The Two-Body problem

Consider a system that consists of a spacecraft of mass “m” and a planet of mass “M”. Assume
that:

1) The two bodies are spherically symmetric and their masses are concentrated at their
centres.
2) There are no external nor internal forces acting on the system other than the gravitational
forces which act along the line joining the centres of the two bodies.

Assume that both the spacecraft and the planet are in motion relative to an inertial reference frame
“I”

All measurements are made with reference to the point “O” which is the origin of the inertial
reference frame. Position of the planet is represented by the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟𝑀 and the mass of the planet
is M. Similarly, the spacecraft position is represented by the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟𝑚 and its mass is m. The
position of the spacecraft relative to the planet is the vector from planet to the spacecraft and
denoted by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟𝑚/𝑀 , which for simplicity is represented by 𝑟.

The goal of the two-body problem is to determine an equation that describes the motion of the
spacecraft with respect to the planet.

Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑚𝐼 be the velocity of the spacecraft relative to the inertial frame. In other words, this is the
velocity of the spacecraft as seen by an observer positioned at the inertial reference frame. The

corresponding acceleration of the spacecraft is 𝑎 𝐼 . Similarly, for the planet, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑚 𝑉𝑀𝐼 is its velocity

relative to the inertial reference frame and corresponding acceleration is ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑎𝑀 𝐼
.

1
Using conventional terminology, the velocity is rate of change of displacement and acceleration is
rate of change of velocity.

𝑑 𝐼 𝐼
For the spacecraft, ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐼 = 𝑑 (𝑉
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑚
𝑉𝑚𝐼 = 𝑑𝑡 (𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑚 ) and 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑚𝐼 )
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐼 𝑑 𝐼 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼
Similarly, for the planet, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑀𝐼 = 𝑑𝑡 (𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑀 ) and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑀 𝐼
= 𝑑𝑡 (𝑉 𝑀)

All distances are measured from point “O” which is fixed in the inertial reference frame.

As stated in the beginning, it is assumed that the only force acting on either the spacecraft or the
planet is that of gravitational attraction. What that means is that the only force applied to the
spacecraft is the gravitational attraction of the planet and the only force applied to the planet is the
gravitational attraction of the spacecraft. With that assumption, we apply Newton’s second law to
both the spacecraft and the planet.

The force applied to the spacecraft = mass of the spacecraft x inertial acceleration of the spacecraft.

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑚
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑚. 𝑎 𝐼

Because the assumption is that the only force that is applied to the spacecraft is that of gravitational
attraction of the planet, we have,

𝐺𝑚𝑀
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑚 = − 𝑟
𝑟3

Therefore,

𝐺𝑚𝑀
− 𝑟 = 𝑚. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑚 𝐼
𝑟3

Applying Newton’s second law to the planet,

𝐹𝑀 = 𝑀. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑀 𝐼

Now, from Newton’s third law, the force applied to the planet is opposite to that applied by the
spacecraft.

𝐺𝑚𝑀
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑚 =
𝐹𝑀 = −𝐹 3
𝑟 = 𝑀. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑀 𝐼
𝑟

2
Now we have two equations,

𝐺𝑚𝑀
− 𝑟 = 𝑚. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑚 𝐼 --------- (1)
𝑟3

𝑟 = 𝑀. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐺𝑚𝑀 𝐼
𝑎𝑀 --------- (2)
𝑟3

Dividing each equation by the respective masses, we get

𝐺𝑀
− 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑚 𝐼 --------- (3)
𝑟3

𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐺𝑚 𝐼
𝑎𝑀 --------- (4)
𝑟3

Subtracting equation (4) from equation (3),

𝑎𝑚 𝐼 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑀 𝐼
=−
𝐺(𝑀+𝑚)
𝑟
3 𝑟

𝑎𝑚 𝐼 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
We note that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑀 𝐼
= ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝐼 which is the acceleration of the spacecraft relative to the planet.

𝐺(𝑀+𝑚)
∴ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝐼 = − 3
𝑟
𝑟

In practice, the mass of the spacecraft is very small compared to the mass of the planet, or in other
words, since M >> m, (𝑀 + 𝑚) ≅ 𝑀 and therefore,

⃗⃗⃗ 𝐺𝑀
𝑎𝐼 = − 3 𝑟
𝑟

For convenience, let μ = GM. Then,

⃗⃗⃗ 𝜇
𝑎𝐼 = − 𝑟 or,
𝑟3

⃗⃗⃗ 𝜇
𝑎𝐼 + 𝑟 = 0 --------- (5)
𝑟3

Equation (5) is called the Two-Body differential equation.

Under the assumption that M >> m, the planet can be approximated to be an inertially fixed point.
Hence, the inertial acceleration of the spacecraft relative to the planet can be written as,

3
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼
𝑎𝑚/𝑀 ≡ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝐼

Under this assumption, the two-body differential equation provides a description of the motion of
a spacecraft relative to an inertial reference frame.

𝜇
For the two-body differential equation ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝐼 + 3 𝑟 = 0, 𝑎𝐼 and r are measured with reference to
𝑟
the inertial fixed point. The goal now is to determine a solution to the two-body differential
equation.
One of the problems which arises in spacecraft dynamics is that this differential equation can not
actually be solved as a function of time. The limitation is that it can only be solved as a function
of the location on the solution plane. That way, we can find the location with respect to radius as
a function of angle but not of time. In order to go ahead with a solution, a few key definitions are
needed as follows:

Specific angular momentum:

We know that the angular momentum is given by the expression ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 .
𝐿𝐼 = 𝑟. 𝑚𝑉

𝐿 ⃗⃗⃗𝐼 𝐿 ⃗⃗⃗𝐼
Dividing both sides by mass, we get 𝑚 = 𝑟. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐼 . Here, the term 𝑚 = ⃗⃗⃗
ℎ𝐼 is called “specific angular

momentum”, and the value refers to unit mass.

∴ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
ℎ𝐼 = 𝑟 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐼

Recall that 𝑟 is the position vector of the spacecraft relative to the planet which is inertially fixed.

So, this becomes position measured with respect to an inertially fixed point. Similarly, ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐼 becomes
the velocity of the spacecraft as viewed by an observer in the inertially fixed reference frame.

Now, if we take the rate of change of specific angular momentum,

𝑑 𝐼 ⃗⃗⃗𝐼 𝑑𝐼
(ℎ ) = (𝑟 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐼 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

By applying product rule of differentiation,

𝑑𝐼
(𝑟 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐼 ) = (𝑉 𝑉𝐼 ) + (𝑟 × ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝐼 )
𝑑𝑡

4
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝐼
Since the vector product (𝑉 𝑉𝐼 ) = 0, (𝑟 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐼 ) = (𝑟 × ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝐼 )
𝑑𝑡

𝜇
But we have seen earlier that ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝐼 = − 𝑟. Therefore, substituting for ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝐼 in the equation above,
𝑟3

𝑑𝐼 𝜇 𝜇
(𝑟 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐼 ) = 𝑟 × (− 3 𝑟) = − 3 𝑟 × 𝑟
𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑟

𝑑𝐼 ⃗⃗⃗𝐼 ) = 0
Here again, since the vector product 𝑟 × 𝑟 = 0, we get (ℎ
𝑑𝑡

If the rate of change of a vector in the inertial frame is zero, then it means that the vector itself is
invariable or fixed in the inertial frame.

⃗⃗⃗𝐼 ) is fixed in I. Therefore, there must be a plane

Therefore, the key property is that the vector (ℎ

that is orthogonal to that vector and that plane must also be fixed in I because the vector itself,
which is perpendicular to that plane is fixed in I.

Now, as per definition of vector cross products, because ⃗⃗⃗

ℎ𝐼 is the vector product of 𝑟 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐼 , 𝑟 and
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐼 have to lie in the plane which is orthogonal to the vector ⃗⃗⃗
ℎ𝐼 . Therefore, we note that this plane

is not any plane but it is the plane which contains 𝑟 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐼 . That means the plane contains the
solution to the problem which is to compute 𝑟. Therefore, the plane is the plane of solution to the
two-body differential equation.

5
From the foregoing, we have concluded that there is an inertially fixed plane in which the desired
solution lies. In order to use that information, we have to somehow construct a direction in that
plane which is fixed in I that will allow us to describe as to where the spacecraft is at any given
point in time.

Recall the two-body differential equation,

⃗⃗⃗ 𝜇
𝑎𝐼 + 3 𝑟 = 0
𝑟

We need to find a way to integrate this equation. Let us take the vector product of the two-body
differential equation with the specific angular momentum.

⃗⃗⃗𝐼 + 𝜇 𝑟) × ⃗⃗⃗
(𝑎 ℎ𝐼 = 0
𝑟3

⃗⃗⃗𝐼 × ⃗⃗⃗ 𝜇 ⃗⃗⃗𝐼 ) = 0

(𝑎 ℎ𝐼 ) + (𝑟 3 𝑟 × ℎ ------------ (6)

Because ⃗⃗⃗
ℎ𝐼 is fixed in I, we have

𝑑𝐼 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 × ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗𝐼 × ⃗⃗⃗

𝐼
𝑑 𝐼
(𝑉 ℎ𝐼 ) = (𝑎 ℎ𝐼 ) + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐼 × ⃗⃗⃗
ℎ and since ⃗⃗⃗
ℎ𝐼 is constant, the second term goes to zero.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝐼
∴ (𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗𝐼 ) = 𝑑 (𝑉
⃗⃗⃗𝐼 × ℎ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 × ⃗⃗⃗
ℎ𝐼 )
𝑑𝑡

Therefore, the first term of equation (6) is now written as rate of change of something. Similarly,
𝜇
the second term (𝑟 3 𝑟 × ⃗⃗⃗
ℎ𝐼 ) can be written as rate of change of something else as follows:

Consider the following quantity,

𝑑𝐼 𝑟 𝑑 𝐼
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 )
𝜇 ( ) = 𝜇 (𝑟 −1 . 𝑟) = 𝜇 (−𝑟 −2 𝑟.̇ 𝑟 + 𝑟 −1 . 𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑑𝑡

Note that 𝑟 2 = 𝑟. 𝑟. If we now take the rate of change on both sides,

2𝑟. 𝑟̇ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐼 . 𝑟 + 𝑟. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐼 = 2𝑟. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐼

𝑟. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐼
∴ 𝑟̇ =
𝑟

6
 𝑑𝐼 𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼
𝑟 .𝑉
Then, 𝜇 ( ) = 𝜇 [(−𝑟 −2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 )], or
. 𝑟) + (𝑟 −1 . 𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑟

𝑑𝐼 𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼
𝑟 .𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐼 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼
𝑟 .𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼
𝑟 2 .𝑉
𝜇 ( ) = 𝜇 [(− . 𝑟) + ] = 𝜇 [(− . 𝑟) + ]
𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑟3 𝑟 𝑟3 𝑟3

𝑑𝐼 𝑟 𝜇
𝜇 ( ) = − 3 [(𝑟. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐼 ) 𝑟 − 𝑟 2 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐼 ]
𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑟

𝑑𝐼 𝑟 𝜇 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 ) 𝑟 − (𝑟. 𝑟)𝑉

⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 ] ---------- (7)
𝜇 ( ) = − 3 [(𝑟. 𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑟

Using the vector triple product rule 𝑎 × (𝑏⃗ × 𝑐 ) = (𝑎. 𝑐 )𝑏⃗ − (𝑎. 𝑏⃗)𝑐 , we have in equation (7), 𝑟

in place of 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗; and ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑉𝐼 in place of 𝑐 .

𝑑𝐼 𝑟 𝜇 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 ) = − 𝜇 𝑟 × ⃗⃗⃗
Therefore, we can write 𝜇 ( ) = − 3 𝑟 × (𝑟 × 𝑉 ℎ𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟3

𝑑𝐼 𝑟 𝜇
i.e., 𝜇 ( ) = − 3 𝑟 × ⃗⃗⃗
ℎ𝐼 , or
𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑟

𝜇 𝑑 𝑟 𝐼
𝑟 × ⃗⃗⃗
ℎ𝐼 = - 𝜇 ( )
𝑟3 𝑑𝑡 𝑟

So, we have the second term of equation (6) also as rate of change of something.

Now the equation (6) can be written as,

𝜇 𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 𝐼
⃗⃗⃗𝐼 × ⃗⃗⃗
(𝑎 ℎ𝐼 ) + ( 3 𝑟 × ⃗⃗⃗
ℎ𝐼 ) = (𝑉 × ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐼 𝑟
ℎ𝐼 ) - 𝜇 𝑑𝑡 (𝑟) = 0.
𝑟 𝑑𝑡

We know that 𝜇 is a constant. Hence,

𝑑𝐼 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 × ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟
[𝑉 ℎ𝐼 − 𝜇 ( )]= 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑟

That means, the quantity within the brackets must be constant and fixed in the inertial frame.

⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 × ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟
i.e., [𝑉 ℎ𝐼 − 𝜇 (𝑟)] is fixed in I. This constant is called the “Laplace vector, 𝐶 and it is fixed in

I.

7
 𝑟 𝑑𝐶 𝐼
𝐶 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐼 × ⃗⃗⃗
ℎ𝐼 − 𝜇 (𝑟) (and therefore 𝑑𝑡 = 0)

Dividing both sides by 𝜇, we get

𝐶 𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 × ⃗⃗⃗
ℎ𝐼 𝑟
= −( )
𝜇 𝜇 𝑟

𝐶
The ratio is called the eccentricity vector 𝑒.
𝜇

𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼
𝑉 𝐼 ×ℎ 𝑟
∴ 𝑒= = − ( ) ---------- (8)
𝜇 𝜇 𝑟

Now, the Laplace vector is fixed in I and the eccentricity vector is the Laplace vector scaled by a
constant. Therefore, the eccentricity vector is also fixed in I. That means, two vectors have been
found that are both fixed in I.

Let us now take the product of specific angular momentum and eccentricity.

𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 ×ℎ
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 𝑟
⃗⃗⃗
ℎ𝐼 . 𝑒 = 𝑒. ⃗⃗⃗
ℎ𝐼 = [ − ( )]. ⃗⃗⃗
ℎ𝐼
𝜇 𝑟

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼
. ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉 𝐼 ×ℎ 𝑟
= ℎ𝐼 − ℎ𝐼
𝜇 𝑟

⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 ×ℎ
(𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 )ℎ
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼
𝑟.ℎ
= .−
𝜇 𝑟

Since ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐼 × ⃗⃗⃗
ℎ𝐼 has to be orthogonal to ⃗⃗⃗
ℎ𝐼 , the numerator of the first term goes to zero. Since ⃗⃗⃗
ℎ𝐼 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 )
𝑟 .(𝑟 ×𝑉
𝑟 .ℎ
𝑟 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐼 , the second term, can be written as . Since 𝑟 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐼 has to be orthogonal to 𝑟,
𝑟 𝑟
the second term also goes to zero.

∴ ⃗⃗⃗
ℎ𝐼 . 𝑒 = 0 + 0 = 0

8
 ⃗⃗⃗𝐼 and hence 𝑒 must be in the plane of the solution. We now have
That means, 𝑒 is orthogonal to ℎ

all the three vectors 𝑟, ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑉𝐼 and 𝑒 in the solution plane.

𝜈 is the angle between 𝑒 and 𝑟. If we take their scalar product,

⃗⃗ 𝑟 = |𝑒||𝑟| cos 𝜈
𝑒.

Let the scalar quantity 𝑒 = |𝑒| = eccentricity. We already have 𝑟 = |𝑟|.

Therefore, 𝑒. 𝑟 = 𝑒𝑟 cos 𝜈

Another expression for 𝑒. 𝑟 can be obtained by using the expression for 𝑒 itself. We have,

𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 ×ℎ
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 𝑟 𝑟
𝑒. ⃗⃗⃗
ℎ𝐼 = [ − ( )]. ⃗⃗⃗
ℎ𝐼 . Multiplying both sides by ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 we get,
𝜇 𝑟 ℎ

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼
𝑉 𝐼 ×ℎ 𝑟
𝑒. 𝑟 = [ − ( )]. 𝑟
𝜇 𝑟

⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 × ⃗⃗⃗
(𝑉 ℎ𝐼 ) . 𝑟 𝑟
= − .𝑟
𝜇 𝑟

⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 × ⃗⃗⃗
(𝑉 ℎ𝐼 ) . 𝑟 𝑟2
= −
𝜇 𝑟

9
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 × ⃗⃗⃗
(𝑉 ℎ𝐼 ) . 𝑟
= −𝑟
𝜇

Here, the first term is a scalar triple product of the form, 𝑎 . (𝑏⃗ × 𝑐) = 𝑐 . (𝑎 × 𝑏⃗)

⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 × ⃗⃗⃗
i.e., (𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗𝐼 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ℎ𝐼 ) . 𝑟 = 𝑟. (ℎ 𝑉𝐼 ) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ℎ𝐼 . (𝑟⃗⃗⃗𝐼 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐼 ). But, ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟 𝐼 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗𝐼
𝑉𝐼 = ℎ

⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐼 × ⃗⃗⃗
(𝑉 ℎ𝐼 ) . 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗𝐼 = ℎ2 where ℎ = |ℎ
ℎ𝐼 . ℎ ⃗⃗⃗𝐼 | = constant because ℎ
⃗⃗⃗𝐼 is fixed in I.

ℎ2
∴ 𝑒. 𝑟 = − 𝑟 which is the second expression for 𝑒. 𝑟. Equating the two expression for
𝜇

𝑒. 𝑟, we have

ℎ2 ℎ2
− 𝑟 = 𝑒𝑟 cos 𝜈. Rearranging the terms, = (1 + 𝑒 cos 𝜈)𝑟.
𝜇 𝜇

Solving for r,

ℎ2⁄
𝜇
𝑟= ---------------- (9)
1+𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜈

Equation (9) is called the “Orbit Equation”. The orbit equation defines conic sections. The type of
2
conic section is dependent upon eccentricity 𝑒. The quantity ℎ ⁄𝜇 is generally replaced with

2 2
𝑃 = ℎ ⁄𝜇 which is known as semilatus rectum. Substituting for ℎ ⁄𝜇 , we get

𝑃
𝑟= -------------- (10)
1+𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜈

Equation (9) is the original form of orbit equation and equation (10) is its modified form.

------

10