Botany  Tips on making a dichotomous key:

 Keys should be strictly dichotomous

Chapter 15  2 leads of a couplet should be mutually
Plant Identification exclusive (acceptance of one leads to
rejection of another)
 2 lead should not be overlapping
IDENTIFICATION  Avoid usage of vague statements
B. Polyclave Key (“multi-entry”) – list
 Identification – associating an unknown entity with a presence/absence of all features
known one C. Computer-constructed key – DELTA System
o Determining if diagnosis of unknown falls with the
diagnosis of a known 3. Specimen Comparison
o compare the plant in question to a live or preserved
 Diagnostic characterization (diagnosis) – a listing or plant collection
assessment of the features of a taxon that distinguish it o Synoptic collections – house generally one specimen
from all other taxa of each taxon for a given region
o CAUTION: dependent on the fact that the herbarium
specimens are themselves correctly identified
METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION  verify with a written description

4. Image Comparison
 2 major conceptual ways that our brains process
o visually comparing the unknown to photographs or
information:
illustrations of known taxa
o Holistic mental processing – an object is viewed or
o CAUTION: two or more taxa may look very similar to
emphasized as a whole
one another as based on a photograph or illustration
o Analytic processing – parts of an object are
– differences may reside on morphological features
emphasized
that are not easily visible
 confirm with a technical description of the plant
1. Taxonomic Literature
A. Systematic/Taxonomic Journals
5. Expert Determination
 ex. American Journal of Botany
o best way to identify a specimen
Journal of Zoology
o CAUTION: time-consuming
B. Flora/Fauna – inventory of plants/animals of a
defined geographical region
 NOTES:
 Local – limited geographical area
o Always check and double-check an identification
 (state, country, city, valley, mountain
o Taxon identified could be new to a region
range)
o Identification could be negative, indicating a taxon
 Regional – larger geographical area
new to science
 (botanical region, Flora Malesiana)
 Continental – entire continent
 (Fauna of Europea)
 Comprehensive treatments – broader scope Chapter 16
 (Genera Plantarum) Plant Nomenclature
C. Monographs
 Monograph – provide all taxonomic data NOMENCLATURE
relating to group
 comprehensive  Parastratiosphecomyia stratiosphecomyioides:
 worldwide scope o 42 characters – longest accepted scientific name
 Revision – emphasize diagnostic features o fly found in India
 less comprehensive
with synonymy  Ia io:
 shorter descriptions o “The great evening bat”
 Conspectus – outline of revision, listing taxa o shortest scientific name
(Species Plantarum) o Family Vespertilionidae
 Synopsis – list of taxa with much abbreviated
distinguishing statements, often in form of keys  Taxonomy – perpetual re-classification of misnamed
species
2. Taxonomic Keys – rapid identification of unknown species
o key – an identification device that consists of  Nomenclature – assignment of plant names utilizing a
sequentially choosing among a list of possibilities formal system
until the possibilities are narrowed down to one o International Code of Zoological Nomenclature –
 (always) artificial or practical – sequential traditional zoology
groupings of the key do not intentionally reflect o International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria –
natural groups for prokaryotes
 (rarely) natural or phylogenetic – diagnostic (or
even apomorphic) features are used to delimit  International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) –
“natural” groups, usually formal taxa provides the rules and recommendations for plant
A. Dichotomous Key – compare two contrasting nomenclature
statements (each known as lead) o covers land plants, algae, and fungi
 couplet – 2 contrasting leads
 o two basic activities of ICBN TAXONOMIC RANKS ENDING EXAMPLE TAXON
 (1) naming new taxa, which were previously Kingdom (various) Plantae
unnamed and often not described Phylu = Division -phyta Magnoliophyta
Subphylum = Subdivision -phytina Magnoliophytina
 (2) determining the correct name for previously
Class [cl.] -opsida Asteropsida
named taxa, which may have been divided, Subclass [subcl.] -idae Asteridae
united, transferred, or changed in rank Order [ord.] -ales Asterales
o Any name governed by the ICBN must be validly Suborder [subord.] -ineae Asterineae
published: Family [fam.] -aceae Asteraceae
 Legitimate names – validly published names in Subfamily [subfam.] -oideae Asteroideae
accordance with the rules Tribe [tr.] -eae Heliantheae
 Illegitimate names – validly published names Subtribe [subtr.] -inae Helianthinae
Genus [gen.] (various) Helianthus
that violate one or more of rule/s
Subgenus [subg.] (various) Helianthus subg. Helianthus
o changes are made in Nomenclatural Session of the Section [sect.] (various) Helianthus sect. Helianthus
International Botanical Congress Series [ser.] (various) Helianthus ser. Helianthus
 every six years Species [sp.] (various) Helianthus annuus
Subspecies [subsp.] (various) Helianthus annuus ssp. annuus
Variety [var.] (various) Helianthus annuus var. annuus
PRINCIPLES OF PLANT NOMENCLATURE Form [f.] (various) Helianthus annuus f. annuus

1. Botanical nomenclature is independent of Zoological and  Trinomial = Genus + specific epithet + subspecific or
Bacteriological nomenclature varietal epithet
2. The application of botanical names is determined by o Ternary name – subspecies and variety
means of nomenclatural types  subspecific epithet – subspecies name
3. Botanical nomenclature is based upon priority of  varietal epithet – variety name
publication
4. Each taxon of a particular circumscription, position, and
rank can have only one correct name, the earliest in AUTHORSHIP
accordance with the rules. [=Fundamental Principle!]
5. Scientific names are treated as Latin.  Authorship – name of the first person who validly
6. The rules and regulations of the International Code of published the name
Botanical Nomenclature are retroactive o should be cited in all scientific publications at least
once, in order to clarify the name’s origin
 Rules - REQUIRED o Examples:
 Recommendations - NOT REQUIRED  Rosaceae Jussieu
 family Rosaceae and author Jussieu

SCIENTIFIC NAME  Revision

o Mohavea confertiflora Bentham
 Scientific Name – names assigned by the rules of the ICBN o Mohavea confertiflora (Bentham) Heller
o In Latin language  Bentham – original author
o binomial (binary combination) – consisting of 2 parts  Heller – author who revised
 Species = Genus + specific epithet o Mohavea confertiflora (Bentham) Caballar
 Linnaeus – first consistently used binomials  Bentham – original author
 Heller – author who revised was removed
 Common name (vernacular names) – generally used by  Caballar – author who further revised
people within a limited geographic region
o not formally published & not governed by the ICBN  Subspecies
o may be from Latin to common name - even not o Monardella linoides A. Gray
commonly used o Monardella linoides A. Gray ssp. viminea (Greene)
 Carex aurea → “golden carex” or “golden sedge Abrams
 A. Gray – original author of species
 Common Names vs Scientific Names  Green – original author of subspecies
o ONLY scientific names are universal  Abrams – author who revised the ssp
 common names are not consistent
 A taxon may have more than 1 common name  Abbreviation
 One common name may refer to more than one o Haemodoraceae R. Br.
taxon  R. Br. – Robert Brown
o Common names tell nothing about rank o Liquidambar styraciflua L.
o Many, if not most, organisms have no common  L. – Linnaeus
name in any language

LEARNING SCIENTIFIC NAMES

RANK
 How to learn scientific names:
 Rank- hierarchical classification in which a higher rank is 1. Syllabise and accent
inclusive of all lower ranks ((ex. Genus)) 2. Use mnemonic devices
3. Learn the etymology (meaning)
 Position- placement as a member of a taxon of the next 4. Practice and review
higher rank
 NOMENCLATURE TYPES
 nomenclatural type – herbarium specimen permanently
associated with a name
 Types of Nomenclature types
1. Holotype – original, primary specimen upon which a
name is based designated at the time of publication
2. Isotype - duplicate of the holotype, collected at the
same time by the same person from the same place
3. Lectotype – selected from the original material
(isotype) to serve as the type when holotype not
available
 Isolectotype – another isotype which is not
selected to be a lectotype
4. Neotype – specimen derived from a non-original
collection that is selected to serve as the type
 other types of types
1. syntype – any specimen that was cited in the original
work when a holotype was not designated
 isosyntype – duplicate of syntype
2. paratype – specimen cited in the valid publication,
but that is not a holotype, isotype, or syntype
3. epitype – a specimen (or illustration) that is selected
to serve as an “interpretive” type if the holotype,
lectotype, or neotype is ambiguous with respect to
the identification and diagnosis of the taxon
VALID PUBLICATION
 For a scientific name to be formally recognized, it must be
validly published
 four general criteria for valid publication of a name
1. Name must be effectively published
2. Name must be published in the correct form,
properly Latinized with the correct rank ending.
3. Name must be published with a Latin description or
diagnosis or with a reference to such.
 [Vernacular description typically included.]
4. Nomenclatural type must be indicated (for genus and
below)
 protologue – everything associated with a name at its
valid publication
o i.e., description or diagnosis, illustrations, references,
synonymy, geographical data, citation of specimens,
discussion, and comments
PRIORITY OF PUBLICATION
 states that of two or more competing possibilities for a
correct name, the one published FIRST is the correct one,
with some exceptions
o only applies to taxa at the rank of family and below
 Species Plantarum by Linnaeus in 1 May 1753
NAME CHANGES
 Reasons to change name:
1. Name contrary to the rules ((illegitimate))
2. taxonomic revision – Additional research has
changed the definition and delimitation of taxon
 Major ways that names are changed:
o United
o Divided
o Changed in rank
o Changed in position
 Basionym – original ((rejected)) name
 Autonym – created when taxa are divided
o assigned based on priority of publication
o autonomy have no authors
o Ex:
 Lotus stipularis (Benth.) E. Greene split by Isely
into 2 varieties:
 Lotus stipularis (Benth.) E. Greene var.
ottleyi Isely
 Lotus stipularis (Benth.) E. Greene var.
stipularis
 Synonym – rejected name by a particular author/s
o in brackets
o rejected due to illegitimacy and of taxonomic
judgement
 Homonym – synonym identical to accepted, correct name
 Tautonym – binomial in which genus and specific epithets
are in identical in spelling
o they are not permitted in botanical nomenclature
o ex. Helianthus helianthus
LATIN TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
 “in”- “in the publication of”
o Arabis sparsiflora Nutt. in T. & G.
 validly published by Nuttal in another work
authored by Torrey & Gray
 “ex”- “validly published by”
o Microseris elegans Greene ex A. Gray
 validly published by A. Gray but was initially
proposed by Greene
 "x" - a hybrid
o Salvia × palmeri (A. Gray) E. Greene
 representing a hybrid between two species: S.
apiana Jepson and S. clevelandii (A. Gray) E.
Greene
 S. apiana Jepson × S. clevelandii (A. Gray) E.
Greene
o notho- also indicated hybrid
 Polypodium vulgare nothossp. mantoniae
(Rothm.) Schidlay
 "sp. nov." - species novum
o Eryngium pendletonense sp. nov
 species is new to science
o gen. nov. (genus novum) – new genus name
o comb. nov. (combinatio nova) – the taxon has
recently been transferred to a new position or rank
 "cf." - confer, meaning “compare."
o Calyptridium cf. monandrum
 specimen is more questionable or uncertain and
should be compared with specimens of the
taxon indicated
BOTANICAL NAMES  Authority
o Both genus or species should have an author
 Latin – language used of Romans o Author’s name is abbreviated
o scholar and a dead language o If there is more than one author
 Lomatium montanum Coulter & Ross
o Parenthesis means that the author revised the
GENDER original name of the species to a new name
 Lomatium montanum (Coulter) Ross
 Three Latin genders & primary endings:
o exception: many classical trees are feminine,  Criteria for using new names
regardless of ending o Effectiveness
 When published in a printed biological journal
masculine -us or book that is widely distributed
feminine -a  Names appearing in scientific newsletters are
not effectively published
neuter -um o Validity
 A name is valid when:
 effectively published
 Commemorative names – named after some person or
 published after May 1, 1753
place
 has Latin description
o Male: -ii, -i (after r, y, non-a vowel), -e (after a)
 has a type specimen
o Female: usually add -e or -ae
o Legitimacy
 Superfluous names – names that include a type
that was already used for another, older name
RULES OF NOMENCLATURE
 Homonyms – different species of which the
names are exactly spelled the same
 For generic names  Always use the oldest epithet when transferring
o Latinized from one genus name to another
o No long names to pronounce o Correctness
o No names that has nothing to do with botany, the  Synonyms – diff names for the same species
collection, or natural science  Homotypic – based on same type
o Name endings  Sapindus squamosa
 Name of person ends in vowel: -a Guida squamosa
 Name of person ends in a: -ea  Heterotypic – based on different types
 ends in consonant: -ia (both taken from same species)
 Nuñez – Nuñezia  Cupania diplopetala
 ends in us: drop us, -ia Cupania regularis
 Riccus – Riccia
 Name of place: -ensis
 Bataan – Bataanensis Chapter 17
PLANT COLLECTING AND DOCUMENTATION
 For specific epithets
o descriptive word used to characterise the species, it
could be a noun
o epithet must be a single word/words joined by a  Collections:
hyphen o Sample of plants
o when in a form of adjective: should agree o Dried or liquid preserved
grammatically in gender with generic name o Kept alive, grown in greenhouse or garden
o Name endings
 feminine ending: -a  Why collect?
 neutral ending: - um or -an o Provide resource material for plant systematics
 male ending: -us studies.
 Name of person o Serve as a reference collection for named taxa,
 ends in vowel: -i known as a voucher specimen.
 Quetulio – quetulioi  Type specimen in formal naming
 ends in a: -e  Reference for the identity of a taxon
 Madulara – madularae  in systematic studies
 ends in consonant: -ii  in field studies, e.g., floristic surveys
 Cortex – cortezii o Provide information about the plant in a native
 ends in er: -i habitat: put info. in database
 Javier - javieri
 How to collect?
 For variants/cultivars o Obtain a specific plant(s) for a research study
o should agree in grammar with the generic name  Use label information from herbarium
o there should be one variety specimens to find localities
 Viola pedata  Use maps to find likely habitats
 Viola pedata var. pedata o Do a complete inventory of plants for a field survey
 Viola pedata var. longea or floristic study
 Viola pedata var. alba
 o collect and identify every plant in a region during  Size and Format
different seasons and different years.
 Note: Permission / permits needed!
 For herbs: Must dig up at least one entire plant
to show root or rootstock (corm, bulb, rhizome)
 For shrubs, trees, vines: One branch is sufficient

 Press plants:
o Portable field press used in field
o Transfer to standard herbarium press
1. Fold to fit ca. 11.5” x 16.5”; fill up area
2. Cut to fit & to prevent too much overlap; slice
rootstocks; slice flowers, fruits to show morph.
3. At least one leaf up, one down
4. Collect extra material, if possible.
5. Divide into 2 or more sheets, if necessary.
6. Succulents: cut out tissue, soak in alcohol

 What to collect?
o Don’t collect ‘listed’ taxa: rare, endangered,
threatened
o Use ‘1 to 20’ rule:
 For every herb, make sure there are at least 20
in the population
 For every branch of a shrub or a tree, make sure
there are at least 20 more
 Collect a representative specimen that shows
vegetative and reproductive parts (flower, fruit,
cone, etc.)

 Liquid-Preserved Collections  Accession Number

o Anatomy, embryology, palynology:
 FAA [Formalin-Acetic Acid-Alcohol (ethanol)]
o Cytology (chromosome numbers):
 Carnoy’s (100% ehtanol: glacial acetic acid)
o Ultrastructure:
 Gluteraldehyde, osmium tetroxide, formalin
 Living Collections
o Grow in greenhouse or botanic gardens
o Valuable for long-term studies
 Collections for Molecular Studies
o DNA: dried in silica gel
o Allonyms: fresh material
o permanent number associated with each specimen
o usually written with herbarium acronym
 SD 121596
 Storing and Handling specimens
o herbarium cabinet/compactor, with sealed door
o Genus folders stored, may be color-coded,
alphabetical, or by classification system
o Handle carefully, don't turn upside-down
 Annotation Labels
o Verifies or changes identity of specimen.
 Data Information System
o inputting, organizing, and accessing of information
o data may answer questions in plant taxonomy

Chapter 18  Types of Data

HERBARIA AND DATABASE SYSTEMS o Collector
o Plant Features
o Geography
o Habitat
 Herbarium – place where preserved plant collections are o Community associates
kept o Rarity
o to maintain plant specimens
o act as centers of plant systematic research  Removing plant material
o get permission
 Herbarium specimen – usually pressed and dried plant o may reconstitute in boiling water or detergent
specimens attached to a sheet of paper solution
o flowers, pollen, ovules, tissues, DNA
 Index Herbariorum – reference book for herbaria
 Flora vs Monograph
 Herbarium Curator o FLORA- treatment documenting all plants of a given
o person responsible for running the herbarium region
o maintains the collection o MONOGRAPH- treatment documenting all taxa of a
o processes new collections to herbarium given taxonomic group
o distributes loans
o resource for plant identification