CHAPTER II

GEOLOGY OF DHARWAR CRATON

28
2.1 INTRODUCTION

A clear understanding of the physiographical, structural and lithological characteristic

features of an area play an important role in understanding the process of weathering
and soil formation. This chapter highlights the geological conditions of the Dharwar
Craton in general and the lithological characteristic features, structural alignment and
soil, in particular.

The Indian subcontinent covers approximately 5,000,000 km2. Although India is

connected geographically to the Eurasian continent, the subcontinent and Himalayan
sectors make up a distinct lithospheric plate. The Peninsular India is divided into five
discrete crusts namely Bhandar, Singhbum, Aravalli, Eastern Ghats and Southern
India.

2.2 GEOLOGY OF SOUTHERN INDIA

The Precambrian shield of southern India, of which the present study area forms a
part has been divided into cratonic nuclei of Dharwar, Singbhum and Bastar,
surrounded by mobile belts of successively younger ages (Radhakrishna and Naqvi,
1986). The Archaen terrain of southern India records geological events that occurred
essentially during 3.4 to 0.5 Ga. It can be divided into two principal terrains based on
the grade of metamorphism as: (1) southern high-grade granulites terrain and (2)
northern low grade granite-greenstone terrain. The boundary between these two
terrains appears to be a kind of transition which is superimposed across the structural
grain (Chadwick et al., 1993). The southern high-grade terrain encompasses large
areas in Tamil Nadu, Kerela and part of Karnataka and is essentially composed of
gneisses punctuated with rafts of supracrustal rocks. The rocks of the terrain exhibit a
polymetamorphic history, with the youngest event recorded at 500 m.y. which may be
correlated with the pan-African orogeny (Chacko et al., 1987). The northern low-
grade terrain is spread over major parts of Karnataka and Goa and parts of Andhra
Pradesh and is composed of several supracrustal (greenstone) belts surrounded by
gneisses and granitoids. The northern low-grade terrain has been referred to variously
as Dharwar Craton or Karnataka Craton and Dharwar Nuclei (Pichamuthu, 1985;
Drury et al., 1984; Rogers, 1985; Radhaakrishna and Naqvi, 1986 and
Mukhopadhyay, 1986). The central part consists of granite-greenstone terrain

29
characterized by green schist to lower amphibolite facies and is surrounded by a
mobile belt consisting of granulite facies, charnockite terrain and migmatitic gneisses,
well exposed in the eastern portion of the south Indian shield. In general, the south
Indian Peninsular region includes representatives of all the three principal rock
associations which characterize Arachean terrains, viz., (i) the high-grade associations
(granulites) of Tamilnadu and Kerala (ii) the granite-greenstone association (older
supracrustals) and, (iii) the Craton-basin association of (Dharwar). Perhaps in no other
part of the world, are the three associations brought together in such a well-knit
composite unit as in South India, affording excellent opportunities for a close study
and understanding of the stages in the evolution of the early crust. Since the study
area is located in the Dharwar Craton, some geological aspects of the Craton is
provided as prelude (Figure- 2.1).

30
Figure- 2.1: Generalized geologic and tectonic map of Indian shield (after Drury et
al., 1984).

31
2.3 DHARWAR CRATON

The Dharwar Craton (or Karnataka Craton) lying between longitude 72º 45´-80° and
latitudes 11º-19° is an elliptical region comprising of a number of subparallel
supracrustal belts and stringers, is set in a matrix of polyphasic gneisses and bordered
by granulites in the south and granites to the east (Radhakrishna and Naqvi, 1986;
Radhakrishna and Ramakrishnan, 1988). The available geochronological ages
spanning between 3.4 and 2.0 b.y.a. highlights the major early Precambrian events in
the Craton. The Karnataka Craton of the South Indian shield exposes numerous linear
greenstone belts covered by younger group of rocks in the North. The oldest group of
rocks forming the Craton was considered till recently as Dharwars, intruded
extensively by granite of different ages (Pichamuthu, 1962). The rocks of Super schist
are characterized by high grade metamorphism from upper amphibolites to
transitional granulite facies and have suffered intensive deformation and
migmatisation.

The term Dharwar (Karnataka) Craton was introduced by the geological survey of
India (1978), to accommodate the already known Dharwar super group (Dharwar
greenstone granite) and recently established Sargur Schist complex (Sargur type high
grade terrain). Till today, the existing nomenclature still being used by some workers,
viz., Dharwar greenstone granite, highly metamorphosed Dharwar greenstone
representing the Sargur high grade terrain is confusing, it is apparent that the prefix
Dharwar has become common to the cratonic counter parts. The Dharwar Craton is
split into Eastern and Western Cratons, with major differences in lithology and ages
of rock units. the dividing line being a steeply dipping mylonite zone interpreted by
Chadwic et al., (1992) as listric structure, and as a low angle thrust which becomes
shallow at depth as proposed by Kalia et al ., (1979). The Closepet Granite is a good
approximation of the western boundary (Ramakrishnan and Vaidyanadhan, 2008).

Chitradurga shear zone marks the boundary between Western Dharwar and Eastern
Dharwar Craton apart from Closepet Granite. The Chitradurga shear zone is a narrow
geosyclinal belt which extends from Gadag in the north to Shrirangapatna in the
south, for a length of 460km. The belt attains a maximum width near Chitradurga
(Nath et al., 1976; Drury et al., 1984; Chadwick et al., 2000). These Cratons have a
billion years of early history of the earth shown in Figure- 2.2.

32
Figure- 2.2: Geology of the western and eastern Dharwar Craton (after Rogers,
1990).

33
 a) Western Dharwar Craton

The Western Dharwar Craton (WDC) is located in southwest India and is bound to the
east by the Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC), to the west by the Arabian Sea, and to the
south by a transition into the so-called “Southern Granulite Terraine”. The remaining
boundary to the north is buried under younger sediments and the Cretaceous Deccan
Traps (Figure- 2.3). The division between the Western and Eastern Dharwar Cratons
is based on the nature and abundance of greenstones, as well as the age of surrounding
basement and degree of regional metamorphism (Rollinson et al., 1981).

The western block of Karnataka Craton comprises of Holenarsipur, Bababudan,

Shimoga-North Kanara, and Chitradurga- Gadag belts supracrustal (schist) belts. The
available radiometric dates of supracrustal rocks and gneisses appear to be consistent
with this broad two-fold division, wherein, the Sargur group of rocks have been
deposited during 3130-2960 m.y. (Nutman et al., 1992) and supracrustal rocks of
Dharwar supergroup accumulated during 2900-2600 m.y. (Taylor et al., 1984). The
polyphase migmatitic gneisses yielded radiometric ages ranging from 3.4 - 2.5 Ga.,
but large areas recorded ages of 3.0 Ga. The supracrustal rocks and Peninsular
gneisses are further intruded by k-rich granites which are 2.5 Ga. old (Taylor et al.,
1984 and bhaskar Rao et al., 1992). The status of Super group as a separate unit has
however been disputed by Naha et al (1993), who questioned the validity of attaching
stratigraphic significance to the Peninsular gneisses which constitutes a polyphase
gneiss evolved over a long span of time ranging from 3.3 -2.9 Ga. High grade
supracrustal rocks underlying the basal unconformity have been referred to as
“Sargurs” by Swami Nath and Ramakrishnan (1981), (Figure- 2.4).

The younger Dharwar super group has been subdivided into (a) the lower Bababudan
group and (b) the upper Chitradurga group and (c) Shigegudda schist belts based on
the presence of a thin persistent oligomict quartz pebble conglomerate horizon
marking the unconformity between these two groups (Figure- 2.5). The supracrustal
rocks of Sargur occur as thin slivers and tectonic slices set in Peninsular gneiss and
are mainly confined to the southern fringes of the Karnataka Craton. In the southern
parts of Karnataka Craton, the supracrustal rocks of the Sargur group have been
subjected to granulite facies metamorphism. Radimetric ages of detrial zircon present
in quartztes led Chadwick et al., (1986) and Nutman et al., (1992) to propose a sialic

34
basement for the Sargur. The Sargur group encompasses a diversified group of
volcanic and sedimentary lithologies, represented by ultramafic-mafic volcaniv rocks,
pellites, quartzites, impure carbonates, iron formation and intrusive ultramafic-mafic
and gabbro-anorthosite complexes (Swaminath and Ramakrishnan, 1981). Further,
they reported concordant contact of the Sargur enclaves with the surrounding gneisses
and migmaties implying their involvement in ductile deformation along with the
gneisses. The greenstone belts of the Western Block are characterized by mature,
sediment-dominated supracrustals with subordinate volcanism and are recrystallized
in intermediate pressure Barrovian metamorphism. However, development of
greenstone belts in the western block of the Dharwar Craton proceeded through three
major depositional cycles of volcanism and sedimentation, terminating with the
intrusion of syn- to post-kinematic granites on minor scale.

35
Figure- 2.3: Geological map of the Western Dharwar Cratons (after Naqvi and
Rogers, 1987; Ramakrishnan and Vaidyanadhan, 2008).

36
Figure- 2.4: Geological map of Western Dharwar Craton (Swami Nath and
Ramakrishnan, 1981; Naqvi and Rogers, 1987).

37
Figure- 2.5: Geological map of Sargur Supracrustal suite (after Swami Nath and
Ramakrishnan, 1981).

38
 b) Eastern Dharwar Craton

The EDC is bounded to the north by the Deccan Traps and the Bastar Craton, to the
east by the Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt, and to the south by the Southern Granulite
Terraine (Balakrishnan et al., 1999). The Craton is composed of the Dharwar
Batholith (dominantly granitic), greenstone belts, intrusive volcanics, and middle
Proterozoic to more recent sedimentary basins (Ramakrishnan and Vaidyanadhan,
2008), (Figure- 2.6).

The supracrustal belts of the Eastern block of the Dharwar Craton are smaller in size
than those of the western blocks which are surrounded by gneisses and granites. The
prominent greenstone belts of the Eastern Block include Kolar, Sandur and Hutti.
These belts contain supracrustal rocks essentially made up of volcanic rocks with
subordinate amounts of sedimentary rocks composed of quartzites, polymict,
conglomerate, carbonates, BCF/BIF and Mg-rich peletic rocks and phyllites.

Radhakrishna (1984) considered the greenstone belts of the Eastern Block as “older
greenstone belts” that are either older or equivalent to the Bababudan group of the
western block. The supracrustal rocks are intruded by 2.5 Ga. old syn-to late/post
tectonic granites. However, metabasalts from Kolar schist belt yielded an age of 2.7
Ga., indicating that they are contemporaneous with the Chitradurga group of the
western block (Rajamani et al., 1981 and 1985). A majority of the granitoids and
gneisses of the Eastern Block yielded an age ranging from 2.6 to 2.5 Ga and are
attributed to mantle sources with limited crustal Eastern Block (closepet granite) are
reported to be generated by the melting of metasomatised mantle source (Martin et
al., 1994; Nutman et al., 1996).

Several geochemical studies have been conducted by Rajamani et al., (1990), Iyer and
Vasudev (1979) on the volcanic rocks of Kolar and Hatti schist belts. The volcanic
rocks of Kolar schist belt are composed of Komatiitic-tholeiites and were derived
from a shallow mantle source. The volcanic rocks of the Hutti schist belt are
composed essentially of thoeiitic basalts and minor rhyolites. According to Martin et
al., (1993), the post-kinematic granites have been generated by the melting of
metasomatized mantle source.

39
Figure- 2.6: Geological Map of Eastern Dharwar Craton (Modified from Naqvi and
Rogers, 1987).

40
As regards mineralization, the western block is characterized by copper, iron and
manganese mineralization, whereas the Eastern Block is known for gold, iron and
manganese mineralization. Based on a classification given by Radhakrishna (1983)
the supracrustals of Dharwar Craton is classified into:

1) Ancient supracrustal, 2) Older and younger Gneissic complex, 3) Auriferous schist

belt, 4) Larger schist belt 5) Younger Granites, 6) Granulites, 7) Younger intrusive-
Dyke Swaps, 8) Great Eparchaen Intervals, 9) Proterozoic Sedimentation, 10) Deccan
Traps, and 11) Laterites. Brief descriptions of the above groups are explained as
bellow:

2.3.1 Ancient Supracrustal (Sargur Type)

The oldest rock dated so far in Karnataka are a group of grey gneisses giving an age
ranging from 3000-3400 m.y. these are termed ancient supracrustal and includes the
Sargur, Holenarasipur, Kunigal, Ghattihosahalli, Gurgunta Schist belt, Aladahalli,
Kalyadi, Krishnarajapet and Nuggehalli Schist belts (Radhakrishna and
Vaidhyanathan, 1994). However, the term “schist belt” is more appropriate, as it
emphasizes the unique schistose character of the Archaean volcano-sedimentary
sequences (Radhakrishna and Naqui, 1986). The schist belts consisting of the Sargur
group of rocks, being studied in the transition zone between northern lower-grade and
southern higher-grade terrain, have also been subjected to upper amphibolites to
granulites grade metamorphism 2.5 Ga. ago (Srikantappa et al., 1985).

The Sargur group of rocks occur as independent enclaves, thin silvers and tectonic
slices within the Peninsular gneisses confined mainly to the southern fringes of the
lower-grade terrain of the Dharwar Craton and occur within the transition zone
between the northern lower-and southern higher- grade terrain. The basement for
those rocks are not identified anywhere but sialic basement has been inferred, based
on detrital zircon grains present in the quartzite of the Sargur group (Chadwick et al.,
1986 and Nutman et al.,1992).

Important lithotectonic linear belts of Sargur group is characterized by a lack of basal

unconformity with the associated of diversified igneous and sedimentary rocks. They
include ultramafic-mafic volcanic rocks, pellites, quartzite, impure carbonates, iron
formation and ultramafic-mafic intrusive bodies (Swaminath and Ramakrishan, 1981).

41
Volcanic rocks of the Sargur group are composed of komatiite-tholeiites suite, in
which the komatiite predominates over the tholeiites. Drury (1983) suggested that the
parent melts for the ultramafic- mafic volcanic rocks were generated through melting
of mantle diaper at a depth of about 70 Km in a back –arc environment. However; the
study by Rajamani (1990) considered that the ultramafic-mafic volcanic rocks of the
Sargur group are not genetically related either to common parent magma or to a
common source. According to him, the komatiitic magma originated from deeper
mantle source at depths of about 100 Km and tholeiitic magma formed at a depth of
50 Km.

2.3.2 Older and Younger Gneisses Complex

The gneissis lying within the state is nucleus form, occupied about 35% of the area
and exhibited an extreme diversity of composition owing their origin to several
tectono- thermal events with a large influx of sialic material (B.P.Radhakrishna-
1994). Older and Younger Gneissic Complex was further divided into three groups
(Radhakrishna and Naqvi, 1986) which are as follow:
 A complex of banded gneisses showing multiple deformations.
 A suite of much less deformed, nearly massive gneisses of broadly similar
composition but are apparently developed subsequently to the deformation
that effected the earlier banded gneisses and
 Late tectonic potassium (k) rich granitic gneisses.

These extensive groups of gray gneisses are designated as the “Older Gneissic
Complex” acting as the basement for an extensive belt of schists. The Gneisses
records whole rock age ranging from 3400 m.y. to 3000 m.y. (Radhakrishna B. P. and
Naqui, 1986) A younger group of gneissic rocks are found in the eastern parts of the
state. The rocks belonging to this group are aged from 2500-2800 m.y. mostly of
granodioritic and granitic in composition.

2.3.3 Auriferous Schist Belts (Kolar Type)

“Auriferous schist belt” are the belts, which are largely volcanic and gold bearing.
They are mainly igneous in character with a subordinate sedimentary intercalation.
The most characteristic feature of these rocks is in their auriferous nature. They are
well developed in the eastern part of the Karnataka state.

42
2.3.4. Larger Schist Belts (Dharwar Type)

These are the prominent schistose rocks of Karnataka named “Dharwar schist belt”
which has been given a super group status. They are of late Archaean and belong to
the age group of 2900-2600 m.y. the two main divisions in this super group are
recognized. The older is mainly igneous in character and named as “Chitradurga
group”. Overlying this is a more extensive group of schistose, largely sedimentary in
nature, composed of conglomerates, quartzite, limestone, graywacke and associated
manganiferrous and ferruginous cherts. The “Rani Bennur group” is the youngest
series of sediments, mostly greywacke in composition and intercalated with cherty
iron formation.

2.3.5 Younger (Closepet) Granite

The liner belt of Closepet Granite is having a length of nearly 500 kms and an average
width of 20-25 Kms. They are the most prominent of the younger granite. The trend
of these Granites extends in a North-South direction and parallel to the structural
grains of the host rock. These granites being the youngest, in point of age in the
Arachaean complex of Karnataka is termed as ‘Youngest Granites’and is also termed
as ‘Closepet granite’, after the town of Closepet where the rock types were first
recognized (Radhakrishna B.P., 1986). The geocronological data suggest that the two
major events experienced in the emplacement of Closepet Granite at 2400-2600 m.y.
and 2000 m.y. (Karamuddin and Stueber, 1976 and Jayaram et al., 1983), Chitradurga
and Banawara groups belongs to the same age. The most characteristic rock type of
this class is coarse-grained porphyritic granite with large-sized pophyroblasts of pink
and grey potash feldspar.

2.3.6 Granulites

In the Southern part of the Dharwar Craton are granulites facies rocks represented
with extensive development of Charnokite and pyroxene granulite. A vast granulite-
migmatitic complex, known as the Coorg granulites complex (CGC), is exposed in the
western part of Mysore, which is mainly composed of Peninsular gneisses,
migmatites, basic and ultra basic intrusive, high grade schist and granulite-facies
rocks. Geochronological data indicates an age of 2500-2700 m.y. (Ramiengar et al.,
1978) these are alternation of the older gneisses.

43
2.3.7 Younger Intrusive-Dykes Swamps

Younger intrusive are the dyke-formation formed at the close of the Archaean era,
ranging from doleritic to alkaline composition with both NS and SW trending dykes
traversing rocks of earlier ages. These ultramafic of doleritic composition are found in
the Eastern parts of Karnataka (Bangalore and Mysore) which are younger and in all
probability unrelated to the dolerite dykes but may be connected with younger granitic
activity. The majority of the dykes are younger than 2400 m.y. the alkaline
composition consists of Epidiorite, Quartz dioritend olivine diorite with local
development of Pyroxene and Gabbro. The alkaline dykes are unrelated to dolerite
dykes and their age is around 800 m.y.

2.3.8 Great Eparchaean Intervals

A long period of stability of more than 1000 m.y. duration exceeds the Archaean,
during which the earlier rocks were exposed to the action of winds and water. This
period is called as Eparchaean unconformity.

2.3.9 Deccan Traps

The next major event is the burst of volcanic activity at the end of the cretaceous-
dawn of tertiary era. Deccan Trap rocks, especially basalts, cover a substantial part of
northern Karnataka particularly the districts of Belgaum, Bidar, Bijapur and Gulbarga.
This is represented by horizontal sheets of lava piling one upon the other over a
thickness of nearly 2 Km and extending over an area of 5,000,000 Km2. The burst of
volcanic activity was sudden and continues with hardly any interval between the
flows. The volcanic episode was short not exceeding more than a million years. The
fossils embedded in these suggest a tertiary age (Radhakrishna and Vaidyanatha,
1997). The western margin close to the coast was affected by large-scale dyke
intrusion. The dyke assigned an age around 65 m.y. connects them with Deccan
volcanic activity.

2.3.10 Laterite

Over the Deccan trap capping of laterite is found which probably started forming at
cessation of Deccan volcanic activity an early tertiary and are continuing to form even

44
today. The narrow coastal belt between the coast line and the precipitous edge of the
Western Ghats in a plain of marine denudation and is covered by the extensive
capping of detrital and residual laterite.

2.4 DHARWAR SUPRACRUSTAL ROCKS

Based on the supracrustal lithological relationship between the Peninsular gneiss and
the supracrustal rocks, Swami Nath and Ramakrishnan (1981) classified the
supracrustal rocks of Dharwar Craton into older Sargur Group and younger Dharwar
Supergroup. The Dharwar Supergroup was further divided into two Groups:
Bababudan Group and Chitradurga Group. Major schist (supracrustal) belts of the
Karnataka Craton are composed of lithologies belonging to Dharwar Supergroup. In
the Dharwar Supergroup, the supracrustal rocks in unconformably overlie the
basement Peninsular gneiss, but in Sargur group the Peninsular gneisses posses an
intrusive contact and hence, are older than the gneisses. The status of Sargur as a
separate group of older rocks has been accepted and adopted by many geologist
(Radhakrishna, 1976; Radhakrishna, 1983; Taylor et al., 1984; Mukhopadhyay, 1986;
Radhakrishna and Naqvi, 1986; Basker Rao, 1986; Radhakrishna and Ramakrishnan,
1988). Inspite of acceptance of the “Sargurs” as a distinct Group of rocks older than
Dharwars, a number of uncertaiities still prevail as far as geochronological, structural,
staratigraphic and tectanometrorphic relations are concerned.

2.4.1 Sargur Group

The Sargur has Swami defined as high grade supracrustal rocks underlying the basal
unconformity of the Dharwar Craton (Nath and Ramakrishnan, 1981). The
unconformities are marked by a thin persistent oligomict quartz pebble conglomerate
horizon, well exposed in Bababudan, Chitradurga, Western Ghats and Shigegudde
schist belts (Figure- 2.4). The Sargur Supracrustal complex has been disrupted by
broadly syn-tectonic emplacement of tonalitic and allied suites of Peninsular gneiss
(Chadwick et al., 1989). The Sargur Group of rocks is metamorphosed ranging from
middle amphibolites facies in central Karnataka to upper amphibolites and granulie
facies in Southern Karnataka (Chadwick et al., 1989). Age of Sargur is tentatively
considered to be 3.4-3.0 b.y. (Nath and Ramakrishnan, 1981; Radhakrishna, 1983;
Taylor et al., 1984; Radhakrishna and Ramakrishnan, 1988).

45
Sargur Group found as belts enclaves, bands and stringers, are traced near Sargur,
Amble, Alathur, Nanjangud, Talkad, Gundlupet, Aladahalli, Kalyadi, Sakalespur,
Madikeri, Naggihalli, Krishnarajapet, Kunigal and other areas. According to Swami
Nath and Ramakrishnan (1981), Sargur group lithologies include quartzite, quartz-
fuchsite-muscovite schists, bedded barites sillimanite-garnet-staurolite-kyanite-
graphite-corundum-quartz-biotite schists, crystalline limestones, dolomites, calc-
silicate rocks, amphibolites (metabasaite), iron stones (oxide and silicate facies BIF)
meta ultramafic and anorthosites. Structural features of Sargur group rocks are
complex. The Sargur enclaves represent elongated and locally faulted synformal keels
and antiformal hinges. The enclaves and belts have concordant contacts with the
surrounding gneisses and migmatites, implying their involvement in ductile
deformation along with the gneisses (Swami Nath and Ramakrishnan, 1981).

2.4.2 Dharwar Supergroup

The Dharwar supercrustal is deposited unconformably over a sialic basement of

tonalitic and granitic “Peninsular Gneiss” (Chadwick et al., 1981). The supracrustal
rocks of Dharwar Supercrustal are exposed as number of schist belts; prominent
among then are: Bababudan, Western Ghat, Chitradurga, Shigegudda, Shimoga-North
Kanara-Goa, Sandur, Kolar&Hutti schist belts. Total thickness of these Dharwar
schist belts is estimated to be 6 to 7 km (Radhakrishna and Ramakrishnan, 1988). Age
of the Dharwar Supergroup rocks is tentatively fixed in the range of 3.0-2.6 b.y.a.
(Radhakrishna, 1983; Taylor et al., 1984; Radhakrishna and Ramakrishnan, 1988).

The volcanic and sedimentary rocks in the Dharwar schist belts display highly
variable compositions; lithofacies and stratigraphic thickness.They were probably
deposited in variably subsiding and progressively evolving basins in an intracratonic
or continental margin setting (Bhaskar Rao, 1986). The volcanic rocks of the Dharwar
Supergroup evolved from predominantly tholeiitic in the lower units to calcalkaline
affinities in the upper units (Bhaskar Rao and Drury, 1982). The study by Naqvi
(1985) has determined the sedimentary rocks of Dharwar Supergroup are represented
by (1) Chemogenic BIF (volcanogenic-volcanoclastic-exhalative sedimentary suite),
(2) dettrial mature quartzite-conglomerate-metaarkose-carbonaceous shale suite and
(3) graywack-phyllite –carbonate-BIF suite. The chemognic sediments include
fuchsite quartzite, oxide-carbonates and manganese formations which are spread in all

46
groups but with differing relative abundance. Volcanoclastic sediments include truff,
volcanobreccia and probably ash beds. Detrital mature conglomerate and quartzite are
found in Bababudan Group. Graywackes and graywacke conglomerate are widespread
in the Chitradurga Group. More than 70% of the belt is made up of graywackes and
greywacke conglomerate (Naqvi, 1985).

2.4.2.1 Bababudan Group

Bababudan Group of rocks are exposed mainly in Bababudan, Westearn Ghats,

Shigegudda, northern Holenarasipur and Yadiyur-Karighatta arm of Chitradurga
schist belt. Bababudan Group represents a typical mafic platformal association ending
up in prominent iron ore (BIF) cycle. Manganiferous sediments and carbonate rocks
are conspicuous by their absence.the basal quartz-pebble conglomerate is known to be
pyritiferous and uraniferous. The Bababudan sediments and Volcanics suggest
nearshore to shallow marine and subaerial to shallow marine environment
respectively (Chadwick et al., 1985). The rocks of Bababudan Group are
metamorphosed upto lower amphibolites facies (garnet isograd) at the borders and
greenscist facies at the core portions (Swami Nath and Ramakrishnan, 1981).

2.4.2.2 Chitradurga Group

Chtradurga Group of rocks, mainly exposed in Chitradurga, Sandur and Shimoga-

North Kanara-GOA shist belts, overly an oligomict or polymict granite clast
conglomerate, which are deposited on a basement of tonalitic-granitic gneisses
(Swami Nath and Ramakrishnan, 1981). The basal beds are overlain by basic meta-
lavas and amphibolites, interbedded with cross quartzites and siliceous phyllites and
further by polymict conglomerate (Taylor conglomerate), BIF, chert pebble
conglomerate and thick pile of greywackes (Chadwick et al., 1981). Naqvi et al
(1988) reported that the graywackes have been derived from both continental and
contemporary volcanic source .according to them, a mixied source consisting of
tonalitic, feldspathic and ferruginous quartzites (5-10%) can account for the observed
composition of the graywackes. sedimentation and volcanism is known to have
proceeded in deep marine environments (Bhaskar Rao, 1986). The rocks of
Chitradurga Group are metamorphosed to lower amphibolites facies in border zones
and greenschist facies in the central parts.

47
2.5 PENINSULAR GNEISS AND GRANITE

Peninsular Geisses are a collection of heterogeneous acidic rocks (migmatites,

gneisses and granitoids) that were evolved at different periods during a long span of
time ranging from 3.3 to 2.6 b.y.a. The compositions of these gneisses have
undergone a change from trondhjemitic-tonalitic to granodiorite-granite through
reactivation, melting and potash metasomatism (Naqvi and Rogres, 1983). The major
phase of the Peninsular gneiss exhibits intrusive relationship with the Sargur group of
rocks, Sargurs show concordant contacts with the associated gneisses. It is also
characterized by zircons of igneous morphology and low potassic content
(Mukhopadyay, 1986).three major phases of emplacement of Peninsular Gneisses
were recognized so far.

Chadwick et al (1981) demonstrated that, deformation of the Dharwar Supracrustal

mainly resulted due to variable displacement and uplift of the basement gneisses.
Vishwanatha and Ramakrishnan (1976) visualized two blocks within the Arachaean
compomenmt of the Karnataka Craton. According to them, the dividing line between
these two blocks viz., Weastern and Eastern and is a N-S trending fault zone , now
occupied by a linear batholiths of porphyritic granite (Closepet granite).

In the western block of the Dharwar Craton, the basement-cover relationship between
the Peninsular Gneiss and rocks of the Dharwar supracrustals is more or less clear.
Schist belts of the Eastern block, however, show ambiguous and controversial
relationship with the basement gneisses (Sandur, Kolar and Hutti schist belts). A
number of granite bodies belonging to the third phase of evolution of Peninsular
Gneiss complex form topographical landmarks in the Craton. Closepet granite is a
prominent meridional batholith extending in a north southerly direction for about 500
km in the eastern part of the Karnataka Craton. It is essentially porphyritic granite
with gray and pink varieties.A major fault zone has been recognized along the eastern
margin of the Closepet granite belt (Kaila et al., 1979) the granitic area dividing the
craton into Western and Eastern blocks, is considered to be a low pressure zone
(Vishwanatha and Ramakrishnan, 1976).

48
Radhakrishna (1956) proposed that these granites have been formed by granitisation
of the Peninsular Gneiss by alkali solutions. Divakara Rao et al. (1972) envisaged
palingenesis of Peninsular Gneiss followed by alkali metasomatism.

2.6 STRUCTURES

The supracrustal rocks of the Dharwar supergroup have been affected by their phase
of deformation (to Srinvasan and Naha, 1990). The earliest deformation give rise to
isoclinals folds with well developed axial plane schistosity .During the second phase
of folding, the earlier axial planes were involved in co-axial folding leading to hook-
shaped interference patterns. The investigation by Rama Rao (1936, 1962) showed
that the Dharwar schist belts as ramnants of a huge synclinorium plunging south.
Pichamuthu (1951, 1953) has interpreted it to be anticlinorium plunging NNW.
Radhakrishna (1984) summarized that the various schist belts of the Dharwar
supergroup are individual entities and not eroded remnants of once continuous
regional mega structure.

Drury and Holt (1980) proposed a number of shear belts representing, “zones of high
strain” in the Karnataka Craton. They suggested that the NNW trend of the
supracrustal belts reflect the trend of steep ductile shear belts, mostly having sinstral
sense of movement. Within these belts, the axial traces of the preexisting folds were
drawn into parallelism with the folds of the schist belts. Drury (1983) suggested that
the shear strain in the linear belts become pronounced to the south with concomitant
widening of the shear belts.

According to Chadwick et al (1989) the structures of the Dharwar Super group are
dominated by a set of mainly open to tight upright synclines. Their trends are variable
and the plunge of their axes range from sub-horizontal to sub-vertical.

2.7 METAMORPHISM

The progressive change of regional metamorphism from north to south in the Dharwar
Craton has been recognized by Rama Rao (1936). Pichamuthu (1974) related this
increase in grade of metamorphism to increasing depth of burial.

49
The southerly increasing, progressive nature of regional metamorphism is also
corroborated by the regional study of mineral chemistry of potash feldspar, garnets
and amphiboles (Ananta Iyer 1973; Ananta Iyer and Kutty, 1974, 1976). The north-
south variation in metamorphism from core to margin in individual schist belts
(Swami Nath and Ramakrishnan, 1981; Radhakrishna, 1984). Vishwanatha and
Ramakrishnan (1976) reported two basic types of metamorphic facies. On the western
side of Closepet granite an intermediate pressure, and on the eastern side, low
pressure metamorphic assemblages were recognized.

50
 Table- 2.1: Stratigraphy of Western Dharwar Craton (after Swami Nath &
Ramakrishnan 1981).
Chitradurga Ramebenur Graywacks with BIF,polymict conglomerate ,mafic-felsic volcanic
Group subgroup
Manganese and iron formation ,
mafic –felsic
stromatolitic carbonates ,biogenic
Vanivilas
volcanic with
Subgroup
chert ,pelites quartzite and
Dharwar BIF,phyllites
Supergro ,polymict conglomerates
up ( basi centre)
(2600- (basin margin)
2800Ma) Talya/Kaldurga conglomerate =metabasalts and siliceous phyllites
Mukaingiri
of Jagar valley
Bababudan formation
Disconformity
Group

BIF with phyllites and rare ultramafic –mafic sills

Santaveri
fornation

Metabasalt,felsic volcanic(Galipuje felsic )ultramafic

Allampura
schists,layered basic complexes ,siliceous phyllite,cross-bedded
Formation
quartzite (Kaimara ,tanigebail)

Kalasapura
Formation
Metabasalt ,gabbros,ultramafic schists,local BIF,phyllites,cross-
bedded quartzite (Lakya)

Sargur Group Metabasalt ,gabbros,ultramafic schists,phyllites

(3100-3300Ma ,quartzites,basalquartz pebble conglomerate (Kartikere
conglomerate)
Deformed angular unconformity
Peninsular gneiss with trondjhemite –granodiorite
plutons(>3000Ma)
Intrusive /Tectonic Contants
Ultramafic-mafic layered complexes ,tholeiitic
amphibolites,kamatiites,BIF
Quartzites,pelites,marbles,and calcsilicate rocks
Intrusive /Tectonic Contacts
Gorur Gneiss (3300-3400 Ma)

51
2.8 SOILS

Soils are the fundamental resource supporting agriculture and forestry, as well as
contributing to the aesthetics of a green planet. Soil is vital natural resource on whose
proper use depend the life supporting system of a country and the socio-economic
development of its people. However, the capacity of the soil to produce is limited and
limits to production are set by intrinsic characteristics, agro-ecological setting, use
and management. Different geological formations lead to the formation of different
types of soils.

2.8.1 Major Soil Types of India

Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has divided Indian soils into eight
major groups. Some dominant groups of Indian soil, classified according to soil
taxonomy and chemical property are mentioned below:

1) Red soil: Alfisol, Inceptisol and Ultisol

2) Lateritic soil: Alfisol, Ultisol and Oxisol

3) Black soil: Vertisol, Inceptisol and Entisol

4) Alluvial soil: Entesol, Inceptisol and Alfisol

5) Desert soil: Entisol and Aridisol

6) Forest and Hill soils: Alfisol

2.8.1.1 Red Soil

The red soils of India, including red loams and yellow earths, occupy about 3.5 lakh
sq km– 10.6% of the total land area of the country and extend over a large part of
Chhotanagpur plateau, Telangana, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
and periphery areas of Deccan Plateau. In the north and north-east these extend into
and include great part of the Santhal Parganas of Bihar; Birbhum, Bankura and
Midnapur districts of West Bengal; Khasi, Jaintia, Garo and Naga Hills areas of
Assam; Mirzapur, Jhansi, Banda and Hamirpur districts of Uttar Pradesh;
Baghelkhand division of Madhya Pradesh and Aravallis and the eastern half of
Rajasthan. The red colour is due to diffusion of iron in the profile. The main features
of these soils, besides their lighter texture and porous and friable nature, are:

52
 (a) The absence of lime (kankar) and free carbonates, and

(b) The usual presence of soluble salts in a small quantity, not exceeding
0.05 percent.

They are divided into two broad classes: (1) the red loams, characterized by a cloddy
structure and the presence of only a few concretionary materials; and (2) the red earth
with loose top-soil friable but rich secondary concretions of a sesquioxidic clayey
character. The soils have undergone excessive weathering and very low amount of
decomposable mineral hornblende.

They are mainly formed due to the decomposition of ancient crystalline rocks like
granites and gneisses and from rock types rich in minerals such as iron and
magnesium.

2.8.1.2 Lateritic Soil

They are composed of a mixture of hydrated oxides of aluminium and iron with small
amounts of manganese oxide. These soils occupy an area of about 2.4 lakh sq km in
India. The laterite is specially well-developed on the summits of the Deccan Hills,
Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and hilly regions of Assam, Rajmahal hills and
Chhotanagpur plateau, etc.

Laterite soil is formed by weathering of lateritic rocks, low temperature and heavy
rainfall with alternating dry and wet periods. The laterite and lateritic soils are
characterized by a compact to vesicular mass in the sub-soils horizons composed
essentially of mixture of the hydrated oxides of aluminium and iron. These soils are
deficient in potash, phosphoric acid and lime. On higher levels these soils are
exceedingly thin and gravelly, but on lower levels and in the valleys they range from
heavy loam to clays and produce good crops, particularly rice.

The laterite soils in Karnataka occur in the western parts of Shimoga, Hassan, Kadur
and Mysore districts.

2.8.1.3 Black Soil

They contain a high proportion of Calcium and Magnesium Carbonates and have a
high degree of fertility. Black soils spread over an area of 5.4 sq. km., i.e. 16.6 % of

53
the total land area of the country and are mainly found over the Deccan lava tract
(Deccan Trap) including Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.
These soils are found in the river valley of the Narmada, Tapi, Godavari and Krishna.
These soils have been formed due to the weathering of the lava rocks. This is also
known as the Regur soil and Cotton soil. These soils may be divided into three
groups: (1) deep and heavy; (2) medium and light; and (3) those in the valleys of
rivers flowing through Sargur area.

The main features of the black soils are: (1) depth- one to two or several feet deep; (2)
loamy to clayey in texture; (3) cracking heavily in summer, the cracks reaching up to
more than three or four feet in depth, especially in the case of heavy clays; and (4)
containing lime kankar and free carbonates (mostly CaCO3) mixed with the soil at
some depths. These soils are often rich in montmorillonitic and beidlite group of
minerals. In regions of fairly high and evenly distributed rainfall the zone of carbonate
accumulation is found deeper in the profile and sometimes incorporated with horizon
C.

2.8.1.4 Alluvial Soils

They are depositional soils, transported and deposited by rivers and streams. This is
the largest and agriculturally most important group of soils. Various types of alluvium
are classed as alluvial, e.g., calcareous soils, saline and alkali soils, and coastal soils.

The alluvial soils occur mainly in the southern, north-western and north-eastern parts
of India: the Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, parts of Assam, Orissa, and
coastal regions of southern India including the local deltaic alluvia. It covers about
22.16 per cent of land area of the country. They support a variety of crops, including
rice, wheat and sugarcane.

There is no marked differentiation into the various horizons, and the profile is often
characterized by the absence of stratification. The surface soil is generally grey,
varying from yellow to light brown, the intensity of colour increasing with the depth.
The immature soil near the rivers is calcareous and light brown in colour with salt
impregnation.

54
2.8.1.5 Desert Soils

They occur mostly in dry areas and its important content is quartz a large part of the
arid region in Rajasthan and part of Haryana, lying between the Indus and the
Aravallis and covering an area of about 1.4 lakh sq km, is affected by desert
conditions of recent geological origin. This part is covered under a mantle of blown
sand which inhibits the growth of soils. Low rainfall and high temperature are reasons
for the formation of this soil. Desert soil contains 90% of sand and 5% of clay. It
contains rich percentage of soluble salts, but lack in organic matter.

2.8.1.6 Forest and Hill Soils

They are high in organic matter (Nearly 22-23 per cent of the total area of India is
under forests). The formation of forest soils is mainly governed by the characteristic
deposition of organic matter derived from the forest growth. Broadly two types of
soil-formation may be recognized (1) soils formed under acid conditions with
presence of acid humus and low base status; and (2) soils formed under slightly acid
or neutral condition with high base status which is favourable for the formation of
brown earths.

The soils of the hilly districts of Assam are of fine texture and reveal high content of
organic matter and nitrogen, perhaps due to its virgin nature. Their chemical and
mechanical composition show great variations.

2.8.2 Soil Types of Karnataka

As per the latest updated soil survey data, the soils of Karnataka have been broadly
classified under nine groups. Based on taxonomic classification, the soils of
Karnataka are grouped into7 orders, 12 suborders, 27 great groups, 47 subgroups and
96 soil families. Of the total area of Karnataka, 27% is covered by Alfisols, 25% by
Inceptisols, 16% by Entisols, 15% by Vertisols, 8% by Ultisols, 5% by Aridisols and
1% by Mollisols. An area of about 4% is miscellaneous land type and that includes
rocky lands, water bodies and urban area (Figure- 2.7, 2.8). The characteristics and
distribution of these nine soil groups in different parts of Karnataka are as follows:

55
2.8.2.1 Shallow Black Soils

These soils are usually encountered on undulating ridges in the Deccan trap region
and to some extent on schist and lime stone upland region of Karnataka, occupying
areas in the north and north-west parts of the districts of Belgaum, Bijapur, Gulbarga
and Bidar.

These are shallow (less than 23 cm), dark grayish brown, and dark brown to dark
reddish brown, usually calcareous, with gravelly clay loam to clay in texture. They are
neutral to weakly alkaline and have moderate to high water holding capacity with
high cation exchange capacity (CEC).

The clay mineral is dominantly montmorillonitic. These soils are classified under the
orders Entisols and Inceptisols with sub-orders Orthents and Ochrepts.

2.8.2.2 Medium Black Soils

These soils usually occur in the Deccan trap, schist, lime stone and shale region of the
state, occupying areas in parts of Bidar, Gulbarga, Bijapur and Belgaum districts and
to some extent on Peninsular gneiss areas in Raichur, Chitradurga and Dharwad
districts.

These soils are moderately deep to very deep (23-90 cm), dark to very dark in grayish
brown, dark reddish brown or black in colour, usually calcareous, cracking, clayey
soils. These are highly moisture retentive, neutral to alkaline, and well supplied with
bases. They contain high percentage of clay dominated by montmorillonitic type of
mineral. These are moderately well drained with slow permeability. Heavy cracking
in dry periods, typical wedge shaped blocky structure and prominent slickensides in
the sub-surface horizons are quite common. The soils are classified under the orders
of Inceptisols and Vertisols with sub-orders Ochrepts and Usterts.

The soils are fertile and produce good yields when moisture is not limiting but
moderately susceptible to erosion.

56
2.8.2.3 Deep Black Soils

These soils occur in Deccan trap lime stone regions, in parts of Gulbarga, Bijapur and
Belgaum districts and considerable areas in parts of Raichur, Bellary, Dharwad,
Chitradurga, and Mysore districts. These are very deep (more than 90 cm), dark
brown, dark greyish brown to very dark grey or black in colour. The texture is usually
clayey throughout the profile. These are calcareous and are weak to strong alkaline,
highly cracking montmorillonitic clayey soils.

These are highly moisture retentive and moderately well drained to imperfectly drain
with low to very low permeability. A loose, crumb to granular surface mulch, gilgai
micro relief, prominent intersecting slickensides and typical sub-angular to angular
blocky structure are common in these soils. These soils are classified under the order
Vertisols with sub-order Usterts.

2.8.2.4 Red Sandy Soils

These soils occur on undulating landscape on acidic rock viz. Granites and granite
gneisses, occupying areas in parts of Dharwad, Bellary, Chitradurga, Shimoga,
Bangalore, Tumkur, Mandya and Mysore districts of the State.

The soils of this type can further be sub-divided into the following three groups
occupying on distinct topographic sites with varying physicochemical properties. a)
Upland, b) Midland and c) Low land soils.

The soils are shallow to moderately deep, reddish brown to dark reddish brown,
gravelly loamy sand to sandy loam on the surface with sandy loam to gravelly sand
clay in the sub-surface horizons. They are neutral to slightly acidic in reaction and
low in cation exchange capacity, base saturation and water holding capacity but well
drained with rapid permeability. These soils are classified under the orders Entisols,
Inceptisols and Alfisols with sub-orders, Orthents, Ochrepts and Ustalfs.

2.8.2.5 Mixed Red and Black Soils

These soils usually occur on gently undulating plain or complex geological material
comprising of gneisses. This type of soil occupies areas in parts of Bijapur, Dharwad,
Belgaum, Raichur, Bellary and Chitradurga districts.

57
Usually red soils resemble the red sandy soils of midland region in physic-chemical
properties and black soils resemble the medium and deep black soils in physic-
chemical characteristics. These soils are classified under the orders Alfisols, Vertisols
and Entisols with sub-orders Ustalfs, Usterts and Orthents.

2.8.2.6 Red Loamy Soils

These soils occur on hilly to undulating landscape on granites, granitic gneisses and
Dharwad schists, occupying areas as a long strip along the western ghats in the
transitional zone comprising western parts of Belgaum, Uttara Kannada, Shimoga,
Chitradurga, Udupi, Mangalore, Hassan and Kodagu districts and parts of
Chitradurga, Tumkur, Kolar and Bangalore districts.

The soils of this region can further be sub-divided into the following three groups
occurring on distinct physiographic position and have varying physico-chemical
properties; a) Upper slops, b) Undulating mid-slopes and c) Valley plain soils. These
soils are classified under the orders Alfisols and Entisols with sub-orders Ustalfs,
Udalfs and Fluvents.

2.8.2.7 Laterite Soils

These soils mainly occur on gently undulating, rolling, plain to hilly topography of
Peninsular gneiss and the Dharwad schist regions, occupying areas as a long strip,
along with the western coast in the coastal high rainfall and transitional region
comprising major parts of the districts of Uttara Kannada, Udupi, Mangalore, Kodagu
and Western parts of Hassan, Chikkamagalur, Shimoga, Dharwad and Belgaum
districts; also found in parts of Bangalore, Kolar, Bidar and Gulbarga districts.

These are deep to very deep, yellowish red to dark red, reddish brown to brown, clay
loam to gravelly sandy loam on the surface and clay loam to gravelly sandy clay or
clay in the sub-surface horizon. These are well drained to excessively drain with
moderate to moderately rapid permeability. These soils are classified under the orders
Entisols, Ultisols, Alfisols and Oxisols with sub-orders Orthents, Ustults, Udults,
Ustalfs, Udalfs and Ustox.

58
2.8.2.8 Laterite Gravelly Soils

These soils occur in patches especially on the convex upland region of the laterite i.e.,
in the southern parts of the districts of Udupi and Mangalore, northern parts of
Shimoga and north-eastern parts of Bangalore districts. Other characteristics are
similar to laterite soils described above. These soils are shallow to moderately deep
with abundant ferruginous gravels.

2.8.2.9 Coastal Alluvial Soils

These soils occur on gently sloping to nearly level plains as a narrow strip along the
western coast in the districts of Uttara Kannada, Udupi and Mangalore. They are
deposited soils consisting of washed down materials from the Western Ghats and by
the action of the Arabian Sea.

These are deep to very deep, light grey, pale yellow or brown, sand loamy sand to
sandy loam on the surface, with loamy sand, gravelly sandy loam to clay loam in the
sub-surface horizons. These are acidic in reaction, low in CEC base saturation and
water holding capacity and deficient in the major nutrients. The water table in the low
lying areas is usually within 1.0 to 1.5 metres for most parts of the year. These soils
are classified under order Entisols with suborders Aquents, Fluvents and Psamments.

59
Figure- 2.7: Major soil order of Karnataka.

60
Figure- 2.8: Different soil groups of Karnataka state (National Bureau of Soil Survey
(NBSS) and Land Use Planning (LUP), Nagpur).

61
 Table – 2.2: The soil type of Karnataka state.

Soil Description Physiography Districts Area

units (ha) -
%
Red Shallow well drained to Hills and ridges, Bangalore, Belgaum, 31599
soils excessive ly drained, reddish rolling and un- Chikma galur, Kolar, 4
Red brown to Yellowish brown, dulating lands of Mysore, Raichur and 1.66
gravelly gravely sandy loam to sandy plateau and Eastern Tumkur
loam clay loam, moderate to Ghats.
soils severely eroded.
Red shallow, excessively drained Ridges, rolling and Bangalore, Bellary, 19104
loam to well drained, reddish undulating lands of Belgaum, Bijapur, 1
Soils brown to yellowish red, plateau Dharwad, Mysore, 1.00
sandy clay loam to sandy Gulbarga and Raichur
loam soils, oderately to
severely eroded.
Red Deep to mod. deep and Hills and ridges, Bangalore, Bellary, 36109
gravely shallow, well drained to hillranges, rolling Belgaum, Bijapur, 76
clay excessively drained, gently and Chikmagalur, 18.95
soils yellowish brown dark red to ndulating lands, D.Kannada,
reddish brown, gravely inter-hill basins of U.Kannada, Mysore,
sandy loam to sandy clay plateau, western Kolar, Kodagu, Hassan
loam and loamy sand Ghats,Weastern and Mandya
surface soils and gravely Ghats
sandy clay to clay sub
surface soils, moderately
toSeverely eroded.
Red Deep to mod. deep and Hills and ridges, Bangalore, Bellary, 29903
clay hallow, well drained, brown high hill ranges, Belgaum, Chitradurga, 73
soils to yellowish red to reddish rolling, undulating D.Kannada, Dharwar, 15.69
brown, sandy loam and and gently sloping Gulbarga, Hassan,
sandy clay to clay lands of plateau Kodagu, Kolar,
subsurface soils, oderately to western and MandyaRaichur,
severely eroded. Wastern Ghats Shimoga Tumkur, and
U.Kannada
Laterite Deep, well drained to Mounds summits Bangalore, Belgaum, 51159
soils: excessively drained, and upper slopes of Bidar, .Kannada, 3
Laterite yellowish red to dark Plateau, sloping .Kannada, Gulbarga, 2.74
gravely reddish brown, gravely, Lands of malnad. Kodagu, Kolar,

62
soils sandy clay and clay surface Shimoga and Dharwar
soils moderately to everely
eroded with surface crusting.
Lateritic Deep, well drained to Gently sloping Bangalore, 65344
soils excessively drained, Plains, Summits of Chikmagalur, 0
yellowish red to reddish plateau, Steeply D.Kannada, Hassan, 3.42
brown, sandy loam to sandy sloping lands of Kodagu, Kolar,
clay and clay surface soils Western Ghats and Mysore, Shimoga and
and clay subsoils, moderate Malnad U. Kannada
ly to severely eroded with
Surface crusting
Black Deep, moderately well Gently sloping Bellary, Belgaum, 31087
soils: drained, Dark greyish brown Plains, plateau Bidar, Bijapur, 04
Deep to very dark greyish brown, summits, valleys Chitradurga, Dharwar, 16.32
black calcareous cracking clay to Gulbarga, Mysore and
soils silty clay soils moderately to Raichur
severely eroded
Medium Moderately deep, Gently sloping Bellary, Belgaum, 59837
deep moderately well drained, lands and plains, Bidar, Bijapur, 6
black dark brown to very dark summits of plateau, Chitradurga, Dharwar, 3.13
soil greyish brownmoderately to valleys Gulbarga, Hassan,
severely eroded Raichur, Shimoga,
Tumkur, Bidar,Bijapur
Shallow Shallow, well-drained grey Plateau summits Belgaum, Bidar 15860
black to dark grey and brown clay and table lands Gulbarga and Bijapur 70
soils loam to silty clay loam soils, 8.32
severely eroded.
Alluvio- Deep to shallow, oderately valleys, low lands Bangalore, Belgaum, 36147
colluvial well-drained to imperfectly of plateau and Bijapur, Chikmagalur, 1
soils: drained and poorly drained, Malnad Dharwar, Gulbarga, 1.90
Non- yellowish brown to strong Kodagu, Kolar and
saline and dark greyish brown non Shimoga
saline, clay loam to clay and
andy clay loam surface soils
and clay to clay loam and
sandy clay loam, subsurface
soils
Saline Deep, moderately well- Valleys, lowlands Bangalore, Bellary, 26362
and drained to perfectly drained, very gently sloping Bidar, Bijapur, 33
sodic in dark greyish brown and plains of command Chikmagalur, 13.64

63
 patches strong brown, clay to sandy areas of Plateau Chitradurga, Dharwar,
clay and clay loam surface Hassan, Kolar,
soils and clay to loam Mandya, Mysore,
subsurface soils with salinity Raichur, Shimoga and
and alkalinity in patches Tumkur
Forest Deep to mod. deep, well Hill ranges and Belgaum, 11473
soils drained to excessively steeply sloping Chikmagalur, 27
Brown rained, dark brown to dark lands of Western D.Kannada, Dharwar, 6.00
forestsoi yellowish brown and black Ghats Hassan, Kodagu,
l sandy clay to sandy clay Mysore, Shimoga and
loam, humus rich surface U. Kannada
soils and clay to sandy clay
subsurface soils, slightly
eroded.
Coastal Deep, well drained to coastal uplands, and D.Kannada, 56325
soils: excessively drained, dark hinter lands U.Kannada 4
Coastal brown to yellowish red and 2.96
laterite dark reddish brown sandy
soil clay loam to clay loam
surface soils and sandy clay
to clay subsurface soils,
moderately to severely
eroded with surface crusting.
Coastal Deep, well-drained and Bars, beaches, D.Kannada, 18026
alluvial poorly drained, pale brown beach ridges, U.Kannada 7
soils to dark yellowish brown, valleys 0.94
sand, sandy loam to loam
surface soils and sand to
loam subsurface soils.

2.8.3 Soil depth of Study Area

Depth of the soil determines the effective rooting depth for plants and in accordance
with texture, mineral and gravel content, the capacity of the soil column to hold water.

To classify the soil map units into depth classes, some generalisation in respect of
depth classes has been made as large numbers of combinations occur. Accordingly,
six depth classes have been made and the extent of area under each class has been
given below (Table- 2.3, Figure- 2.9).

64
 Table- 2.3: Soil depth classes of Karnataka state.

Class Depth Area

(cm) ‘000 ha. (%)

Extremely shallow 00 - 10 76.3 0.4

Very Shallow 10 - 25 2547.9 13.4

Shallow 25 - 50 497.8 2.6

Moderately shallow 50 -75 1706.4 9.0

Moderately deep 75 - 100 2717.1 14.3

Deep >100 10907.7 57.3

Figure- 2.9: Soil depth maps of study area (National Bureau of Soil Survey (NBSS)
and Land Use Planning (LUP), Nagpur)

65
2.8.4 Soil types of Study Area.

The soil type around Mysore is grouped broadly into three main types viz.,

1. Red sandy soils

2. Red loamy soils

3. Deep black soils

However, soil map prepared by geological survey of India gives a detailed

classification of different types of soils around Mysore (Figure- 2.10). Out of
different soil-types, for the present study the following 5 types of soils has
been selected:

9 =Very Deep, Gravely Clay Soil

11= Moderately Shallow, Gravely Clay Soil

53 =Very Deep, calcareous Clayey soil

58= Very deep, Gravely Loam soil

76 =Shallow Gravely Clay Soil with Rock Land

A comparison of five different types of soils with the geology around

Mysore in the Dharwar Craton , indicate that different types of soils present in
the Mysore region is controlled by different types of rocks. The general
elevation of the area ranges between 700 to 900 meters with an average rain
fall between 600 to 900 mm. Presence of different types of soils exposed
around Mysore , with similar topographic and rain fall conditions strongly
suggest the influence of rock types which control the soil formation.

66
Figure- 2.10: Soil types of study area along with sample locations (National Bureau of
Soil Survey (NBSS) and Land Use Planning (LUP), Nagpur).

67