Compressor Opn and Main

Compressor Operation & Maintenance
Compressed air is considered to be industry's fourth utility. It is an energy

source, like electricity, water, and natural gas, which allows people to operate
equipment, tools, and processes , safely and efficiently.
This study material focuses on the subject ‘Compressor ’ which includes the
use, types, constructional details, compression, capacity control,
maintenance, and safe operation of air compressor.
These elementary knowledge are essential for any opera tion and
maintenance personnel for efficient utilisation of the system. The reader will
be certainly benefited by this study material.
________________________ ________________________
Prepared by Approved by
Rajeev Kr. Mishra M K Verma
Programme Director Section Incharge (OPN)
Prepared b y: Raje ev Kr Mi shra Page 1 of 32

Sl. No. Topics Page#
1 Compressed Air History 3
2 Application of Compressed Air 5
3 Air Compression Principles 8
4 Compressor Types 11
5 Reciprocating Air Compressor 13
6 Rotary Air Compressor 20
7 Compressor Maintenance 23
8 Air Compressor Safety 27
9 Rules of Thumb 29
10 Compressed Air Terminology 30
11 Questionnairs For Self Evaluation 32

1.0 Compressed Air History
Compressed air has evolved from its natural orig ins into a high ly technical
source of energy. Understanding where compressed air comes from can shed
light on its current uses and possibly open doors to future applications.
Earliest history:
The first air compressors weren't machines, but human

lungs: Primitive people blew on cinders to create a fire. We
now know that hea lthy lungs can exert pressure of .02 to
.08 bar (1 bar = 14 .5 psi). However, this pressure was
inadequate with the birth of metallurgy
about 3000 B.C. As people began to melt metals such as
gold, copper, tin and lead, higher temperatures were needed,
and a more po werful compressor was required. Egyptian a nd
Sumerian metallurgists used the wind, then blo wpipes for
their work. The first mechanical compressor, the hand-
operated bellows, emerged soon after, and in 1500 B.C. the
more efficient fo ot bellows ca me into use.
The next phase:
Bellows driven by foot or by water wheel prov ed a reliable co mpressor for

more than 2,000 years. But as blast furnaces dev eloped, so did the need for
increased air compression. In 1762, John Smeato n, the first professional
engineer, built a water wheel-driven blowing cylinder that began to replace
the bellows. Inventor John Wilkinson introduced an efficient blasting machine
in England in 1776; the machin e was an early prototype for all mechanical
compressors.
New uses:
From its human origins to the late 1 8th century, air compression was used
mostly for the mining and fabrication of metals. Blowing machines supplied a
combustion blast to metallurgic furnaces and ventilation to underground
mines, althoug h some scientists and philosophers used vacuum pumps.
The idea of using co mpressed air to transmit energy became popular about
1800 as metal manufacturing plants grew and emphasized the limited power
of steam. A plant powered by water and compressed air was built in Wales in
the 1820s, and, despite a few air lea ks, new uses for compressed air
emerg ed.
The first successful larg e-scale transmission of energy by compressed air

took place in the Alps on the borde r of southeastern France and Italy.
Railway managers decided to use a newly invented pneu matic rock dri ll to
connect the two countries with an 8-mile (13.6 km) rail tunnel under Mt.
Cenis.

The work began with manual drilling in 1857, but a few years’ later engineers
installed "wet" compressors (which used water to cool air inside the
cylinders) on the French and Ita lian sides, and two teams drilled through the
rock toward each other. When the y met, there were about 4 miles behind
each team, prov ing that compressed air could trans mit energy over long
distances.
Energy evolution:
The Mt. Cenis tunnel attracted international publicity in newspaper and

technical journals, and discussion turned to the possibility of a co mpressed
air network that would provide energy to industries. Austrian engineer Viktor
Popp made it happen in Paris in 1888, when he installed a 1,500 kW
compressor plant that grew to 18,000 kW by 18 91.
As compressed air's availability grew, inventors bustled to improve on it.

Patent officers issued patents on machines and tools from motors to clocks to
beer dispensers. The novelty o f many serv ices now available in Paris started
a backlash against electricity b y many engineers who saw compressed air as
the energy distribution s ystem of the future. However, electricity advocates
held strong to their belief that pneumatic plants were ine fficient and would
eventually be trumped by electricity. Neither side was truly right.
Working together:
As both energy systems have developed, co mpressed air has become an

important complement to electricity. Pneumatic tools are lightweight and safe,
and compressed air is used for monitoring, control and regulation, frequently
in co mbination with hydraulics and electricity. The two working together hav e
giv en the world new ways to use power.

2.0 Application of Compressed Air:
What is compressed air?
It is the air that condensed and contained at

a pressure that is greater than the
atmosphere. The process takes a given
mass of air, which occupies a given v olume
of space, and reduces it into a smaller
space. In that space, greater air mass
produces greater pressure. The pressure
comes from this air trying to return to its
original volume. It is used in many different manufacturing operations. A
typical compressed air system operating at 100 psig (7 bars) will compress
the air do wn to 1/8 of its original volume.
Hence any air / gas containing pressure more than atmospheric pressure is
called as com-pressed air.
Why use compressed air?
Compressed air supplies power for many different manufacturing operations. At a

pressure of 100 psig (7 bar), compressed air serves as a utility. It supplies motive force,
and is preferred to electricity because it is safer and more convenient. There are
numerous industries that use compressed air for various applications.
Industrial Plant Maintenance: Air tools, such as paving breakers, are used to fix cement
floors, to open up brick walls for assorted service lines, and other comparable work.
Caulking and chipping can be done using smaller air hammers.
For other maintenance work, plants can use air-operated drills,

screwdrivers, and wrenches, provided that the air outlets are well
placed throughout the plant. Painting can be done using paint-spraying
systems.
On the Production Line: Pneumatic tools are convenient for industrial

production because they have a low weight-to-power ratio, and they
may be used for long periods of time without overheating and with low
maintenance costs. Chipping and scaling hammers are used in
railroads, oil refineries, chemical refineries, shipyards, and many other
industries for general application.
They are also used in the foundry for cleaning large castings, and to remove weld scale,
rust, and paint in other industries. Additionally, these hammers are good for cutting and
sculpturing stone.

Pneumatic drills can be used for all classes of reaming, tapping,
and drilling anytime that the work cannot easily be carried to the
drill press and for all classes of breast drill work. These air-
powered drills are also often used for operating special boring
bars, and in emergencies, for independent drive of a machine
tool where required horsepower is within their capacity.
Grinding, wire brushing, polishing, sanding, shot blasting and buffing are performed
efficiently with compressed air in the automotive, aircraft, rail car, locomotive, vessel
shops, shipbuilding, other heavy machinery, and other industries. The primary goals are
to finish surfaces and prepare them for finishing operations. Two of the most basic
assembly operations, driving screws and turning up nuts, are performed more efficiently
because of pneumatic screwdrivers and nut runners.
Air Motors, Vacuum, & Other Auxiliary Devices: Air motors are often used as a power
source in operations involving flammable or explosive liquids, vapor, or dust, and can
operate in hot, corrosive, or wet atmospheres without damage. Their speeds may be
easily changed; they will start and stop rapidly and are not damaged by stalling and
overloading. Air motors power (fig. CA1-4) many hand-held air tools and air hoists. They
are used in various applications in underground tunnels and mines and in industrial
areas where there are flammable liquids or gas. They also drive many pumps used in
construction and many positioning apparatuses used in manufacturing.
Vacuum has numerous applications in production. A vacuum

pump is a compressor in which the desired effect is the intake
vacuum, not the pressurized air. For vacuum chucking, the pump
holds a vacuum in a tank located close to the machine, while
bleeder holes under the part to be machined are opened to hold
the part in place.
Pneumatic auxiliary production equipment is used extensively.

Positioners, feeders, clamps, air chucks, presses, air knives and
many other devices powered by air cylinders increase production efficiency. Pneumatic
cylinders plus ratchets or stops provide reciprocating or rotating interrupted motions
much more economically than by traditional mechanical tools. In finishing and packaging
areas, pneumatic devices are used for many applications, such as dry powder
transporting and fluidizing, liquid padding, carton stapling, and appliance sanding. Blast
cleaning and finishing are other widely used compressed air applications.
Automation:
The field of automation has been impacted by pneu matics . For instance, air
circuitry and pneumatic controls allow the integration of traditiona l a nd
special air tools and auxiliary dev ices into single automatic machines. One
system has a high degree of interchangeability of pneumatic tools and
controls. Because of fluidics, we have simple devices for pneumatic control
at lower pressures and with almost no moving parts. Pneumatic positioners
hav e been created that are capable of positioning parts to within microns
without the use of mechanical stops.

Compressed air is also used for the pneumatic transportation of materials,
such as substances in granular, chip, pelletized, or powdered form and
liqu ids where inertness is not required. Painting is another frequently
automated application that uses air circuitry and pneumatic controls in
robotic machines and paint spray systems. Compressed air is often used in
automatic packaging machinery for sealing, locating the work, and actuating
arms that fold paper to wrap the work. Vacuuming machines also perform
similar tasks, such as picking up and transferring materials.
Automated Assembly Stations:
Compressed air is speeding up operations in the auto motive, appliance,

electronics, communications, and business machines industries. Common air-
powered tasks in automatic machines include the following: tightening
threaded fasteners to specified torque; pressing of ha mmering plugs, pins,
and riv ets with air; feeding fasteners or parts; actuating positioning cylinders,
slides, or work heads, blow-offs, operating indicator lights; and transmitting
signals to recording computers.
Industry's fourth utility:
Compressed air is considered to be industry's fourth utility. It is an energy

source that, like electricity, water, and natural gas, allows peo ple to operate
equipment, tools, and processes safely and efficiently. Man y businesses
would experience losses in productivity and profita bility without dependable
pneu matic power.
Steel Plant application of Compressed Air:
• Pneumatic tools
Drill, Grinder, Pumps, paving etc
• Pneumatic system
• Instrument air
• Cooling
• Processes air
• Utility air

3.0 Air Compression Principles:
Boyle's law
Boyle’s law states that at constant temperature, the absolute pressure and
the volume of a gas are inv ersely proportional.
The mathematical equa tion for Boyle's law is:
Where:
P denotes the pressure of the system.

V is the v olume of the gas.
k is a constant value representative of the
pressure and volume of the system.
Charles's law
At constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of an ideal gas increases

or decreases by the same factor as its temperature (in Kelvin) increases or
decreases.
The formula for the law is:
Where:
V is the v olume of the gas.

T is the temperature of the gas
(measured in Kelvin).
k is a constant.
General Gas Law
The ratio between the pressure-volume product and the te mperature of a

system remains constant.
This can be stated mathe matically as
Where: p is the pressure, V is the volume, T is the temperature measured in

Kelvin and k is a constant (with units of energy divided by temperature).

Thermodynamic Cycle
An explanation of a few basic thermodynamic principles is necessary to

understand the science of reciprocating compressors. Compression occurs
within the c ylinder as a four-part cycle that occurs with each advance and
retreat of the piston (two strokes per cycle). The four parts of the cycle are
compression, discharge, expansion and intake. They are shown grap hically
with pressure vs. volume plotted in what is known as a P-V diagram.
At the conclusion of a prior c ycle, the piston is fully retreated within the
cylinder at V1, the volume of which is filled with process gas at suction
conditions (pressure, P1 and temperature, T1), and the suction and discharge
valves are all closed. This is represented by point 1 (zero) in the P-V
diagram. As the piston advances, the volume within the c ylinder is reduced.
This causes the pressure and temperature of the gas to rise un til the
pressure with in the cylinder reaches the pressure of the discharge h eader. At
this time, the discharge valves begin to open, noted on the diagram
by point 2.
With the discharge valves opening, pressure remains fixed at P2 for the
remainder of the advancing stroke as volume continues to d ecrease for the
discharge portion of the cycle. The piston comes to a momentary stop at V2
before reversing direction. Note that some minimal volume remains, known
as the clearance volume. It is the space remaining within the cylinder when
the piston is at the most advanced position in its travel. Some minimum
clearance volume is necessary to prev ent piston/head contact, and the
manipulation of this volume is a major compressor performance parameter.
The c ycle is now at point 3.
Expansion occurs next as the small volume of gas in the clearance pocket is
expanded to slig htly below suction pressure, facilitated by the closing of the
discharge valves and the retreat of the piston. This is point 4.
When P1 is reached, the intake valv es open allowing fresh charge to enter
the cylinder for the intake and last stage of the cycle. Once again, pressure
is held constant as the volume is changed. This marks the return to point 1.

Capacity of a Compressor
The capacity of a compressor is the full rated volume of flow o f gas

compressed and delivered under conditions of total te mperature, to tal
pressure, and composition prev ailing at the compressor inlet. It sometimes
means actual flow rate, rather than rated volume of flow. This is also called
free air delivery (FAD) i.e. air at atmospheric conditions at any specific
location. This term does not mean air delivered under identical or standard
conditions because the altitude, barometer, and te mperature may vary at
different localities and at different times.
The above equation is

relevant where the
compressed air temperature
is the same as the ambient air
temperature, i.e., perfect
isothermal compression. In
case the actual compressed
air temperature at discharge,
Say t2 oC is higher than
ambient air temperature say
t1oC (as is usual case), the
FAD is to be corrected by a
factor (273 + t1) / (273 + t2).
Volumetric Efficiency
Compressor Displacement = ? x D2/4x L x S x ? x n
Where D = Cylinder bore, meter
L = Cylinder stroke, meter
S = Compressor speed rpm
? = 1 for single acting and 2 for dou ble acting cylinders
n = No. of cylinders
For practical purposes, the most effective guide in comparing compressor

efficiencies is the specific po wer consumption, i.e. kW/volume flow rate, for
different compressors that would prov ide identical duty.

4.0 Compressor Types:
Types:
Current day air compressor technology includes two basic groups, positiv e
displacement and dynamic. Positiv e displacement and dynamic co mpressors
are further segmented into several compressor types as shown in figure.
Positive Displacement Compressors:
As shown in figure, positive displacement compressors

increase the pressure of a given quantity of air by
reducing the space occupied by the air at the original
pressure.
Confine the volume of air
within the closed space
and increase the
pressure by reducing the
volume of the space.
The system has very
less internal clearance.

Dynamic compressors:
Use rotating elements to accelerate air. The velocity of the air is conv erted to
static pressure rise by diffusing action.

5.0 Reciprocating Air Compressor:
Working Mechanism:
A reciprocating compressor uses the reciprocating action o f a piston inside a

cylinder to co mpress air. As the piston moves downward, a vacuum is created
inside the c ylinder. Because the pressure above the intake valve is greater
than the pressure below it, the intake valv e is forced open and air is sucked
into the cylinder. After the piston reaches its bottom position it begins to
move upward. The intake valve closes, trapping the air inside the c ylinder. As
the piston continues to move upward it compresses the air, increasing its
pressure. At a certain point th e pressure exerted by the air forces the
exhaust valve to open and the compressed air flo ws out of the cylinder. Once
the piston reaches it top-most position, it starts moving down ward again and
the cycle is repeated. The operation can be seen in four steps.

Construction:
Reciprocating compressor normally consists of the following elements:
a. The compressing e lement, consisting of air cylinders, heads and pistons,

and air inlet and discharge v alves.
b. A system of connecting rods, piston rods, crossheads, and a cranksha ft

and flywheel for transmitting the po wer developed by the driving unit to the
air cylinder piston.
c. A self-contained lubricating system for bearings, gears, and cylinder

walls, including a reserv oir or sump for the lubricating oil, and a pump, or
other means of deliv ering oil to the various parts. On so me compressors a
separate force-fed lubricator is installed to supply oil to the compressor
cylinders.
d. A regulation or control system designed to maintain the pressure in the

discharge line and air receiver (storage tank) within a predetermined range of
pressure.
e. An unloading s ystem, which operates in conjunction with the regulator, to

reduce or eliminate the load put on the prime mover when starting the

Parts:
 Air filters and oil filters

 Maintenance kits, gasket and
o-ring kits
 Valve service kits
 Suction and delivery valves (both
new and reconditioned)
 Piston rings, packing
 Pistons, piston rods, connecting
rods and small end bearing
bushes
 Cylinder liners
 Main bearings
 Crankshafts
 Intercooler and After coolers
Component Description
Cylinder Chamber where the compression process takes place by

the change in its volume as the piston moves up and
down.
Piston Component located inside the cylinder directly

responsible for the compression of air.
Crankshaft Converts rotational motion generated by the motor to

unidirectional motion for the piston.
Connecting Rod Connects the crankshaft with the piston.
Inlet and exhaust valves Control the amount of air going in and out of the cylinder.

Capacity Controls of Compressor:
Reciprocating compressors, being positive

displacement, operate as constant-capacity and
variable pressure machines. Since most air
compressors are oversized for actual s ystem a ir flow
requirements, the un it will continue to increase the
air system pressure until the safety valve(s) begin to
vent the excess air compressor capacity. Obviously
this is not a desirable operating condition. Capacit y
controls are therefore used to regulate the
compressors output to match air s ystem consumption. Capacity control
systems also contribute to efficient air system operation since the power
required operating the compressor falls when the compressor's capacity is
reduced. The amount of power reduction depends on the type of control
system.
A v ariety of methods are used to regulate the capacity of reciprocating air

compressors.
Start - Stop Control
A pressure switch, installed on the outlet of the compressor or on the air

receiver, senses the air system pressure. As the compressed air pressure
increases, the pressure switch will open when the air pressure reaches the
"stop" or "off" setting. The compressor motor then shuts off. When the air
pressure falls in the air system, the pressure switch will close at the "start" or
"on" setting. The compressor then restarts. This is the most efficient air
compressor control system since the compressor does not consume power
when it is not running. Although efficient, air systems utilizing start/stop
controls, must be designed to limit the number of compressor motor start/stop
cycles per hour. As a rule, most NEMA rated motors must not be started more
than six (6) times per hour. Utilizing a wide pressure band between the start
and stop settings combined with adequate air receiver storage capacity can
prevent frequent c ycling.
Start - Stop control systems are frequently used on small reciprocating

compressors that run on a very low duty cycle.
Constant Speed Control
This style of control incorporates a method of unloading the air compressor

without stopping the compressor motor. Unloading devices are typ ically fitted
to the inlet (suction) valves of the compressor. When the air system pressure
reaches the desired setting, pneu matic (or hydraulic) pressure is applied to
the unloaders. The unloaders hold the suction valves open thereby
preventing the air compressor from compressing the air with in the cylinders.
Operation of the unloaders is done with a pneumatic valve or with an electro
pneu matic (pressure switch with solenoid v alves) system.

Constant speed control will also reduce the operating power requirements of
the air compressor; howev er power is consumed to overcome mechanical
losses associated with running the compressor.
Dual Control
It combines both start/stop and constant speed control

into a single control s ystem. Manual dual control allows
the compressor user to select either control method
depending on actual operating conditions. Auto dual
control automatically selects the most desirable control
method. Auto dual control systems normally run the air
compressor in constant speed control. When the
compressor unloads, an unloaded run timer energizes. The unloaded run
timer normally has a time range of 5 to 60 minutes. If the co mpressor does
not re-load, the timer will shut the compressor off. The compressor will
restart and reload when the pressure switch senses low pressure.
Modern, microprocessor based controls (Variable Speed Drive) are available

to prov ide auto dual compressor control, monitor critical compressor
operating parameters, and provide annunciation and display of alar m
conditions.

Classification of Reciprocating Air Compressor:
Reciprocating compressors were the first of the modern air compressor

designs. Reciprocating compressors utilize a piston moving within a cylinder
to compress low-pressure air to high pressure. They are available in single-
acting and double-acting configurations. Each of these configurations utilizes
a variety of cylinder layouts.
 Acting: Single or Double acting

 Stage: Single or Multi
 Cooling: Air or Water
 Lubrication: Lubricated or Lub-free
 Number of Cylinder: Single or Multi
 Orientation: Horizontal, Vertical or at an Angle
 Mounting: Portable or Floor mounted
Acting:
In a single-acting piston compressor, the piston only

compresses air in one direction of its stroke. In a double-
acting model, the piston compresses air with both directions
of its stroke. Obviously, because both
strokes perform work, a double-acting
compressor is more efficient (in moving a
volume of air per input hp) than a
comparable-size single-acting unit.
Stage:
A single-stage unit compresses air from inlet

to discharge pressure in one operation. A
multi-stage unit compresses from inlet to
discharge pressure in two or more
operations - generally passing the air
through an intercooler to remove some of the
heat of compression between each stage. This saves power
and keeps the compressor's internal operating temperatures lowe r.
Multistage Compression:
It has been experienced that if we employ single stage compression for

producing high pressure air (say 8 to10bar), it suffers the following
drawbacks:
 The size of the cylinder will be too large.

 Due to co mpression, there is a rise in temperature of the air. It is

difficult to reject heat fro m the air in the s mall time available during
compression.
 Sometimes, the temperature of air, at the end of compression, is too
high. It may heat up the cylinder head or burn the lubricating oil.
In order to overcome the above mentioned difficulties, two or more cylind ers
are provided in series with inter cooling arrangement between them. Such an
arrangement is know as multistage co mpression.
Advantage Multistage Compression:
 The work done per kg of air is reduced in mu ltistage compression

with intercooler as compared to single stage compression for the
same delivery pressure.
 It improves the volumetric efficiency for the given pressure ratio.
 The size of the two cylinders (i.e. high pressure and low pressure)
may be adjusted to suit the volume and pressure of the air.
 It reduces the leakage loss considerably.
 It giv es more uniform torque, and hence a s maller size flywheel is
required.
 It provides effective lubrication because of lower temperature range.
 It reduces the cost of compressor,
Cooling:
In air-cooled compressors, ambient air circulates around the compressor

cylinders and finned heads to provide cooling. Heat transfers through the
metal to the air. Air-cooled units are generally designed for 50% to 75% du ty
cycles, depending on the particular units and their application. In water-
cooled compressors, integral water jackets surround the cylinders and heads.
Heat transfers through the metal to the water - more effectively than through
metal to air. Thus, water-cooled reciprocating units reduce internal
temperatures more efficiently than comparable air-cooled units.
Lubrication:
Two fundamental groups of compressor types are lubricated and lube-free.

Lubricated compressors use oil to reduce friction between moving parts. As a
result, some oil is entrained in the air being co mpressed. The entrained oil
must be remov ed from or tolerated b y the downstream system.
Lube-free compressors use no oil in the air end, and thus add no oil to the
compressed air they produce.

6.0 Rotary air compressors:
Screw Compressor:
The screw compressor is a

displacement compressor with
pistons in a screw format; this is the
predominant compressor type in use
today. The screw compression
element main parts comprise male
and female rotors that move towards
each other while the volume between
them and the housing decreases. The
pressure ratio of a screw is
dependent on the length and profile of the
screw and of the form of the discharge port.
The screw element is not equipped with any

valves and there are no mechanical forces to
create any imbalance. It can therefore work
at high shaft speed and combine a large flow
rate with small exterior dimensions.
Compression Capacity:
Rotary Screw range operates between 4kw to 250 kW (5 to 535hp), producing

working pressure at 5 bar to 13 bar (72 to 188psi).
Typical ap plications:
Food Beverage, Brewing, Military, Aerospace, Automotive, Industrial,

Electronic, Manufacturing, Petrochemical, Med ical, Hospital, Pharmaceutical,
Instrument air
Rotary Vane:
Based on traditional, tried and tested technology, the

vane compressor is directly driven at very low speed
(1450rpm), offering unrivalled reliability. The rotor,
the only continually moving part, has a number of
slots machined along its
length into wh ich fit sliding
vanes that ride on a film of
oil.
The ro tor rotates within a c ylindrical stator. During

rotation, centrifugal force extends the vanes from
their slots, forming indiv idual compression cells.
Rotation decreases the cell volume, increasing the
air pressure.

The heat generated by compression is controlled by pressurised oil injection.
The high pressure air is discharged through the outlet port with the remaining
traces of oil removed by the final oil separator.
Capacity:
Vane co mpressors operate between 1.1 kW to 75 kW (1.5 to 100hp),

producing working pressures of 7 to 8 and 10 bar (101 to 145psi).
Typical ap plications:
Mining, Printing, Pneumatics, Laboratories, Dentistry, Instruments, Machine

tools, Packaging, Robotics
Centrifugal Compressor:
Rotation of the impeller throws the air

outward at a very high v elocity. In the
diffuser the velocity of air is decreas ed.
Loss of velocity causes an increase of
pressure. Thus compressing air dynamically
Advantages:
• High pressure rise per stage.

• Efficiency ov er wide rotational speed
range.
• Simplicity of manufacture with
resulting low cost.
• Low weight.
• Low starting power require ments.
Limitations:
• Large frontal area for given airflow.

• Impractical if more stages.

Axial – Flow Compressor:
Rotation of the moving blade throws the air axially at a very high v elocity. In
the stationary blade the velocity of air is decreased. Loss of velocity causes
an increase of pressure. Thus compres sing air dynamically
Advantages:
• High peak efficiency.

• Small frontal area forgiv en airflow.
• Straigh t-through flow, allo wing high
efficienc y.
• Increased pressure rise due to increased
nu mber of stag es with negligible losses.
Limitations:
• Good efficiency over narrow rotational speed

range.
• Difficulty of manufacture and high cost.
• Relatively high weig ht.
• High starting power requirements
Comparison:
Reciprocating air compressors. Rotary air compressors

The maximum delivery pressure The maximum delivery pressure is 10
may be as high as 1000 bar. bar only.
The maximum free a ir discharge is The maximum free air discharge is as
about 300 m3 /min. high as 3000 m3 min.
They are suitable for low discharge They are suitable for low discharge of
of air at very high pressure. air at low pressure
The speed of air co mpressor is low The speed of air compressor is high
The air supply is intermittent. The air supply is continuous.
The size o f air compressor is large The size of air co mpressor is small
for the giv en discharge. for the same discharge.
The balancing in a major problem There is no balancing problem
The lubricating system is There are no balancing problem
complicated.
The air delivered is less clean, as The air delivered is more clean, as it
it come in contact with the does not come in contact with the
lubricating oil lubricating oil
Isothermal efficiency is used for all Isentropic efficiency is used for all
sorts of calculation. sorts of calculation.

7.0 Compressor Maintenance:
Maintenance of compressor is of great importance yet it is often left undone

or half done. Neglect of an air syste m will ultimately "poison" the entire
downstream air syste m and cause many problems. Clean, dry air supplies
start at the air co mpressor package. The small amount of time you spend
maintaining the system is well worth the effort.
General Requirements for a Safe and Efficient Air Compressor :
 Always turn po wer off before servicing.

 Monitor compressor oil an d oil cleanliness:
o Change the oil according to manufacturer's recommendations.
o Use high-quality oil and keep the level where it's supposed to be.
o Sample the oil ev ery month .
 Monitor condensate contro l:
o Drain fluid traps regularly or auto matically.
o Drain receiv ing tanks regularly or automatically.
o Service air-drying systems according to manu facturer's
recommendations.
 Keep air inlet filters clean.
 Keep motor belts tight.
 Minimize syste m leaks.
Diagnostic Tools for Air Compressors
Ultrasonic analyzer
Compressed gas syste ms emit very distinct sound patterns around leakage
areas. In most cases, these sounds are not audible to the unaided ear or are
drowned out by other equ ipment noises. Using an ultrasonic detector, the
analyst is able to isolate the frequency of sound being emitted by the air or
gas lea k. The ultrasonic detector represents an accurate and cost effectiv e
means to locate leaks in air or gas systems.
Vibration analyzer
Within a compressor, there are many mov ing parts—some in rotational motion
and some in linear motion. In either case, these parts generate a distinct
pattern and level of vibration. Using a vibration analyzer and signature
analysis software, the analyst can discern the vibration amplitude of the point
on the equip ment being monitored. This amplitude is then compared with
trended readings. Changes in these readings are indicative of changes in
equipment condition.

Common Causes of Air Compressor Poor Performance :
Probl em Probable Cause Remedial Action

Low Pressure at Leaks in distribution Check lines, connecti ons, and v alv es for
point of use piping leaks. Clean or replace filter elements
Clogged fil ter elements
Fouled dryer heat Clean heat exchanger
exchanger
Low Pressure at
compresso r discharge
Low p ressure at Improper adjustment of Foll ow manufacturer's recommendation
compressor air capacity control (for for adjustment of control
discharge systems with modulating
load controls)
Worn or broken v alves Check valves and repair or repl ace as
requi red
Improper air pressure Foll ow manufacturer's recommendation
switch for setting air pressure s witch
Water in li nes Fail ed condensate traps Clean, repai r, or replace the trap
Fail ed or undersized Repai r or replace dryer
compressed air dryer
Liquid oil in air Faulty air/oil separation Check air/oil separation system and
lines change the separator element
Dirt, rust, or In the absence of liquid Install fil ters at point of use
scale in ai r lines water, normal aging of
the air lines
Excessiv e System idling too much For multiple compressor systems,
service to load consider sequencing controls to
per hour rati o minimi se compressor idle time. Adjust
idle time accordi ng to manufacturer's
recommendations.
Improper p ressure Re-adjust according to manufacturer's
switch setting recommendations.
Elev ated Restri cted air flow Clean cooler exterior and check inl et
compressor filter mats
temperature Low oil level Check comp ressor oil l evel and add oil
as required
Restri cted oil flow Remove restriction and replace parts as
requi red
Excessive ambient Improper v entil ation to compressor;
temperatures check with manufacturer to determine
maximum operating temperature.

Air Compressor Maintenance Checklist:
Maintenance Frequency
Description Comment
Daily Weekly Monthly Annually
Compressor use or Turn off or sequence unnecessary compressors

X
sequencing
Overall visual Complete overall visual inspection to be sure all

inspection equipment is operating and that safety systems X
are in place.
Leakage Assessment Look for and report any system leakages. X
Compressor Make sure proper ventilation is available for

X
ventilation compressor and inlet.
Compressor lubricant Note level, color, and pressure. Compare with

X
trended values.
Condensate drain Drain condensate from tank, legs, and traps. X
Operating Verify operating temperature is per

X
temperature manufacturer's specification.
Pressure relief valves Verify all pressure relief valves are functioning
X
properly.
Check belt tension Check belt tension and alignment for proper
X
settings.
Intake filter pads Clean or replace intake filter pads as necessary. X
Air-consuming All air-consuming devices need to be inspected

device check on a regular basis for leakage. Leakage typically
occurs in:
X
 Worn, cracked, or frayed hoses
 Sticking air valves
 Cylinder packing
Drain traps Clean out debris and check operation. X
Motor bearings Lubricate motor bearings to manufacturer's
X
specification.
System oil Depending on use and compressor size, develop
periodic oil sampling to monitor moisture,
X
particulate levels, and other contamination.
Replace oil as required.
Couplings Inspect all couplings for proper function and
X
alignment.
Shaft seals Check all seals for leakage or wear. X
Air line filters Replace particulate and lubricant removal
X
elements when pressure drop exceeds 2-3 psi
Check mountings Check and secure all compressor mountings. X

Lubrication:
A compressor is a type of machine that elevates the pressure of a

compressible process fluid, typically air, or other gases. Positiv e
displacement compressors confine a certain inlet v olume of gas in a give n
space and subsequently elevate this trapped amount of gas to some higher
pressure lev el. The overwhelming majority of compressors in positiv e
displacement (reciprocating and screw-type) category incorporate moving
components.
The majority of compressors are best serv ed by pre mium-grade turbine oils
with ISO viscosity grades of 32 or 46. However, there are many d ifferent
types of compressors and each manufacturer is likely to recommend
lubricants that hav e been used on a test stand and at controlled user
facilities.
These lubricants must provide the fo llowing:
 Long life without need for change out

 Prevention of acidity, sludge, deposit formation
 Excellent protection against rust and corrosion, ev en during shutdown
 Good demulsibility to shed water that enters the lubrication s ystem
 Easy filterability without additiv e depletion
 Good foam control

8.0 Air Compressor Safety
All components of compressed air systems should be inspected regularly by

qualified and trained employees. Maintenance superintendents should check
with state and/or insurance companies to determine if they require their own
inspection of this equipment. Operators need to be aware of the following
general safety requ irements for compressed air.
Air Receivers :
 The maximum allowable working pressures of air receiv ers should

nev er be exceeded, except when being tested. Only hydrostatically
tested and approv ed tanks shall be used as air receiv ers.
 Each air receiver shall be equipped with at least one pressure gauge
and an IBR tested safety v alve of the proper design.
 A safety (spring loaded) release valve shall be installed to prev ent the
receiver fro m exceeding the maximum allowable working pressure.
Air Distribution Lines:
 Air lines should be made of high quality materials and fitted with secure
connections.
 Hoses should be checked to make sure they are properly connected to
pipe outlets before use.
 Air lines should be inspected frequently for defects. Any defectiv e
equipment should be repaired or replaced immediately.
 Compressed air lines should be identified as to maximum working
pressures (psi) by tagging or marking pipeline outlets.
Pressure Regulation Devices:
 Valv es, gauges, and other regulating devices should be installed on

compressor equipment in such a way that they cannot be made
inoperative.
 Air tank safety valv es should be set no less than 15 psi or 10%
(whichev er is greater) above the operating pressure of the compressor.
They should never be set higher than the maximum allowable working
pressure of the air receiver.

Air Compressor Operation:
 Air compressor equipment should be o perated only by authorized and

trained personnel.
 The air intake should be from a clean, outside, fresh air source.
Screens or filters can be used to clean the air.
 Air co mpressors should never be operated at speeds faster than the
manufacturer's recommendations.
 Moving parts, such as compressor flywheels, pulleys, and belts that
could be hazardous should be effectively guarded .

9.0 Rules of Thumb:
There are several rules of thu mb regarding compressed air. All co mpressors
produce heat during the compression process. This heat must be removed
from the compressor roo m for proper operation of the compressor. Be sure to
provide sufficient ventilation for all equipment that may be installed in the
compressor room. All compressor manufacturers publish allowable operating
temperatures.
Leav e sufficient space around the compressor to permit routine maintenance.

It is also suggested to provide space for the remov al of major co mponen ts
during compressor overhauls.
An air receiver near the compressor should be located to provide a steady

source of control air, additional air cooling, and moisture separation. In the
distribution system, there may periodic ally be large volume demands, which
will rapidly drain the air from surro unding areas, and cause pressure levels to
fall for surrounding users.
Select p iping systems that have low pressure drop and prov ide corrosion free
operation. When selecting the main air header, size for a maximum pressure
drop of 1 to 2 psi (.07 to .14 bar). A good rule is to use a header pipe size at
least one size larger than calculated. This will provide additional air storage
capacity and allow for future expansion.
At 100 psig (7 bar) discharge pressure, most air compressors deliver 4-5
CFM per horsepower (0.11 - 0.14 m3/min per kW).
Every 2 psig (0.137 bar) of pressure changes the power draw of a

compressor by 1%.
Efficiency is affected b y about 1% for ev ery 10°F change in inlet air

temperature. Warmer temperature decreases and colder temperature
increases efficiency.
A 50 hp (67 kW) compressor ejects about 126,000 Btu per hour. It is possible
to regain approximately 119,000 Btu per hour of this.
The power cost for 1 horsepower for three shifts, seven days a week (8,760
hours) at $.10/kW k equals approximately $750/year.
The control air receiver located after the compressor should be sized for
about 1 gallon capacity per CFM of compressor capacity.
To ensure an effective demand side control manage ment system, the storage
air receiv er should be sized for about 2-4 gallon capacity per CFM of
compressor capacity.
Total pressure drop should not exceed 15 psi (1 bar) across all compressed
air system components, including piping.

10.0 COMPRESSED AIR TERMINOLOGY
AIR PRESSURE:
The force exerted by air when compressed. Unit of measurement o f bar
GAUGE PRESSURE:
The air pressure as read on a gauge which is the pressure of the air abov e
the atmosphere.
INTERCOOLER:
A device used to cool the compressed air between compressor stages. It
effectively reduces power consumption.
ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSION:
Air compression in which the air remains at constant temperature during
compression.
ADIABATIC COMPRESSION:
Air compression in which all the heat of the compression is retained in the
air.
SPECIFIC POWER CONSUMPTION:

Energy consumed for compression of the unit volume of air. Normally
expressed as joules / liter.
AIR RECEIVER:
Air receivers help to eliminate pulsations in the air supply from the
compressor and acts as a storage capacity for in terv als when the demand
exceeds the compressor capacity.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY:
Percentage of moisture in air compared with what it wou ld be if satura ted.
DEW POINT:
Temperature at which air is fully saturated with water vapor.
AFTER COOLER:
Device for removal of heat from compressed air after compression in order to
extract moisture.
AIR DRYER:
Device of extracting moisture from compressed air where a higher degree of
dryness is needed than can be obtained from an after cooler.
DECIBEL (db):
The unit of measurement for sound intensity expressed as a logarithmic ratio
of standard pressure.

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE:
Pressure of air compared with a complete vacuum, obtained by adding
together g auge pressure and atmospheric pressure.
PRESSURE DROP:
Loss of pressure which occurs which occurs in the distribution network d ue to
friction or restriction to the passage of compressed air.
COMPRESSION RATIO:
Ration between the absolu te outlet pressure and the absolute inlet pressure.
PISTON DISPLACEMENT:
The volume of air displaced by the piston. In multi stage compressor this
usually means the displacement of the first stage piston only.
CLEARANCE VOLUME:
Volume which exists in the compression cylinder when the piston has
reached the end of the compression stroke.
HEAT EXCHANGER:
Device for transferring heat from a hot fluid or gas to a colder one, without
the two coming in contact with each other.
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE :
The temperature of the env ironment in which the equipment is working.
SEPARATOR:
Device which remov es condensate from the compressed air.
SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION:

The ratio of energy consumption to compressor capacity.

Questionnairs for self evaluation:
Ques: Is the pressure of atmosphere the same in different places?
Ques: What is a reciprocation compressor?
Ques: What is centrifugal compressor?
Ques: What is a rotary compressor?

Compressor Opn and Main

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Compressor Operation & Maintenance

Compressed air is considered to be industry's fourth utility. It is an energy

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Sl. No. Topics Page#

1 Compressed Air History 3

2 Application of Compressed Air 5

3 Air Compression Principles 8

5 Reciprocating Air Compressor 13

6 Rotary Air Compressor 20

8 Air Compressor Safety 27

10 Compressed Air Terminology 30

11 Questionnairs For Self Evaluation 32

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The first air compressors weren't machines, but human

The next phase:

Bellows driven by foot or by water wheel prov ed a reliable co mpressor for

The first successful larg e-scale transmission of energy by compressed air

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The Mt. Cenis tunnel attracted international publicity in newspaper and

As compressed air's availability grew, inventors bustled to improve on it.

As both energy systems have developed, co mpressed air has become an

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2.0 Application of Compressed Air:

What is compressed air?

It is the air that condensed and contained at

Why use compressed air?

Compressed air supplies power for many different manufacturing operations. At a

For other maintenance work, plants can use air-operated drills,

On the Production Line: Pneumatic tools are convenient for industrial

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Vacuum has numerous applications in production. A vacuum

Pneumatic auxiliary production equipment is used extensively.

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Automated Assembly Stations:

Compressed air is speeding up operations in the auto motive, appliance,

Industry's fourth utility:

Compressed air is considered to be industry's fourth utility. It is an energy

Steel Plant application of Compressed Air:

Drill, Grinder, Pumps, paving etc

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3.0 Air Compression Principles:

The mathematical equa tion for Boyle's law is:

P denotes the pressure of the system.

At constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of an ideal gas increases

The formula for the law is:

V is the v olume of the gas.

General Gas Law

The ratio between the pressure-volume product and the te mperature of a

This can be stated mathe matically as

Where: p is the pressure, V is the volume, T is the temperature measured in

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An explanation of a few basic thermodynamic principles is necessary to

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The capacity of a compressor is the full rated volume of flow o f gas

The above equation is

Compressor Displacement = ? x D2/4x L x S x ? x n

Where D = Cylinder bore, meter

L = Cylinder stroke, meter

S = Compressor speed rpm

? = 1 for single acting and 2 for dou ble acting cylinders

For practical purposes, the most effective guide in comparing compressor

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Positive Displacement Compressors: