Data Structures

Data Structures and Algorithms in C++, Second Edition by Adam Drozdek, published by Brooks/Cole
Thomson Learning, © 2001, ISBN 0-534-37597-9

KRISNA ADIYARTA
PASCA SARJANA (MAGISTER KOMPUTER)
UNIVERSITAS BUDI LUHUR
JAKARTA
 Definitions
 A data structure is a scheme for organizing data in
the memory of a computer.
 The way in which the data is organized affects the
performance of a program for different tasks.
 Computer programmers decide which data
structures to use based on the nature of the data
and the processes that need to be performed on
that data.
 Some of the more commonly used data structures
include : primitive data, arrays, lists, stacks,
queues, trees, graphs
Primitive (Atomic) Structures

 Primitive (or Basic) Data Types

 User-Defined Ordinal Types
 Character String Types
 Pointer Types
 Primitive Data Types

 Number
 Integer
 Floating-Point
 Boolean
 Character
 ASCII, ISO-8859-x, JIS, UNICODE
 User-Defined Ordinal Type

 Range of possible values mapped to positive

integers
 Examples
 Enumeration types (C, C++, Pascal, Ada)
 Subrange types (Pascal, Modula-2, Ada)
 Character String Type

 Design issues:
 Should strings be a special kind of character
array? Or a primitive type?
 Static or dynamic length?
 Pointer Type

 Range of values of memory address or “null”

 Provide explicit support for indirect referencing
 Available in: C, C++, Pascal, Ada

int *pi = new int;

float *pf=new float;
*pi =1024;
*pf =3.14;
 Record Structure

 Possibly heterogeneous aggregation of named data

elements

struct {
Person
char name[10];
int age;
int salary;
} person;
strcpy(person.name, “james”);
person.age=10; Nam e Salary
Age
person.salary=3000;
 Array Structure

 A collection of pairs <index,value>

where index is an ordered set of integers
and are values of some data type that is
constant for the array.
 not all languages require index to be
continuous or contiguous or start at 0 or
1.
 In C arrays are zero based and are
contiguous from 0 to size-1 and can
contain any simple or aggregate data
type
 Array Structure

 Homogenous aggregation of data elements

 Constant-time access to elements
 Design issues:
 Subscript types
 Bounds checking?
 Subscript dimension, subscript order
 Size static or dynamic? User-definable?
 Single Linked List
 A singly linked list is a concrete data structure
consisting of a series of nodes
 Each node stores next
 Data item
 Link to the next node

Data item NODE

HEAD CURRENT

A B C D 
 Insertion

A B C 

X
2
A B C 

3 1
X

A B X C 
 Deletion

A B X
C D 

1
A B D 

2
C

A B D 
 Double Linked List
 A doubly linked list provides a natural
implementation of the List
 Special trailer and header nodes
 Nodes implement Position and store:
 element prev next
 link to the previous node
 link to the next node
elem node

header nodes/positions trailer

 Insertion

A B C

p
A B C
q
X

p q
A B X C
 Deletion

A B C D

A B C
p
D

A B C
 Tree
 A tree is a finite nonempty set
of elements.
 It is an abstract model of a
hierarchical structure.
 consists of nodes with a
parent-child relation. Computers”R”Us
 Applications:
 Organization charts
 File systems Sales Manufacturing R&D
 Programming environments

US International Laptops Desktops

Europe Asia Canada

 Tree Terminology
 Root: node without parent
 Siblings: nodes share the same parent
 Internal node: node with at least one child
 External node (leaf ): node without children
 Ancestors of a node: parent, grandparent, grand-grandparent, etc.
 Descendant of a node: child,
A
grandchild, grand-grandchild, etc.
 Depth of a node: number of ancestors
 Height of a tree: maximum depth of any
B C D
node
 Degree of a node: the number of its
children
E F G H
 Degree of a tree: the maximum number
of its node.
 Subtree: tree consisting of a node and
I J K
its descendants subtree
 Tree Property
Property Value A
Number of nodes
Height
B C
Root Node
Leaves
Interior nodes D E F
Ancestors of H
Descendants of B
Siblings of E
Right subtree of A G
Degree of this tree
H I
Intuitive Representation of Tree Node
 List Representation
 ( A ( B ( E ( K, L ), F ), C ( G ), D ( H ( M ), I, J ) ) )
 The root comes first, followed by a list of links to sub-
trees

How many link fields are needed in

such a representation?

Data Link 1 Link 2 … Link n

 Tree
 Every tree node:
 object – useful information
 children – pointers to its children

Data

Data   Data  Data  

Data   Data   Data  

 A Tree Representation
 A node is represented 
by an object storing
 Element B
 Parent node
 Sequence of  
children nodes
A D F
B

A D F
 
C E
C E
Left Child, Right Sibling Representation

Data
Left Right
Child Sibling A

B C D

E F G H I

J K L
 Tree Traversal
 Two main methods:
 Preorder
 Postorder

 Preorder
 visit the root
 traverse in preorder the children (subtrees)

 Postorder:
 traverse in postorder the children (subtrees)
 visit the root
 Preorder Traversal
 A traversal visits the nodes of a Algorithm preOrder(v)
tree in a systematic manner visit(v)
 In a preorder traversal, a node is for each child w of v
visited before its descendants preorder (w)
 Application: print a structured
document
1
Become Rich

2 5 9
1. Motivations 2. Methods 3. Success Stories

3 4 6 7 8
1.1 Enjoy 1.2 Help 2.1 Get a 2.2 Start a 2.3 Acquired
Life Poor Friends CS PhD Web Site by Google
 Postorder Traversal
 In a postorder traversal, a Algorithm postOrder(v)
node is visited after its for each child w of v
descendants postOrder (w)
 Application: compute space visit(v)
used by files in a directory and
its subdirectories
9
cs16/
8
3 7
todo.txt
homeworks/ programs/
1K

1 2 4 5 6
h1c.doc h1nc.doc DDR.java Stocks.java Robot.java
3K 2K 10K 25K 20K
 Decision Tree
 Binary tree associated with a decision process
 internal nodes: questions with yes/no answer
 external nodes: decisions

 Example: dining decision

Want a fast meal?

Yes No

How about coffee? On expense account?

Yes No Yes No

Starbucks Spike’s Al Forno Café Paragon

 Binary Tree
 A binary tree is a tree with the  Applications:
following properties:  arithmetic expressions
 Each internal node has at most two
 decision processes
children (degree of two)
 The children of a node are an  searching
ordered pair
A
 We call the children of an internal
node left child and right child
 Alternative recursive definition: a B C
binary tree is either
 a tree consisting of a single node,
OR
 a tree whose root has an ordered D E F G
pair of children, each of which is a
binary tree
H I
 Examples of the Binary Tree
Skewed Binary Tree Complete Binary Tree

A 1 A
A

B B 2 B C

C
3 D E F G
D

4 H I
E 5
Differences Between A Tree and A Binary Tree

 The subtrees of a binary tree are ordered; those

of a tree are not ordered.

A A

B B

• Are different when viewed as binary trees.

• Are the same when viewed as trees.
 Data Structure for Binary Trees
 A node is represented

by an object storing
 Element
 Parent node B
 Left child node
 Right child node  

B A D

A D    

C E
C E
 Arithmetic Expression Tree

 Binary tree associated with an arithmetic expression

 internal nodes: operators
 external nodes: operands
 Example: arithmetic expression tree for the
expression (2  (a - 1) + (3  b))

+
 

2 - 3 b

a 1
Maximum Number of Nodes in a Binary Tree

 The maximum number of nodes on depth i of

a binary tree is 2i, i>=0.
 The maximum nubmer of nodes in a binary
tree of height k is 2k+1-1, k>=0.

Prove by induction.
k

 2
i 0
i
 2 k +1
-1
 Full Binary Tree
 A full binary tree of a given height k has 2k+1–1
nodes.

Height 3 full binary tree.

Labeling Nodes In A Full Binary Tree
 Label the nodes 1 through 2k+1 – 1.
 Label by levels from top to bottom.
 Within a level, label from left to right.

2 3

4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
 Node Number Properties
1

2 3

4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

 Parent of node i is node i / 2, unless i = 1.

 Node 1 is the root and has no parent.
 Node Number Properties
1

2 3

4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

 Left child of node i is node 2i, unless 2i > n,

where n is the number of nodes.
 If 2i > n, node i has no left child.
 Node Number Properties
1

2 3

4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

 Right child of node i is node 2i+1, unless 2i+1 >

n, where n is the number of nodes.
 If 2i+1 > n, node i has no right child.
 Complete Binary Trees
 A labeled binary tree containing the labels 1 to n with root 1,
branches leading to nodes labeled 2 and 3, branches from these
leading to 4, 5 and 6, 7, respectively, and so on.
 A binary tree with n nodes and level k is complete iff its nodes
correspond to the nodes numbered from 1 to n in the full binary
tree of level k.

1 1

2 2 3
3

4 5 6 7 4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
8 9
Complete binary tree Full binary tree of depth 3
 Binary Tree Traversals
 Let l, R, and r stand for moving left, visiting
the node, and moving right.

 There are six possible combinations of traversal

 lRr, lrR, Rlr, Rrl, rRl, rlR

 Adopt convention that we traverse left before

right, only 3 traversals remain
 lRr, lrR, Rlr
 inorder, postorder, preorder
 Inorder Traversal
 In an inorder traversal a
node is visited after its left
subtree and before its right
subtree
6
Algorithm inOrder(v)
if isInternal (v)
inOrder (leftChild (v))
visit(v)
if isInternal (v)
inOrder (rightChild (v))

2 8

1 4 7 9

3 5
 Graph
 A graph, G=(V, E), consists of two sets:
 a finite set of vertices(V), and
 a finite, possibly empty set of edges(E)
 V(G) and E(G) represent the sets of vertices and edges of G,
respectively
 Undirected graph
 The pairs of vertices representing any edges is unordered
 e.g., (v0, v1) and (v1, v0) represent the same edge
 Directed graph
 Each edge as a directed pair of vertices
 e.g. <v0, v1> represents an edge, v0 is the tail and v1 is the
head
 Graph
0 0 0

1 2 1 2
1
3
3 4 5 6
G1 2
G2 incomplete graph
complete graph G3
V(G1)={0,1,2,3} E(G1)={(0,1),(0,2),(0,3),(1,2),(1,3),(2,3)}
V(G2)={0,1,2,3,4,5,6} E(G2)={(0,1),(0,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,5),(2,6)}
V(G3)={0,1,2} E(G3)={<0,1>,<1,0>,<1,2>}
complete undirected graph: n(n-1)/2 edges
complete directed graph: n(n-1) edges
 Complete Graph

 A complete graph is a graph that has the

maximum number of edges
 for undirected graph with n vertices, the
maximum number of edges is n(n-1)/2
 for directed graph with n vertices, the
maximum
number of edges is n(n-1)
 example: G1 is a complete graph
 Subgraph and Path
 A subgraph of G is a graph G’ such that V(G’)
is a subset of V(G) and E(G’) is a subset of E(G)
 A path from vertex vp to vertex vq in a graph G,
is a sequence of vertices, vp, vi1, vi2, ..., vin, vq,
such that (vp, vi1), (vi1, vi2), ..., (vin, vq) are
edges
in an undirected graph
 The length of a path is the number of edges on it
 Subgraph and Path

0 0 0 1 2 0

1 2 1 2 3 1 2
3
3
G1
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(a) Some of the subgraph of G1
 Simple Path and Style
 A simple path is a path in which all vertices,
except possibly the first and the last, are distinct
 A cycle is a simple path in which the first and
the last vertices are the same
 In an undirected graph G, two vertices, v0 and v1,
are connected if there is a path in G from v0 to v1
 An undirected graph is connected if, for every
pair of distinct vertices vi, vj, there is a path
from vi to vj
Simple Path and Style
connected

0 0

1 2 1 2
3
3 4 5 6
G1
G2
tree (acyclic graph)
 Connected Component

 A connected component of an undirected graph

is a maximal connected subgraph.
 A tree is a graph that is connected and acyclic.
 A directed graph is strongly connected if there
is a directed path from vi to vj and also
from vj to vi.
 A strongly connected component is a maximal
subgraph that is strongly connected.
 Degree
 The degree of a vertex is the number of edges
incident to that vertex
 For directed graph,
 the in-degree of a vertex v is the number of
edges
that have v as the head
 the out-degree of a vertex v is the number of
edges
that have v as the tail
 Degree

undirected graph
directed graph
degree
3 in-degree 0 in:1, out: 1
0 out-degree

3 1 2 3 1 in: 1, out: 2

3
3 2 in: 1, out: 0

G1 G2
 Adjacency Matrix
 Let G=(V,E) be a graph with n vertices.
 The adjacency matrix of G is a two-dimensional
n by n array, say adj_mat
 If the edge (vi, vj) is in E(G), adj_mat[i][j]=1
 If there is no such edge in E(G), adj_mat[i][j]=0
 The adjacency matrix for an undirected graph is
symmetric; the adjacency matrix for a digraph
need not be symmetric
 Adjacency Matrix
0 0 0 4

2 1 5
1 2
1 3 6
3
0 1 1 1 2 G3 7
1 0 1 1 

1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
    1
1 1 1 0 1 0 1
 0 0 1 0 0 0 0


0 0 0
 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
 
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
G 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 G2 
0 0 0 0 1 0 1

0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
 
undirected: n2/2 
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

symmetric
directed: n2
 Adjacency lists
 N linked list

0 3 1 2
1 0
2 3 0
1
2 0 1 2
1 3 0
3
2 0 1 2
G2
G1
 Graph Operations
 Traversal
Given G=(V,E) and vertex v, find all wV,
such that w connects v.
 Depth First Search (DFS)
preorder tree traversal
 Breadth First Search (BFS)
level order tree traversal
 Spanning Trees
 Graph Operations

depth first search: v0, v1, v3, v7, v4, v5, v2, v6
breadth first search: v0, v1, v2, v3, v4, v5, v6, v7
 Weighted Graph
 In Many applications,each edge of a graph has an
associated numerical value, called a weight
 Usually, the edge weights are non negative
integers
 Weight graphs may either directed or undirected
 Spanning Trees
 A spanning tree is a minimal subgraph G’, such
that V(G’)=V(G) and G’ is connected
 Weight and MST
 Either dfs or bfs can be used to create a
spanning tree
 When dfs is used, the resulting spanning tree is
known as a depth first spanning tree
 When bfs is used, the resulting spanning tree is
known as a breadth first spanning tree
 Minimum-Cost Spanning Trees

 A minimum-cost spanning tree is a spanning

tree of least cost
 Design strategy – greedy method
 Kruskal’s algorithm
 Edge by edge
 Prim’s algorithm
 Span out from one vertex
0 5
10 Examples for Kruskal’s Algorithm
2 3 0
12

1 6 1
14

1 2 5 6 2
16
0 0
3 6 28
4
18
10 1 10 1
3 4 14 16 3
22
5 6 2 5 6 2
4 24 6 24
25 18 12
4 5 4 4
25 22 3 3
0 28 1
0 10 5 Examples for Kruskal’s Algorithm
2 12 3

1 14 6

1 16 2 0 0 0

18 10 1 10 1 10 1
3 6
14 14

3 22 4 5 6 2 5 6 2 5 6 2

12 12 12
4 24 6 4 4 4
3 3 3
4 25 5

0 28 1
0 10 5 Examples for Kruskal’s Algorithm
2 12 3

1 14 6
0 0
1 16 2
10 1 10 1
3 18 6 14 16 14 16

5 6 2 5 6 2
3 22 4
25
12 12
4 4
4 24 6 22
22 3
3
4 25 5 cycle
cost = 10 +25+22+12+16+14

0 28 1
 0 Examples for Prim’s
28
10 1
Algorithm
14 16

5 6 2
24
25
18 12
4
22 3
0 0 0
10 1 10 1 10 1

5 6 2 5 6 2 5 6 2
25 25
4 4 4
3 22 3
3
 0 Examples for Prim’s
28
10 1
Algorithm
14 16

5 6 2
24
25
18 12
4
0 22 3 0 0
10 1 10 1 10 1
16 14 16

5 6 2 5 6 2 5 6 2
25 25 25
12 12 12
4 4 4
22 22 22 3
3 3