Structural Insulated Panel

A structural insulated panel, or structural insulating panel, (SIP),

is a form of sandwich panel used in the construction industry.
SIP is a sandwich structured composite, consisting of an
insulating layer of rigid core sandwiched between two
layers of structural board, used as a building material. The
board can be sheet metal, plywood, cement, magnesium
oxide board (MgO) or oriented strand board (OSB) and the
core either expanded polystyrene foam (EPS), extruded
polystyrene foam
(XPS), polyisocyanurate foam, polyurethane
foam or composite honeycomb (HSC).

SIPs share the same structural properties as an I-beam or I-column. The rigid insulation core of the SIP acts as a
web, while the sheathing fulfills the function of the flanges. SIPs combine several components of conventional
building, such as studs and joists, insulation, vapor barrier and air barrier. They can be used for many different
applications, such as exterior wall, roof, floor and foundation systems.

History
Although foam-core panels gained attention in the 1970s, the idea of using stress skinned panels for construction
began in the 1930s. Research and testing of the technology was done primarily by Forest Products Laboratory (FPL)
in Madison, Wisconsin as part of a U.S. Forest Service attempt to conserve forest resources. In 1937, a small
stressed-skin house was constructed and garnered enough attention to bring in First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt to
dedicate the house. In a testament to the durability of such panel structures, it has endured the severe Wisconsin
climate and was used by University of Wisconsin–Madison as a day care center up until 1998 when it was removed
to make way for a new Pharmacy School building. With the success of the stress skinned panels, it was suggested
stronger skins could take all of the structural load and eliminate the frame altogether.
Thus in 1947, structural insulated panel development began when corrugated paperboard cores were tested with
various skin materials of plywood, tempered hardboard and treated paperboard. The building was dismantled in
1978 and most of the panels retained their original strength with the exception of paperboard which is unsuited to
outdoor exposure. Panels consisting of polystyrene core and paper overlaid with plywood skins were used in a
building in 1967 and the panels have performed well to the present day.
SIP systems were used by Woods Constructors of Santa Paula, California in their homes and apartments from 1965
until 1984. This work was the basis for John Thomas Woods, Paul Flather Woods, John David Woods, and
Frederick Thomas Woods when they used a similar concept to patent the Footing Form for Modular homes (US
Patent #4817353) issued on April 4, 1989. Numerous homes in Santa Paula, Fillmore, Palm Springs, and
surrounding areas use SIP panels as the primary method of construction. The design was awarded approval from
(then) ICBO and SBCCI, now ICC.

Material
SIPs are most commonly made of OSB panels sandwiched around a foam core made of expanded polystyrene
(EPS), extruded polystyrene (XPS) or rigid polyurethane foam. Other materials can be used in replacement of OSB,
such as plywood, pressure-treated plywood for below-grade foundation walls, steel,[1] aluminum, cement board such
as Hardiebacker, and even exotic materials like stainless steel, fiber-reinforced plastic, and magnesium oxide. Some
SIPs use fiber-cement or plywood sheets for the panels, and agricultural fiber, such as wheat straw, for the core.
The third component in SIPs is the spline or connector piece between SIP panels. Dimensional lumber is commonly
used but creates thermal bridging and lowers insulation values. To maintain higher insulation values through the
spline, manufacturers use Insulated Lumber, Composite Splines, Mechanical Locks, Overlapping OSB Panels, or
other creative methods. Depending on the method selected, other advantages such as full nailing surfaces or
increased structural strength may become available.

Methods of manufacturing
SIP's are most often manufactured in a traditional factory. Processing equipment is used to regulate pressures and
heat in a uniform and consistent manner. There are two main processing methods which correspond to the materials
used for the SIP Panel core. When manufacturing a panel with a polystyrene core both pressure and heat are
required to ensure the bonding glue has penetrated and set completely. Although a number of variations exist, in
general, the foam core is first covered with an adhesive and the skin is set in place. The three pieces are set into a
large clamping device and pressure and heat are applied. The three pieces must stay in the clamping device until the
glue has cured.
When manufacturing a panel with a polyurethane core pressure and heat are both generated from the expansion of
the foam during the foaming process. The skins are set in a large clamping device which functions as a mold. The
skins must be held apart from each other to allow the liquid polyurethane materials to flow into the device. Once in
the device, the foam begins to rise. The mold/press is generally configured to withstand the heat and the pressures
generated from the chemical foaming. The SIP Panel is left in the mold/press to cure slightly and when removed will
continue to cure for several days.
Until recently, both of these processes required a factory setting. However, recent advancements have presented an
alternative with SIP Panel processing equipment that allows SIP Panels to be manufactured on the job-site. This is
welcome news for builders in developing countries where the technology may be best suited to reduce greenhouse
emissions and improve sustainability in housing but are unavailable.

Benefits and drawbacks

The use of SIPs brings many benefits and some drawbacks compared to a conventional framed building.
The cost of SIPs are higher than the materials for a comparable framed building in the United States; however, this
may not be true elsewhere. A well-built home using SIPs will have a tighter building envelope and the walls will
have higher insulating properties, which leads to fewer draughts and a decrease in operating costs. Also, due to the
standardized and all-in-one nature of SIPs, construction time can be less than for a frame home, as well as requiring
fewer tradespeople. The panels can be used as floor, wall, and roof, with the use of the panels as floors being of
particular benefit when used above an uninsulated space below. As a result, the total life-cycle cost of a SIP-
constructed building will, in general, be lower than for a conventional framed one—by as much as 40%. Whether
the total construction cost (materials and labor) is lower than for conventional framing appears to depend on the
circumstances, including local labor conditions and the degree to which the building design is optimized for one or
the other technology.
An OSB skinned system structurally outperforms conventional stick framed construction in some cases; primarily in
axial load strength. SIPs maintain similar versatility to stick framed houses when incorporating custom designs.
Also, since SIPs work as framing, insulation, and exterior sheathing, and can come precut from the factory for the
specific job, the exterior building envelope can be built quite quickly. SIPs panels also tend to be lightweight and
compact which aids this offsite construction. The environmental performance of SIPs, moreover, is very good due to
their exceptional thermal insulation. They also offer a resistance to damp and cold problems like compression
shrinkage and cold bridging that cannot be matched by timber and more traditional building materials
When tested under laboratory conditions, the SIP, included in a wall, foundation, floor, or roof system, is installed in
a steady-state (no air infiltration) environment; systems incorporating fiberglass insulation are not installed in
steady-state environments as they require ventilation to remove moisture.
With the exception of structural metals, such as steel, all structural materials creep over time. In the case of SIPs, the
creep potential of OSB faced SIPs with EPS or polyurethane foam cores has been studied and creep design
recommendations exist The long-term effects of using unconventional facing and core materials require material
specific testing to quantify creep design values.

Dimensions and characteristics

In the United States, SIPs tend to come in sizes from 4 feet (1.22 m) to 24 feet (7.32 m) in width. Elsewhere, typical
product dimensions are 300, 600, or 1,200 mm wide and 2.4, 2.7, and 3 m long, with roof SIPs up to 6 m long.
Smaller sections ease transportation and handling, but the use of the largest panel possible will create the best
insulated building. At 15−20 kg/m², longer panels can become difficult to handle without the use of a crane to
position them, and this is a consideration that must be taken into account due to cost and site limitations. Also of
note is that when needed for special circumstances longer spans can often be requested, such as for a long roof span.
Typical U.S. height for panels is eight or nine feet (2.44 to 2.75 m). Panels come in widths ranging from 4 to
12 inches thick and a rough cost is $4–$6/ft2 in the U.S. In 4Q 2010, new methods of forming radius, sine curve,
arches and tubular SIPs were commercialized. Due to the custom nature and technical difficulty of forming and
curing specialty shapes, pricing is typically three or four times that of standard panels per foot.
EPS is the most common of the foams used and has an R-value (thermal resistance) of about 4 K·m2/W per 25 mm
thickness, which would give the 3.5 inches (89 mm) of foam in a 4.5-inch-thick (110 mm) panel an R value of 13.8
(caution: extrapolating R-values over thickness may be imprecise due to non-linear thermal properties of most
materials). This at face value appears to be comparable to an R-13 batt of fiberglass, but because in a standard stick
frame house there is significantly more wall containing low R value wood that acts as a cold bridge, the thermal
performance of the R-13.8 SIP wall will be considerably better.
The air sealing features of SIP homes resulted in the Environmental Protection Agency's Energy Star program to
establish an inspection protocol in lieu of the typically required blower door test to assess the home's air leakage.
This serves to speed the process and save the builder/homeowner money.

Standardization and design

The International Building Code references APA, Plywood Design Specification 4—Design & Fabrication of
Plywood Sandwich Panels for the design of SIPs.[8] This document addressed the basic engineering mechanics of
SIP panels but does not provide design properties for the panels provided by any specific manufacturer. In 2007,
prescriptive design provisions for OSB faced SIPs were first introduced in the 2006 International Residential Code.
These provisions provide guidance on the use of SIPs as walls panels only.
Aside from these non-proprietary standards, the SIP industry has relied heavily on proprietary code evaluation
reports. In early 2009, SIPA partnered with NTA Inc, a product certification agency, to produce the first industry
wide code report which is available to all SIPA members who qualify. Unlike previous code reports, the prescriptive
provisions provided in the SIPA code report are derived from an engineering design methodology which permits the
design professional to consider loading conditions not addressed in the code report.
Insulated Concrete Form

This insulated concrete form is cut away to show the inner structure of the formwork and the reinforcing bar (rebar).
The cavity is filled with concrete to create the permanent wall.

Insulating concrete form or insulated concrete form (ICF) is a system of formwork for reinforced concrete usually
made with a rigid thermal insulation that stays in place as a permanent interior and exterior substrate for walls,
floors, and roofs. The forms are interlocking modular units that are dry-stacked (without mortar) and filled
with concrete. The units lock together somewhat like Lego bricks and create a form for the structural walls or floors
of a building. ICF construction has become commonplace for both low rise commercial and high performance
residential construction as more stringent energy efficiency and natural disaster resistant building codes are adopted.
ICFs may be used with frost protected shallow foundations (FPSF).

Development
The ICF construction technique was first developed in Europe following World War II as an inexpensive and
durable way to rebuild damaged structures. The first patent for an insulated stay-in-place formwork for concrete was
registered in the early 1940s using recycled waste wood and cement as the insulating material. This patent was
registered by August Schnell and Alex Bosshard in Switzerland. The first polystyrene ICF forms were developed in
the late 1960s with the expiration of the original patent and the advent of modern foam plastics. Canadian contractor
Werner Gregori filed the first patent for a foam concrete form in 1966 with a block "measuring 16 inches high by 48
inches long with a tongue-and-groove interlock, metal ties, and a waffle-grid core."
The adoption of ICF construction has steadily increased since the 1970s, though it was initially hampered by lack of
awareness, building codes, and confusion caused by many different manufacturers selling slightly different ICF
designs rather than focusing on industry standardization. ICF construction is now part of most building codes and
accepted in most jurisdictions in the developed world.

Construction
Insulating concrete forms are manufactured from any of the following materials:

 Polystyrene foam (most commonly expanded or extruded)

 Polyurethane foam (including soy-based foam)
 Cement-bonded wood fiber
 Cement-bonded polystyrene beads
 Cellular concrete
 Thastyron, a mixture of cement, water and recycled expanded polystyrene.
Reinforcing steel bars (rebar) are usually placed inside the forms before concrete is poured to give the
concrete flexural strength, similar to bridges and high-rise buildings made of reinforced concrete. Like other
concrete formwork, the forms are filled with concrete in 1-foot to 12-foot high "lifts" to manage the concrete
pressure and reduce the risk of blowouts.
After the concrete has cured, the forms are left in place permanently to provide a variety of benefits, depending on
materials used:

 Thermal insulation
 Soundproofing
 Good Surface burning characteristics rating
 Space to run electrical conduit and plumbing. The form material on either side of the walls can easily
accommodate electrical and plumbing installations.
 Backing for drywall or other finishes on the interior and stucco, brick, or other siding on the exterior
 Improved indoor air quality
 Regulated humidity levels and mitigated mold growth (hygric buffer)

Categorization
Insulating concrete forms are commonly categorized in two manners. Organizations whose first concern relates to
the concrete classify them first by the shape of the concrete inside the form. [4][5] Organizations whose first concern
relates to the fabrication of the forms classify them first by the characteristics of the forms themselves
By concrete shape
Flat Wall System
For Flat Wall System ICFs, the concrete has the shape of a flat wall of solid reinforced concrete, similar to the shape
of a concrete wall constructed using removable forms.
Grid System
Screen Grid System
For Screen Grid System ICFs, the concrete has the shape of the metal in a screen, with horizontal and vertical
channels of reinforced concrete separated by areas of solid form material.
Waffle Grid System
For Waffle Grid System ICFs, the concrete has the shape of a hybrid between Screen Grid and Flat Wall system
concrete, with a grid of thicker reinforced concrete and having thinner concrete in the center areas where a screen
grid would have solid ICF material.
Post and Lintel Syste]
For Post and Lintel System ICFs, the concrete has a horizontal member, called a lintel, only at the top of the wall
(Horizontal concrete at the bottom of the wall is often present in the form of the building's footer or the lintel of the
wall below.) and vertical members, called posts, between the lintel and the surface on which the wall is resting.
By form characteristic
Block
For Block ICFs, the exterior shape of the ICF is similar to that of a Concrete masonry unit, although ICF blocks are
often larger in size as they are made from a material having a lower specific gravity. Very frequently, the edges of
block ICFs are made to interlock, reducing or eliminating the need for the use of a bonding material between the
blocks.
Panel
Panel ICFs have the flat rectangular shape of a section of flat wall they are often the height of the wall and have a
width limited by the manipulability of the material at larger sizes and by the general usefulness of the panel size for
constructing walls.
Plank
Plank ICFs have the size of Block ICFs in one dimension and Panel ICFs in the other dimension.

Characteristics
Energy efficiency

 Minimal, if any, air leaks, which improves comfort and reduces heat loss compared to walls without a solid air
barrier
 High thermal resistance (R-value) typically above 3 K·m²/W (in American customary units: R-17;this results in
saving energy compared with uninsulated masonry (see comparison)
 Continuous insulation without thermal bridges or "insulation gaps", as is common in framed construction
 Thermal mass, when used well and combined with passive solar design, can play an important role in further
reductions in energy use, especially in climates where it's common to have outside temperatures swing above
inside temperatures during the day and below at night.
Strength
Insulating concrete forms create a structural concrete wall, either monolithic or post and beam, that is up to ten times
stronger than wood framed structures.

 Structural integrity for better resistance to forces of nature, compared to framed walls.
 The components of ICF systems — both the poured concrete and the material used to make the ICF — do not
rot when they get wet.
 Insulating concrete forms structural system, if used in high seismic risk zones, has an acceptable ductility.

Sound absorption
ICF walls have much lower rates of acoustic transmission. Standard thickness ICF walls have shown sound
transmission coefficients (STC) between 46 and 72 compared to 36 for standard fiberglass insulation and drywall.
The level of sound attenuation achieved is a function of wall thickness, mass, component materials and air tightness.
Fire protection
ICF walls can have four- to six-hour fire resistance rating and negligible surface burning properties. It is worth
pointing out that the International Building Code: 2603.5.2 [9] requires plastic foam insulation (e.g. Polystyrene foam,
Polyurethane foam) to be separated from the building interior by a thermal barrier (e.g. drywall), regardless of the
fire barrier provided by the central concrete. Forms made from cement bonded – wood fibers (eg), polystyrene beads
(e.g.), or air (i.e. cellular concrete – e.g.) have a fire rating inherently.
Indoor air quality
Because they are generally constructed without a sheet plastic vapor barrier, ICF walls can regulate humidity levels,
mitigate the potential for mold and facilitate a more comfortable interior while maintaining high thermal
performance. Foams, however, can give off gasses, something that is not well studied.
Environmental sensitivity
ICF walls can be made with a variety of recycled materials that can minimize the environmental impact of the
building. The large volume of concrete used in ICF walls has been criticized, as concrete production is a large
contributor to greenhouse gas emissions.
Vermin
Because the entire interior space of ICF walls is continuously occupied (no gaps as can occur between blown or
fiberglass insulation and a wood frame wall) they pose more difficulty for casual transit by insects and vermin.
Additionally, while plastic foam forms can occasionally be tunneled through, interior concrete wall, and the Portland
cement of cement-bonded type forms create a much more challenging barrier to insects and vermin than do walls
made of wood.
Building design considerations
When designing a building to be constructed with ICF walls, consideration must be given to supporting the weight
of any walls not resting directly on other walls or the building's foundation. Consideration must also be given to the
understanding that the load bearing part of an ICF wall is the concrete, which, without special preparations, does not
extend in any direction to the edge of the form. For grid and post & lintel systems, the placement of vertical
members of the concrete must be organized in such a fashion (e.g., starting at opposite corners or breaks (e.g.
doorways) and working to meet in unbroken wall) as to properly transfer load from the lintel (or bond beam) to the
surface supporting the wall.

Building process
ICF construction is less demanding, owing to its modularity. Less-skilled labor can be employed to lay the ICF
forms, though careful consideration must be made when pouring the concrete to make sure it consolidates fully
and cures evenly without cracking. Unlike traditional wood beam construction, no additional structural support other
than temporary scaffolding is required for openings, doors, windows, or utilities, though modifying the structure
after the concrete cures requires special concrete cutting tools.
Floors and foundations
ICF walls are conventionally placed on a monolithic slab with embedded rebar dowels connecting the walls to the
foundation.
ICF decking is becoming an increasingly popular addition to general ICF wall construction. ICF decking weighs up
to 40% less than standard concrete flooring and provides superior insulation. ICF decking can also be designed in
conjunction with ICF walls to form a continuous monolithic structure joined together by rebar. ICF deck roofs are
less common, as it is difficult to pour concrete on an angled surface.
Walls
ICF walls are constructed one row at a time, usually starting at the corners and working toward the middle of the
walls. End blocks are then cut to fit so as to waste the least material possible. As the wall rises, blocks are staggered
to avoid long vertical seams that can weaken the polystyrene formwork. Structure frames known as bucks are placed
around openings to give added strength to the openings and to serve as attachment points for windows and doors.
Interior and exterior finishes and facades are affixed directly to the ICF surface or tie ends, depending on the type of
ICF. Brick and masonry facades require an extended ledge or shelf angle at the main floor level, but otherwise no
modifications are necessary. Interior ICF polystyrene wall surfaces must be covered with drywall panels or other
wall coatings. During the first months immediately after construction, minor problems with interior humidity may be
evident as the concrete cures, which can damage the drywall. Dehumidification can be accomplished with small
residential dehumidifiers or using the building's air conditioning system.
Depending on the experience of the contractor and their quality of work, improperly installed exterior foam
insulation could be easy access for groundwater and insects. To help prevent these problems, some manufacturers
make insecticide-treated foam blocks and promote installation of drainage sheeting and other methods for
waterproofing. Drain tiles are installed to eliminate water.
Plumbing and electrical
Plumbing and electrical conduit can be placed inside the forms and poured into place, though settling problems
could cause pipes to break, creating costly repairs. For this reason, plumbing and conduit as well as electrical cables
are usually embedded directly into the foam before the wall coverings are applied. A hot knife or electric chainsaw
is commonly used to create openings in the foam to lay piping and cabling. electrical cables are inserted into the ICF
using a Cable Punch. while ICFs made from other materials are typically cut or routed with simple carpentry tools.
Versions of simple carpentry tools suitable for cement-bonded type forms are made for similar use with autoclaved
aerated concrete.
Radiant Wall Systems

Radiant walls enable the retrofit of spaces without having to destroy ceiling heights and ceiling and floor finishes.
It's the perfect way to remodel a finished space in our opinion. Having worked and lived with radiant walls as well
as floors, I can say the walls are a close second to the floors and ceilings for thermal comfort. No doubt the radiant
walls we have in our basement renovation are simply superb during cold months. Many electric heaters distribute
heat through air circulation; they heat the indoor air. But that’s not the case of electric radiant panels, installed on
walls or ceilings. Radiant panels are designed to heat people in their line of sight, not the air. They are like ceramic,
quartz and other infrared small heaters, intended for spot and personal heating; the difference is in their placement
on the walls or on the ceiling, and in their larger surface and capacity.

FACTS on Radiant heating panels for ceilings and walls..

They...

»» are designed to heat people in their line of sight;

»» have very quick response times;

»» are excellent for selective heating (zone heating);

»» do not provide even temperatures through the room;

»» can provide high energy savings if turned off whenever people leave the rooms.

What Are Radiant Heat Panels?

Most radiant ceiling panels consist of a high-density insulation board (fiberglass) and an electric resistance. Some
are made of smooth faced steel or aluminum.

Electric radiant panels do not require blowers, ducts, filters or flues. Installation is easy (it's almost like installing a
fluorescent light system).
They operate at a temperature range of 150-170°F.

Advantages

Electric radiant heaters offer a very quick response time. They can heat almost instantaneously the people in their
line of sight, close enough to them, which is a big advantage for energy savings, as long the heater is controlled by
occupancy sensors and thermostats, or people turn the panels on and off as they enter or exit the room.

Basic FACTS on Radiant Heating for ceilings and walls

1) They heat people, not the air in the room;

2) They are un-obstructive;

4) They have a quick heat response time;

5) Size: often

between 1 x 2 and 4 x 8 feet;

6) Powered by 120 or 240-Volt electrical current;

7) Improperly used they will not provide energy savings

8) They do not provide even room temperatures.

These heaters haven't any inherent technological advantage over other electric-resistance heating units of radiant
type. Their technology is that of electric-resistance heaters; radiant panels will not provide any significant energy
savings if improperly used. They must be turned off in unoccupied rooms.

Energy Savings

Some manufacturers claim electricity savings of 30%, 40% or 50% when compared with other electric heating
systems. But that's mostly a claim. It depends a lot on how the equipment is used, and the intended goals.
Straw-bale construction

Straw-bale construction is a building method that uses bales of straw (commonly wheat, rice, rye and oats straw) as
structural elements, building insulation, or both. This construction method is commonly used in natural building or
"brown" construction projects. Research has shown that straw-bale construction is a sustainable method for building,
from the standpoint of both materials and energy needed for heating and cooling.
Advantages of straw-bale construction over conventional building systems include the renewable nature of straw,
cost, easy availability, naturally fire-retardant and high insulation value. Disadvantages include susceptibility to rot,
difficulty of obtaining insurance coverage, and high space requirements for the straw itself. Research has been done
using moisture probes placed within the straw wall in which 7 of 8 locations had moisture contents of less than 20%.
This is a moisture level that does not aid in the breakdown of the straw. However, proper construction of the straw-
bale wall is important in keeping moisture levels down, just as in the construction of any type of building.
Straw houses have been built on the African plains since the Paleolithic Era. Straw bales were used in construction
400 years ago in Germany; and straw-thatched roofs have long been used in northern Europe and Asia. When
European Settlers came to North America, teepees were insulated in winter with loose straw between the inner
lining and outer cover.
Straw-bale construction was greatly facilitated by the mechanical hay baler, which was invented in the 1850s and
was widespread by the 1890s. It proved particularly useful in the Nebraska Sandhills. Pioneers seeking land under
the 1862 Homestead Act and the 1904 Kinkaid Act found a dearth of trees over much of Nebraska. In many parts of
the state, the soil was suitable for dugoutsand sod houses. However, in the Sandhills, the soil generally made poor
construction sod; in the few places where suitable sod could be found, it was more valuable for agriculture than as a
building material. The first documented use of hay bales in construction in Nebraska was a schoolhouse built in
1896 or 1897. Unfenced and unprotected by stucco or plaster, it was reported in 1902 as having been eaten by cows.
To combat this, builders began plastering their bale structures; if cement or lime stucco was unavailable, locally
obtained "gumbo mud" was employed. Between 1896 and 1945, an estimated 70 straw-bale buildings, including
houses, farm buildings, churches, schools, offices, and grocery stores had been built in the Sandhills. In 1990, nine
surviving bale buildings were reported in Arthur and Logan Counties, including the 1928 Pilgrim Holiness
Church in the village of Arthur, which is listed in the National Register of Historic Places.
Since the 1990s straw-bale construction has been substantially revived, particularly in North America, Europe, and
Australia. This revival is likely attributed to greater environmental awareness and the material's natural, non-toxic
qualities, low embodied energy, and relative affordability. Straw-bale construction has encountered issues regarding
building codes depending on the location of the building. However, in the USA, the introduction of Appendices S
and R in the 2015 International Residential Code has helped to legitimize and improve understanding of straw-bale
construction.

Method
Straw bale building typically consists of stacking rows of bales (often in running-bond) on a raised footing
or foundation, with a moisture barrier or capillary break between the bales and their supporting platform. There are
two types of straw-bales commonly used, those bound together with two strings and those with three. The three
string bale is the larger in all three dimensions. Bale walls can be tied together with pins
of bamboo or wood (internal to the bales or on their faces), or with surface wire meshes, and
then stuccoed or plastered, either with a lime-based formulation or earth/clay render. The bales may actually provide
the structural support for the building ("load-bearing" or "Nebraska-style" technique), as was the case in the original
examples from the late 19th century. The plastered bale assembly also can be designed to provide lateral and
shear support for wind and seismic loads.
Alternatively, bale buildings can have a structural frame of other materials, usually lumber or timber-frame, with
bales simply serving as insulation and plaster substrate, ("infill" or "non-loadbearing" technique), which is most
often required in northern regions and/or in wet climates. In northern regions, the potential snow-loading can exceed
the strength of the bale walls. In wet climates, the imperative for applying a vapor-permeable finish precludes the
use of cement-based stucco. Additionally, the inclusion of a skeletal framework of wood or metal allows the erection
of a roof prior to raising the bales, which can protect the bale wall during construction, when it is the most
vulnerable to water damage in all but the most dependably arid climates. A combination of framing and load-bearing
techniques may also be employed, referred to as "hybrid" straw bale construction.

Straw bale construction

Straw bales can also be used as part of a Spar and Membrane Structure (SMS) wall system in which lightly
reinforced 5 - 8 cm (2 - 3") gunite or shotcrete skins are interconnected with extended "X" shaped light rebar in the
head joints of the bales. In this wall system the concrete skins provide structure, seismic reinforcing, and
fireproofing, while the bales are used as leave-in formwork and insulation.
The University of Bath has completed a research programme which used ‘ModCell’ panels - pre-fabricated panels
consisting of a wooden structural frame infilled with straw bales and rendered with a breathable lime-based system -
to build 'BaleHaus', a straw bale construction on the university's campus. Monitoring work of the structure carried
out by architectural researchers at the university has found that as well as reducing the environmental footprint, the
construction offers other benefits, including healthier living through higher levels of thermal insulation and
regulation of humidity levels. The group has published a number of research papers on its findings.
Typically "field bales" (bales created on farms with baling machines) have been used, but recently higher-density
"precompressed" bales (or "straw-blocks") are increasing the loads that may be supported. Oryzatech out of Goleta,
California has been developing rice straw compressed block. Field bales might support around 900 kg per linear
meter of wall (600 lb./ lin. ft.), but the high density bales bear up to 6000 kg per linear meter of wall
(4,000 lb./lin.ft.), and more. The basic bale-building method is now increasingly being extended to bound modules
of other oft-recycled materials, including tire-bales, cardboard, paper, plastic, and used carpeting. The technique has
also been extended to bags containing "bales" of wood chips or rice hulls.
Straw bales have also been used in very energy efficient high performance buildings such as the S-House. In
Austria which meets the Passivhaus energy standard. In South Africa, a five-star lodge made from 10,000 strawbales
has housed luminaries such as Nelson Mandela and Tony Blair. In the Swiss Alps, in the little village of Nax Mont-
Noble, construction works have begun in October 2011 for the first hotel in Europe built entirely with straw bales.
The Harrison Vault, in Joshua Tree, California, is engineered to withstand the high seismic loads in that area using
only the assembly consisting of bales, lath and plaster. The technique was used successfully for strawbale housing in
rural China. Straw bale domes along the Syrio-African rift at Kibbutz Lotan have an interior geodesic frame of steel
pipes. Another method to reap the benefits of straw is to incorporate straw-bale walls into a pre-existing structure.

Thermal Properties
Compressed straw bales have a wide range of documented R-value. R-value is a measurement of a materials
insulating quality, higher the number the more insulating. The reported R-value ranges from 17-55 (in American
units) or 3-9.6 (in SI) depending on the study, differing wall designs could be responsible for wide range in R-
value. Bale walls are typically coated with a thick layer of plaster, which provides a well-distributed thermal mass,
active on a short-term (diurnal) cycle. The combination of insulation and mass provide an excellent platform
for passive solar building design for winter and summer.
Compressed and plastered straw bale walls are also resistant to fire.

Problems with straw-bale

Two significant problems related to straw-bale construction are moisture and mold. During the construction phase,
buildings need to be protected from rain and from water leakages into the body of the walls. If exposed to water,
compressed straw may expand due to absorption of moisture. In turn, this can cause more cracking through which
more moisture can infiltrate. Further damage to the wall can be caused by mold releasing potentially toxic spores
into the wall cavities and into the air. In hot climates, where walls may have become internally dampened, internal
temperatures may rise (due to decomposition of affected straw). While fire is generally considered a rare event,
compressed straw or hay bales have the serious potential of undergoing spontaneous internal combustion. Rats and
mice can infiltrate straw bale homes during construction, so care must be taken to keep such animals out of the
material. Other problems relate to straw dust which may cause breathing difficulties among people with allergies to
straw or hay.
Several companies have developed prefabricated strawbale walls. A passive ecological house can easily be
assembled with those panels.
Modular Homes

Modular buildings and modular homes are sectional prefabricated buildings, or houses, that consist of multiple
sections called modules. "Modular" is a method of construction differing from other methods of building. The
module sections are constructed at an off site (sometimes, remote) facility, then delivered to the intended site of use.
Complete construction of the prefabricated sections are completed on site. The prefabricated sections are sometimes
lifted and placed on basement walls using a crane, the module prefabricated sections are set onto the building's
foundation and joined together to make a single building. The modules can be placed side-by-side, end-to-end, or
stacked, allowing a wide variety of configurations and styles in the building layout.
Modular buildings, also called prefabricated homes or precision built homes, are built to the same or higher
building standards as on-site stick-built homes. The building method is referred to as permanent modular
construction. Modular homes are built the same and considered the same as a stick built home. Material for stick
built and modular homes are the same. Modular homes are not doublewides or mobile homes. First, modular homes
do not have axles or a metal frame, meaning that they are typically transported to their site by means of flat-
bed trucks. Secondly, modular buildings must conform to all local building codes for their proposed use, while
doublewides and mobile homes have metal under framing. Doublewides and mobile homes made in the United
States, are required to conform to federal codes governed by HUD (U.S. Department of Housing and Urban
Development)
Modular buildings may be used for long-term, temporary or permanent facilities, such as construction camps,
schools and classrooms, civilian and military housing, and industrial facilities. Modular buildings are used in remote
and rural areas where conventional construction may not be reasonable or possible, for example, the Halley VI
accommodation pods used for a BAS Antarctic expedition.Other uses have included churches, health care facilities,
sales and retail offices, fast food restaurants and cruise ship construction. They can also be used in areas that have
weather concerns, such as hurricanes

Construction is offsite, using lean manufacturing techniques to prefabricate single or multi-story buildings in
deliverable module sections. PMC buildings are manufactured in a controlled setting and can be constructed of
wood, steel, or concrete. Modular components are typically constructed indoors on assembly lines. Modules'
construction may take as little as ten days but more often one to three months. PMC modules can be integrated into
site built projects or stand alone and can be delivered with MEP, fixtures and interior finishes.
The buildings are 60% to 90% completed offsite in a factory-controlled environment, and transported and assembled
at the final building site. This can comprise the entire building or be components or subassemblies of larger
structures. In many cases, modular contractors work with traditional general contractors to exploit the resources and
advantages of each type of construction. Completed modules are transported to the building site and assembled by a
crane. Placement of the modules may take from several hours to several days.
Permanent modular buildings are built to meet or exceed the same building codes and standards as site-built
structures and the same architect-specified materials used in conventionally constructed buildings are used in
modular construction projects. PMC can have as many stories as building codes allow. Unlike relocatable buildings,
PMC structures are intended to remain in one location for the duration of their useful life.

Advantages

 Speed of construction/faster return on investment. Modular construction allows for the building and the site
work to be completed simultaneously. According to some materials, this can reduce the overall completion
schedule by as much as 50%. This also reduces labor, financing and supervision costs. To save even more time
and money, nearly all design and engineering disciplines are part of the manufacturing process. Also unique to
modular construction is the ability to simultaneously construct a building’s floors, walls, ceilings, rafters, and
roofs. During site-built construction, walls cannot be set until floors are in position, and ceilings and rafters
cannot be added until walls are erected. On the other hand, with modular construction, walls, floors, ceilings,
and rafters are all built at the same time, and then brought together in the same factory to form a building. This
process can allow modular construction times of half that of conventional, stick-built construction.
 Indoor construction. Assembly is independent of weather, which can increase work efficiency and avoids
damaged building material.
 Ability to service remote locations. Particularly in countries in which potential markets may be located far from
industrial centers, such as Australia, there can be much higher costs to build a site-built house in a remote area
or an area experiencing a construction boom such as mining towns. Modular buildings are also beneficial in
providing medical and sanitary facilities where time, space, and money are an issue.
 Low waste. With the same plans being constantly built, the manufacturer has records of exactly what quantity
of materials are needed for a given job. With the consistency, builders can design systems that use common
lengths of lumber, wallboard, etc., cut items with maximum efficiency, or be able to order special lengths in
bulk. While waste from a site-built dwelling may typically fill several large dumpsters, construction of a
modular dwelling generates much less waste. According to the UK group WRAP, up to a 90% reduction in
materials can be achieved through the use of modular construction. Materials minimized include: wood pallets,
shrink wrap, cardboard, plasterboard, timber, concrete, bricks, and cement.
 Environmentally friendly construction process. Modular construction reduces waste and site disturbance
compared to site-built structures. The controlled environment of the factory allows for more accurate
construction while allowing the extra materials to be recycled in-house.
 Flexibility. One can continually add to a modular building, including creating high rises. When the needs
change, modular buildings can be disassembled and the modules relocated or refurbished for their next use
reducing the demand for raw materials and minimizing the amount of energy expended to create a building to
meet the new need. In essence, the entire building can be recycled in some cases.
 Quality. Combining traditional building techniques, quality manufacturing and third-party agencies who offer
random inspections, testing, and certification services for quality control, commercial modular buildings are
built in strict accordance with appropriate local, state, and national regulations and codes. Due to the need to
transport modules to the final site, each module must be built to independently withstand travel and installation
requirements. Thus the final module-to-module assembly of independently durable components can yield a
final product that is more durable than site-built structures. Modular buildings often use Structural Insulated
Panels (SIPs) in construction, which offer a range of advantages over traditional building materials. SIPs panels
are a light yet durable combination of panel board and either closed-cell polyurethane (PU) or
expanded polystyrene (EPS) insulating foam. They are air-tight, and as such provide excellent thermal
performance. They also offer superior damp and cold resistance when compared to timber and other materials,
and are immune to both compression shrinking and cold bridging. Modular units may also be designed to fit in
with external aesthetics of any existing building and modular units once assembled can be virtually
indistinguishable from a site-built structure.
 Improved Air Quality - Many of the indoor air quality issues identified in new construction result from high
moisture levels in the framing materials. Because the modular structure is substantially completed in a factory-
controlled setting using dry materials, the potential for high levels of moisture being trapped in the new
construction is eliminated.
Modular buildings can also contribute to LEED requirements in any category site-built construction can, and can
even provide an advantage in the areas of Sustainable Sites, Energy and Atmosphere, Materials and Resources, and
Indoor Environmental Quality.Modular construction can also provide an advantage in similar categories in the
International Green Construction Code.

Disadvantages

 Volumetric: Transporting the completed modular building sections take up a lot of space.
 Flexibility: Due to transport and sometimes manufacturing restrictions, module size can be limited, affecting
room sizes.
 Some financial institutions may be hesitant to offer a loan for a modular home.