Modeling of Flexible Pavement for Its Performance Against Cyclic

Vehicular Loading and Estimation of Maintenance Period

Particulars Description
1)Features a)Undertaken within a framework of set of philosophies:
The research shall cover a major part by quantitative way,
where data shall be collected and a specific relationship
would be setup between the variables. Modeling is to be done
in structured way in preset format where it shall be compared
with realistic field data and various other accepted models.
b)Valid and reliable methodology: A preset procedure is to
be followed making the process valid and repetition of the
process can be done to make it more accurate and reliable.
c)Designed to be unbiased and objective: The outcome is
unknown and shall be compared with the standard values so it
is unbiased. The research is focused on taking significant
physical characteristics in simulated models based on
materials mechanics behaviors, thus, the result obtained
wouldn’t be subjective but would be defined as per the
material properties and behaviors

Submitted By: Sachin Sharma

2074MSTrE013
2)Definition a)Framework: here the intended purpose is to reach a
conclusion in deterioration level considering only limited
physical properties of the flexible pavement, a specific grade
and the alignment of a reach.
b)Procedure: An accepted procedure is to be followed as
follows:
i)First of all, model has to be created representing the actual
properties of the flexible pavement.
ii)Moving load has to be accompanied in the model.
iii)Deterioration level has to be measured analytically after
accompanying models with the moving load.
iv)Vehicular flow rates has to be taken into consideration.
v)Suitable Pavement Quality Index(PQI) has to be provided
to the pavement at different time intervals.
c)Unbiased: The outcome is unknown and shall be compared
with the standard values.
d)Objective: the research is focused on taking significant
physical characteristics in simulated models based on
materials mechanics behaviors, thus, the result obtained
wouldn’t be subjective but would be defined as per the
material properties and behaviors.

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2074MSTrE013
2)Characteristics a) Controlled: Limited parameters are to be taken for the study.
Or else, it could be vaguer and complex to model as explained in
framework.
b) Rigorous: A larger number of trials and experiments in the
research would make the result more clear and justifiable
statistically.
c) Systematic: The research should follow a procedure. All the
data collected and analyzed would be processed in a predefined
order for the unbiased result.
d) Verifiable: Researchers first should have sufficient data and a
statistical tool to validate its findings by itself. For the particular
case, modeled results would be compared with the experimental
data to make it verifiable.
e) Empirical: Theoretical results obtained may not always be
true in physical world. So, empirical based observations also
have to be compared with the theoretical results to signify the
results.
f) Critical: Many researches have been performed on pavement
analysis. On the process of the research, the findings may in
some way contradict to the findings of other researches. So, at the
time the research would pin point the error on the limitations of
other researches. In other way round, the research result would be
taken to obtain the results and explained with many examples as
possible.

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2074MSTrE013
Classifications of Research-
According to Application-
There are two types of researches based on their applications:
-Pure and Applied research.
Pure research is the research that is carried out to just enrich the knowledge whose findings are not thought
for any practical purposes but these researches may contribute in applied researches in course of time.
Applied researches are those researches whose main objective is to have a finding that would directly be
implied to the field to contribute more for its development.
So, as the research would help in finding the age of the pavement and find the deterioration level with the
time, this research would be of Applied type.
According to Objective-
As per the objective, the research focuses on explaining the relationships between different properties of
flexible pavement, repetitive vehicular load and deterioration level. Thus, the research is of Explanatory
type.
According to mode of Enquiry-
Researches related to modeling of flexible pavement have already been performed. Way for performing
experiments and modeling has already been set out. Here, try will be to perform the modeling in pre set
formats and extract data for further analysis. Thus, we will perform research in Structured way rather than
unstructured way.
Qualitative and Quantitative Way
The way where research can be performed based on the large sets of statistically quantified data is
Quantitative way of doing research. Whereas, where no statistical data are available for performing research
and only evidence based phenomenon are taken as examples to prove their personal ideas is Qualitative
way of doing research.
The research shall cover a major part by quantitative way, where data shall be collected and a specific
relationship would be setup between the variables. Whereas, qualitative way shall be performed in
identifying the road deterioration levels and later quantifying these qualitatively collected data for PQI.

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Literatures Collected:

1. Emmanuel O. Ekwulo and Dennis B. Eme , “Fatigue and rutting strain analysis of flexible pavements
designed using CBR methods”, Civil Engineering Department, Rivers State University of Science and
Technology P.M.B. 5080 Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria. 25 November, 2009
2. Rabbira Garba, “Permanent Deformation Properties of Asphalt Concrete Mixtures” , Department of
Road end Railway Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU August,
2002
3. George Alberto Prozzi, “Modeling Pavement Performance by combining field and experimental
data”, Graduate Division of University of California, Berkeley Fall 2001
4. Abubeker Worake Ahmed, “Mechanistic-Empirical Modelling of Flexible Pavement Performance:
Verifications Using APT Measurements”, Royal Institute of Technology, KTH, Stockholm, 23 rd of
May 2014
5. Mehdi Akbarian , Franz Josef Ulm, “Model Based Pavement Vehicle Interaction Simulation for Life
Cycle Assessment of Pavements”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
6. Regis Luis Egual de Carvalho, “Prediction of Permanent Deformation in Asphalt Concrete”, 2012
7. Loay Akram Al-Khateeb , Andrews Saoud and Mohammad Fawaz Al-Msouti, “Rutting Prediction
of Flexible Pavement Using Finite Element Method”, Department of Transport and Communication,
Faculty of civil Engineering, Damascus University, Jordan Journal of Civil Engineering, 2011
8. Prithivi S.Kandal, Mary Stroup Gardiner, “Flexible pavement Rehabilitation and Maintenance”

Books Studied:

9. S.K.Khanna and C.E.G, “Highway Engineering”

10. A.T. papagianakis, E.A. Masad, “Pavement Design and Materials”
11. Dinesh Kumar Shrestha, Anil Marsani, “Transportation Engineering Volume II”
12. Office of Design, Pavement Management Section, Florida, “Flexible Pavement Design Manual”
13. Rajib B. Mallick and Tahar El-Korchi, “Pavement Engineering Principles and Practice”

Collection of Themes

Flexible Pavement

[12] The pavement structure or system as it is sometimes referred to, is the pavement layers designed to
support traffic loads and distribute them to the roadbed soil or select embankment material

[9] Flexible pavements are those which on the whole have low or, negligible flexural strength and are rather
flexible in their structural action under the loads

[10] The pavement thickness is designed so that the stresses on the subgrade soil are kept within its bearing
power and the subgrade is prevented from excessive deformations

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Performance of flexible pavement

[8] An important prerequisite for proper maintenance and rehabilitation strategy is the knowledge of how
traffic loads affect the pavement condition at different ages and under different vehicular and environmental
conditions.

[11] Pavement deterioration is caused by the interacting damaging effects of traffic and the environment.
[1] It is generally known that failure of asphalt pavement is due to fatigue cracking and rutting deformation,
caused by excessive horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer and vertical compressive
strain on top of the subgrade. In the design of asphalt pavement, it is necessary to investigate these critical
stresses and strains and design against them.
[2] Rutting is recognized to be the major distress mechanism in flexible pavements as a result of increase
in tire pressures and axle loads. Rutting is caused by the accumulation of permanent deformation in all or
some of the layers in the pavement structure. The accumulation of permanent deformation in the asphalt
surfacing layer is now recognized to be the major component of rutting in flexible pavements.
[6] The total measured rutting is a combination of the settlement in the center and the heave at the edges of
the wheel path.
[7] The width and depth of the rut are widely affected by structural characters of the pavement layers
(thickness and material quality), traffic loads and environmental conditions.
[12] Pavement Rehabilitation consists of restoration, resurfacing, recycling and reconstruction.
[13] Pavement construction is a complex process involving many factors—each of which has the potential
of affecting the quality of the constructed pavement in a very significant way. The process of good
construction should start with the identification/adoption or creation of an appropriate specification.
Factors effecting the performance of flexible pavement
[2] Asphalt pavement rutting from weak asphalt mixtures is a high temperature phenomenon, i.e., it most
often occurs during the summer when high pavement temperatures are evident
[2] One can get an insight into the effect of aggregate properties on shear strength of mixtures by
considering their effect on c and ϕ in the above equation. For a given level of stress, temperature and rate
of loading, the shear strength depends on the cohesion c and angle of internal friction ϕ. The cohesion c is
affected by the viscosity of asphalt binder and the proportion of fines. The angle of internal friction is
obtained from aggregate interlocking. Higher values of ϕ are developed if the aggregate is rough textured,
angular and well graded. The mechanical interlock of the aggregate particles thus plays a key role in
shearing resistance. The binder content is also known to affect ϕ because it changes the degree of
mechanical interlock between the particles, i.e., the higher the proportion of binder in the mix, the further
apart the aggregate particles are spread
[5] The main model parameters that affect pavement deflection, hence PVI (Pavement Vehicle Interaction)
is impact on fuel consumption, are:

 E the top layer Young’s modulus of elasticity;

 k the modulus of subgrade;

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  h the pavement thickness;
 Q the applied load.
[6] Two mechanisms are the main causes of rutting development. Compaction is the primary mechanism at
initial stages of loading and the other is the further reduction of the volume of the material beneath the
wheel path. This deformation is essentially caused by shear.
Failure Criteria

[1] As elastic theory can be used to compute only the effect of traffic loads, most of the principles in
mechanistic design of highway pavements are based on limiting strains in the asphalt bound layer (fatigue
analysis) and permanent deformation (rutting) in the subgrade.
[1] (Fatigue Cracking)
The asphalt institute (Asphalt Institute, 1982) suggested that the relationship between fatigue failure of
asphalt concrete and tensile strain is represented by the number of load repetitions as follows:
Nf = 0.0796(∑ t) −3.291 (E)−0.854
Where; Nf = Number of load applications to failure ∑ t = Horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of asphalt
bound layer E = Elastic Modulus of asphalt concrete
[1] The relationship between rutting failure and compressive strain at the top of the subgrade is represented
by the number of load applications as suggested by asphalt institute (Asphalt Institute, 1982) in the
following form:
Nf = 1.365 x10 −9 (c) −4.477

Viscoelasto method/ Multi Layer Theory

[1] The Layered Elastic Analysis (LEA) is a mechanistic procedure capable of determining pavement
responses (stress and strain) in asphalt pavement. The major assumptions in the use of layered elastic
analysis are that;
i) The pavement structure is regarded as a linear elastic multilayered system in which the stress-strain
solution of the material are characterized by the Young’s modulus of Elasticity E and poison’s ratio µ.
ii) Each layer has a finite thickness h except the lower layer, and all are infinite in the horizontal direction
iii) The surface loading P can be represented vertically by a uniformly distributed vertical stress over a
circular area.

[2] The theory of viscoelasticity might be appropriate to model deformation at low temperatures and high
frequencies of loading. But at high temperatures and slow rate of loading, where rutting or permanent
deformation is of crucial importance, this theory might not be appropriate because it fails to take account
of the time independent plastic component of the strain. While elasto-viscoplasticity can be used to take
account of most of the behavior of asphalt concrete under load, it is sophisticated and requires substantial
effort in material testing and computations.

[4] Asphalt mixtures exhibit unique characteristics of both viscous and elastic properties, and hence are
categorized as viscoelastic materials. Moreover, understanding the viscoelastic properties of asphalt

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mixtures is important to achieve performance-based structural design of bituminous layers (ARA, 2004).
Therefore it is important to extend the theory of MLET to account for the effect of viscoelasticity.

[4] Advanced models for predicting permanent deformation in asphalt mixtures consider the viscous nature
of asphalt mixtures through viscoelastic or viscoelastoplastic constitutive equations. Both linear and
nonlinear viscoelasticity approaches have been examined.

[5] The beam on an elastic foundation represents various properties of a pavement. It draws a relationship
between pavement material properties of top layer elastic modulus E, mass per unit length m, and subgrade
modulus k, along with the structural property of moment of inertia I, with deflection y under an external
load q (x; t). By assuming a moving coordinate system η on the load (vehicle wheel) a relationship between
deflection under (and at distances away from) the load can be calculated.
[6] The use of advanced mechanistic modeling can help address some of the issues mentioned and reduce
the gap between rutting predictions and field measured performance. Advanced mechanistic modeling
employs theories of mechanics that are more suitable to describe the real material behavior. The
shortcoming is the complexity of these theories, and in particular the constitutive models. Asphalt concrete
is a complex material in which recoverable and irrecoverable strains are dependent on temperature, stress
and strain rates. Therefore, viscoelasticity and viscoplasticity theories are most appropriate to model the
recoverable and irrecoverable behavior respectively. A framework for applying a viscoelastic-viscoplastic
model based on Schapery’s viscoelasticity theory and Perzyna’s viscoplasticity formulation was presented.
[6] The finite element model is used to simulate a moving wheel and to analyze the permanent deformation
behavior in the asphalt concrete layer in three dimensional pavement structures
[7] The dynamic modulus is the absolute value of the complex modulus, and is basically an elastic modulus
obtained from a viscoelastic model which incorporates factors such as temperature, loading rate, bitumen
viscosity and grain size characteristics of the mix, among others
[7] Some materials can carry only limited tensile stress and can undergo plastic deformation under high
compressive stress. One of the most common ways of simulating such material behavior and limiting the
tensile stress in finite element models is elastoplasticity. A linear-elastic perfectly-plastic Drucker– Prager
model was chosen to simulate this stress–strain behavior because of its simplicity
Mechanistic Models
[3] These deterioration models rely on the use of material behavior and pavement response models, which
are believed to represent the actual behavior of the pavement structure under the combined actions of traffic
and the environment. These behavior and response models are used to estimate strains, stresses and
deflections at various locations in the pavement structure. These critical responses are in turn, used to
predict in terms of surface deformation (rutting) and crack propagation (fatigue cracking)
[4] Mechanistic-Empirical (M-E) pavement design procedures are composed of a reliable response model
to estimate the state of stress in the pavement and distress models in order to predict the different types of
pavement distresses due to the prevailing traffic and environmental conditions.
Finite Element Method
[6] The viscoelastic-viscoplastic model developed and calibrated in this research was implemented in
ABAQUS™ (2006), a commercial finite element package widely employed in pavement engineering
research. The objective was to have a robust but simple to use tool for analyzing permanent deformations

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in pavements under moving wheel loads. ABAQUS is a good tool for this application for several reasons.
It is a mature, well-validated, and well-documented finite element analysis program. It has a user-friendly
interface for pre- and post-processing, which facilitates creating models and visualizing results after the
analysis is complete. In addition, it has a large variety of constitutive models in its library that can be used
to model other layers in the pavement structure (e.g., elastic, elasto-plastic, etc.).
[6] The procedure for computational modeling using the FEM consists of six steps:
 Geometry modeling, including boundary conditions
 Meshing and element definition
 Material property specification
 Loading condition application
 Simulation and Visualization

[7] The difference in maximum rut depths from the two models (3D & 2D) is less than 2%. Therefore, 2D
plane strain models were appropriate for this study.
[7] For a linear–elastic perfectly-plastic material, the yield surface is fixed in stress space, and therefore
plastic deformation occurs only when the stress path moves on the yield surface
Vertical Strain
[2] Generally there are three causes of rutting in asphalt pavements: accumulation of permanent
deformation in the asphalt surfacing layer, permanent deformation of subgrade, and wear of pavements
caused by studded tires.
Stresses/Strains at different layers
[1]The Everstress (Sivaneswaran et al., 2001) layered elastic analysis software was employed in the the
simulation of stresses, fatigue and rutting strains in the designed pavements. Stresses, strains and deflection
due to 80 kN single axle load having a tyre pressure of 690.78 kPa was computed by analyzing the effect
due to 20 kN single axle load spaced 30.5 mm centre to centre. Evaluation of fatigue and rutting strains
were carried out on the underside of the asphalt bound layer and on top of the subgrade at 15.25 mm (X=0,
Y = 15.25) between the 20 kN axle loads.
[4] In addition to the stress state, the permanent deformation behavior of UGMs is also affected by the
stress history. This is due to the fact that the stiffness of the material gradually increases due to the
compaction effect of the repeated loading, resulting in a reduction in permanent deformation for subsequent
loadings.
[7] In the beginning, the material shows a considerable increase in the amount of permanent deformation
(accumulated plastic strain). However, as the number of loads increases, the accumulated plastic strain
levels off and the material is essentially elastic (recoverable strain). This phenomenon usually occurs after
100 to 200 load applications (Dormon, 1962)
Vehicular loading
[1] Stresses, strains and deflection due to 80 kN single axle load having a tyre pressure of 690.78 kPa was
computed by analyzing the effect due to 20 kN single axle load spaced 30.5 mm centre to centre.
[6] The tire footprint was modeled as a pressure load of 690 kPa (100 psi) applied directly on the set of
elements beneath the wheel. The moving wheel was simulated by incrementally moving the load footprint

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from one set of elements to the next by adding a new line of loaded elements in the front end of the tire,
while removing one line of loaded elements from the back end of the tire. This gives the motion aspect of
the load
[7] A triangular wave with a duration of 0.1 second corresponding to an average speed of around 70 km/h
(LCPC-SETRA, 1997) with a peak load of 40 kN is adopted in thisstudy. The duration time between two
subsequent axles is assumed to be 0.2 second.
[7] Green obtained the best agreement between computed and field measured deflections when the
pavements were subject to static cyclic loading (Green, 2008)
Conceptual Framework
Performance of Flexible Pavement
Primarily the performance of flexible pavement is expressed in terms of major structural deformation as
rutting and fatigue cracking. When the flexible pavement is exceeded with the permissible stresses at its
different layers, the pavement goes through the failure state.
Rutting is one of the important structural deformation which can be modelled through rigorous finite
element methods of flexible pavement which is defined as the cumulative permanent deformation below
the centre of the tire. In this type of deformation, vertical deflection below the tire is observed whereas
heaving of the pavement wearing course is observed side of the tire.
Factors effecting the performance
From the literature review, it is clear that parameters like temperature, thickness, compacted property of the
asphaltic pavement is responsible for the performance of the pavement. These parameters are taken in
Mechanistic Empirical methods for modeling the exact situation of the pavement for evaluation of the
performance against the design vehicular loading. For the compacted property, the improved c and ϕ
characteristics of the pavement has to be taken with respect to the binding actions, strength etc of the flexible
pavement. Another factor for the performance is the vehicular loading. However, the construction
technologies, effects of ground water can be the factors for the performance but are too difficult to take into
account for.
Multi Layer Theory
The pavement is not composed of the homogeneous materials. Every layer has its distinct characteristics.
This type of the characteristics of the pavement is to be dealt with different kinds of multi layer theory
developed. There are many theories and attempts made to model the actual condition of the asphalt
pavement, but the difficult nature of the asphalt pavement performance makes it an arduous task. Different
models have been applied, linear elastic models, visco-elastic models, and the most preferred visco-elastic
and visco-plastic models. As said, the perfect characteristic of flexible pavement is unknown the models
don’t show the perfect compliance with the experiment performed. Simplifications of the models has always
been the prime interest of the researchers where different assumptions of the performance of the pavement
is assumed.
Finite Element Method is used for the complex constitutive model to solve for the deflection observed at
different layers and repetitive wheel loads. The model has been tried for 3D and 2D where compliances has
been checked for the experimental data. Some recommended 3D over 2D where as some extracted better
results with 2D analysis of the pavement.

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Vehicular Loading
Time of loading, dynamic nature or static nature, circular nature of load pressure, magnitude of loading
(axle load & tire pressure) and repetition of loading are some important points that are to be incorporated
under vehicular loading. Different researchers based on the prevailing situation of loading on the pavement
surfaces select the loading criteria and yield results based on the finite element solution which with better
compliance with the experimental field data. For analysis, researches have assumed the static nature of
loading and in some cases dynamic of the loading with different results.
In conclusion, with the use of an effective finite element tools, selection of simplified model for mechanistic
empirical approach, sufficient major parameters (temperature, strength parameters) and suitable vehicular
loading methods we can predict rutting deterioration (major performance parameters) in the flexible
pavement.

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2074MSTrE013
Pavement analysis is one of the hot topic in the recent year. Many findings are being made to match the
model with actual site conditions of the pavement. The actual model analysis can provide us the
performances under varying conditions of the pavement constituent properties, weather conditions
(temperature, seepage), time and seasonal variations.

Research Questions

 What are the problems in modeling of flexible pavement?

 How to improve computational models for the flexible pavement?
 How to prepare models for the flexible pavement performance?
 What are the parameters for the flexible pavement performance?
 What are the possible failure modes in the flexible pavement?
 How could flexible pavements age be evaluated on the basis of the model analysis?

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2074MSTrE013
Research Objectives

 To prepare the parameters for the pavement performance

 To prepare mechanistic empirical model for a flexible pavement
 To reduce the shortcoming of the finite element methods involved in mode
 To estimate the extent of the deterioration and types of the deterioration in the pavement
 To estimate the life of the flexible pavement

Submitted By: Sachin Sharma

2074MSTrE013