lattice if every pair of elements

has a lub and a glb.

__________________

Examples:

• In the poset (P(S), ⊆), lub(A , B) = A ∪ B. What is

the glb(A , B)?

2 4

1 3

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and Its Applications 4/E Kenneth Rosen TP 9
Consider the elements 1 and 3.

• Upper bounds of 1 are 1, 2, 4 and 5.

• Upper bounds of 3 are 3, 2, 4 and 5.

• 2, 4 and 5 are upper bounds for the pair 1 and 3.

• There is no lub since

- 2 is not related to 4

- 4 is not related to 2

- 2 and 4 are both related to 5.

• There is no glb either.

The poset is not a lattice.

Topological Sorting

We impose a total ordering R on a poset compatible with

the partial order.

• Useful in PERT charts to determine an ordering of

tasks

• Useful in rendering in graphics to render objects

from back to front to obscure hidden surfaces

Discrete Mathematics by Section 6.6

and Its Applications 4/E Kenneth Rosen TP 10
 • A painter uses a topological sort when applying
paint to a canvas - he/she paints parts of the scene furthest
from the view first

___________________

Algorithm: To sort a poset (S, R).

• Select a (any) minimal element and put it in the list.

Delete it from S.

• Continue until all elements appear in the list (and S

is void).

___________________

Example:

Consider the rectangles T and the relation R = “is more

distant than.” Then R is a partial order on the set of
rectangles.

Two rectangles, T i and T j, are related, T i R T j, if T i is

more distant from the viewer than T j.

Discrete Mathematics by Section 6.6

and Its Applications 4/E Kenneth Rosen TP 11
 1 2

4 3
5 9
6
8
7

Then 1R2, 1R4, 1R3, 4R9, 4R5, 3R2, 3R9, 3R6, 8R7.

The Hasse diagram for R is

5 9 6 2 7

4 3

1 8

Draw 1 (or 8) and delete 1 from the diagram to get

Discrete Mathematics by Section 6.6

and Its Applications 4/E Kenneth Rosen TP 12
 5 9 6 2 7

4 3

8
Now draw 4 (or 3 or 8) and delete from the diagram.
Always choose a minimal element. Any one will do.

...and so forth.

_____________________

Discrete Mathematics by Section 6.6

and Its Applications 4/E Kenneth Rosen TP 13