United States Atomic Energy Commission

The United States Atomic Energy Commission, commonly known as the AEC,
United States Atomic
was an agency of the United States government established after World War II by
Energy Commission
U.S. Congress to foster and control the peacetime development of atomic science
and technology.[4]:91–102 President Harry S. Truman signed the McMahon/Atomic
Energy Act on August 1, 1946, transferring the control of atomic energy from
military to civilian hands, effective on January 1, 1947.[5] This shift gave the
members of the AEC complete control of the plants, laboratories, equipment, and
[6]
personnel assembled during the war to produce the atomic bomb.

During its initial establishment and subsequent operationalization, the AEC played a
key role in the institutional development of Ecosystem ecology. Specifically, it
provided crucial financial resources, allowing for ecological research to take
Seal of the AEC
place.[7] Perhaps even more importantly, it enabled ecologists with a wide range of
groundbreaking techniques for the completion of their research. In the late 1950s and
Independent agency overview
early 1960s, the AEC also approved funding for numerous bioenvironmental Formed 1946
projects in the arctic and subarctic regions. These projects were designed to examine Dissolved 1975
the effects of nuclear energy upon the environment and were a part of the AEC's
Superseding Energy Research
gy.[8]:22–25
attempt at creating peaceful applications of atomic ener
agency and Development
An increasing number of critics during the 1960s charged that the AEC's regulations Administration
were insufficiently rigorous in several important areas, including radiation protection (ERDA)
standards, nuclear reactor safety, plant siting, and environmental protection. By Nuclear
1974, the AEC's regulatory programs had come under such strong attack that the Regulatory
U.S. Congress decided to abolish the AEC. The AEC was abolished by the Energy Commission
Reorganization Act of 1974, which assigned its functions to two new agencies: the (NRC)
Energy Research and Development Administration and the Nuclear Regulatory Headquarters Washington, D.C.
Commission.[9] On August 4, 1977, President Jimmy Carter signed into law The (1947–1957)
Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977, which created the Department Germantown,
of Energy. The new agency assumed the responsibilities of the Federal Energy Maryland (1958–
Administration (FEA), the Energy Research and Development Administration 1975)[1]
(ERDA), the Federal Power Commission(FPC), and various other Federal agencies.

Contents
History
Regulations and experiments
Public opinion and abolishment of the AEC
AEC Chair
Relationship with science
Ecology President Harry S. Truman signs the
Atomic Energy Act of 1946
Arctic ecology
Reports
See also
References
 Further reading
External links

History
In creating the AEC, Congress declared that atomic energy should be employed not
only in the form of nuclear weapons for the nation's defense, but also to promote
world peace, improve the public welfare and strengthen free competition in private
enterprise.[10] At the same time, theMcMahon Act which created the AEC also gave
it unprecedented powers of regulation over the entire field of nuclear science and
technology. It furthermore explicitly prevented technology transfer between the
United States and other countries, and required FBI investigations for all scientists
or industrial contractors who wished to have access to any AEC controlled nuclear
information. The signing was the culmination of long months of intensive debate David E. Lilienthal, who chaired the
among politicians, military planners and atomic scientists over the fate of this new AEC from its creation until 1950
energy source and the means by which it would be regulated. President Truman
appointed David Lilienthal as the first Chairman of the AEC.[4] : 91–92 Congress
gave the new civilian AEC extraordinary power and considerable independence to
carry out its mission. To provide the AEC exceptional freedom in hiring its scientists
and engineers, AEC employees were exempt from the civil service system. Because
of the need for great security, all production facilities and nuclear reactors would be
government-owned, while all technical information and research results would be
under AEC control. The National Laboratory system was established from the
facilities created under the Manhattan Project. Argonne National Laboratory was
one of the first laboratories authorized under this legislation as a contractor-operated
facility dedicated to fulfilling the new AEC's missions. The AEC's first order of
business was to inspect the scattered empire of atomic plants and laboratories to be
inherited from the U.S. Army.[6]
Gordon Dean, who chaired the AEC
The AEC was furthermore in charge of developing the U.S. nuclear arsenal, taking from 1950 to 1953

over these responsibilities from the wartime Manhattan Project. Over the course of
its first decade, the AEC oversaw the operation of Los Alamos Scientific
Laboratory, devoted primarily to weapons development, and in 1952, the creation of new second weapons laboratory in California,
the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. The AEC also carried out the "crash program" to develop the hydrogen bomb (H-
bomb), and the AEC played a key role in the prosecution of theRosenbergs for espionage.

The AEC also began a program of regular nuclear weapons testing, both in the faraway Pacific Proving Grounds and at the Nevada
Test Site in the western United States. While the AEC also supported much basic research, the vast majority of its early budget was
devoted to nuclear weapons development and production.

Within the AEC, high-level scientific and technical advice was provided by the General Advisory Committee, originally headed by J.
Robert Oppenheimer. In its early years, the General Advisory Committee (GAC) made a number of controversial decisions, notably
its decision against building the hydrogen bomb (H-bomb), announced in 1949. As a result, U.S. Senator Brien McMahon prompted
the decision not to reappoint J. Robert Oppenheimer to the GAC when his six-year statutory term expired in 1952. David Lilienthal,
the AEC chairman, agreed with Oppenheimer, and he also opposed "a crash program to build the hydrogen bomb ahead of any other
nation." Then President Truman asked Lilienthal to leave the AEC, and he did so on February 15, 1950. Lilienthal had been one of
the original members of the AEC who granted Dr
. Oppenheimer nuclearsecurity clearances in 1947.
With Oppenheimer and Lilienthal removed, President Truman announced his decision to
develop and produce the hydrogen bomb. The first test firing of an experimental H-bomb
("Ivy Mike") was carried out in the Central Pacific on November 1, 1952, under President
Truman. Furthermore, U.S. Navy Admiral Lewis. W. Strauss was appointed in 1953 by the
new President Eisenhower as the Chairman of the AEC, to carry out the military development
and production of the H-bomb.[11]

Lilienthal wanted to give high priority to peaceful uses, especially with nuclear power plants.
However, coal was still cheap, and the electric power industry was not interested. The first
experimental nuclear power plant was started in Pennsylvania under President Eisenhower in
1954.[12]

Dr. Joseph G. Hamilton was

Regulations and experiments the primary researcher for
the human plutonium
The AEC was connected with the U.S. Department of Defense by a "Military Liaison
experiments done at U.C.
Committee"'. The Joint Committee on Atomic Energy exercised congressional oversight over
San Francisco from 1944 to
.[13]
the AEC and had considerable power in influencing AEC decisions and policy 1947.[2] Hamilton wrote a
memo in 1950 discouraging
The AEC's far-reaching powers and control over a subject matter which had far-reaching
further human experiments
social, public health, and military implications made it an extremely controversial because the AEC would be
organization. One of the drafters of the McMahon Act, James R. Newman, famously left open "to considerable
concluded that the bill made "the field of atomic energy [an] island of socialism in the midst criticism," since the
of a free-enterprise economy".[14] experiments as proposed
had "a little of the
Before the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) was created, nuclear regulation was the Buchenwald touch."[3]
responsibility of the AEC, which Congress first established in theAtomic Energy Act of 1946.
Eight years later, Congress replaced that law with the Atomic Energy Act of 1954,
which for the first time made the development of commercial nuclear power
possible, and resolved a number of other outstanding problems in implementing the
first Atomic Energy Act. The act assigned the AEC the functions of both
encouraging the use of nuclear power and regulating its safety. The AEC's
regulatory programs sought to ensure public health and safety from the hazards of
nuclear power without imposing excessive requirements that would inhibit the
growth of the industry. This was a difficult goal to achieve, especially in a new
industry, and within a short time the AEC's programs stirred considerable
controversy. Stephanie Cooke has written that: President Dwight D. Eisenhower with
AEC chair Lewis Strauss in 1954
the AEC had become an oligarchy controlling all facets of the
military and civilian sides of nuclear energy, promoting them and at
the same time attempting to regulate them, and it had fallen down on
the regulatory side ... a growing legion of critics saw too many
inbuilt conflicts of interest.[15]:252

The AEC had a history of involvement in experiments involving radioactive iodine. In a 1949 operation called the "Green Run," the
AEC released iodine-131 and xenon-133 to the atmosphere which contaminated a 500,000-acre (2,000 km2) area containing three
small towns near the Hanford site in Washington.[16](pp130–131 ) In 1953, the AEC ran several studies on the health effects of
radioactive iodine in newborns and pregnant women at the University of Iowa. Also in 1953, the AEC sponsored a study to discover
if radioactive iodine affected premature babies differently from full-term babies. In the experiment, researchers from Harper Hospital
in Detroit orally administered iodine-131 to 65 premature and full-term infants who weighed from 2.1 to 5.5 pounds (0.95 to

[16]:132–134
2.49 kg).[16]:132–134 In another AEC study, researchers at the University of
Nebraska College of Medicinefed iodine-131 to 28 healthy infants through a gastric
[16]:132–134
tube to test the concentration of iodine in the infants' thyroid glands.

Public opinion and abolishment of the AEC

During the 1960s and early 1970s, the Atomic Energy Commission came under fire
from opposition concerned with more fundamental ecological problems such as the
pollution of air and water.[17]:113 Under the Nixon Administration, environmental
consciousness grew exponentially and the first Earth Day was held on April 22,
1970.[17]:113 Along with rising environmental awareness came a growing suspicion
of the AEC and public hostility for their projects increased. In the public eye, there
was a strong association between nuclear power and nuclear weapons, and even
though the AEC had made a push in the late 1960s, to portray their efforts as being
geared toward peaceful uses of atomic energy, criticism of the agency grew. The AEC chair John A. McCone presents
AEC was chiefly held responsible for the health problems of people living near the Enrico Fermi Award to Glenn T.
Seaborg in 1959. Seaborg
atmospheric test sites from the early 1960s, and there was a strong association of
succeeded McCone as AEC chair in
nuclear energy with the radioactive fallout from these tests.[17]:115 Around the same 1961.
time, the AEC was also struggling with opposition to nuclear power plant siting as
well as nuclear testing and experimentation. An organized push was finally made to
curb the power held by the AEC, and in 1970 the AEC was forced to prepare an
Environmental impact statement(EIS) for a nuclear test in northwestern Colorado as
part of the initial preparation forProject Rio Blanco.[18]: 244

Lasting through the mid-1970s, the AEC and the Manhattan Project carried out
human radiation experiments. Nuclear radiation was known to be dangerous and
deadly (from the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945), and the
experiments were designed to ascertain the detailed effect of radiation on human
health.[19] In Nashville, pregnant women were given radioactive mixtures. In
Cincinnati, some 200 patients were irradiated over a period of 15 years. In Chicago, AEC chair Glenn T. Seaborg with
President John F. Kennedy in 1961
102 people received injections of strontium and cesium solutions. In Massachusetts,
74 schoolboys were fed oatmeal that contained radioactive substances. In all these
cases, the subjects did not know what was going on and did not give informed consent.

The government covered up most of these radiation mishaps until 1993, when President Bill Clinton ordered a change of policy. The
resulting investigation was undertaken by the Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, and it uncovered much of the
material included in The Plutonium Files.[19]

In 1973, the AEC predicted that, by the turn of the century, one thousand reactors would be producing electricity for homes and
businesses across the United States. However, after 1973, orders for nuclear reactors declined sharply as electricity demand fell and
construction costs rose. Some partially-completed nuclear power plants in the U.S. were stricken, and many planned nuclear plants
were canceled.[15]:283

By 1974, the AEC's regulatory programs had come under such strong attack that Congress decided to abolish the agency. Supporters
and critics of nuclear power agreed that the promotional and regulatory duties of the AEC should be assigned to different agencies.
The Energy Reorganization Act of 1974 transferred the regulatory functions of the AEC to the new NRC, which began operations on
January 19, 1975 and placed the promotional functions within the Energy Research and Development Administration. The latter was
gy.[20]
later incorporated into the United States Department of Ener

AEC Chair
 Term Name President(s) served
1946– David E.
Harry S. Truman
1950 Lilienthal
1950–
Gordon Dean Harry S. Truman
1953
1953–
Lewis Strauss Dwight D. Eisenhower
1958
1958–
John A. McCone Dwight D. Eisenhower
1960
1961– John F. Kennedy, Lyndon Johnson,
Glenn T. Seaborg
1971 Richard Nixon
1971– James R.
Richard Nixon
1973 Schlesinger
1973–
Dixy Lee Ray Richard Nixon AEC chair James R. Schlesinger with
1975
President Richard M. Nixon and First
Atomic Energy Commission Commissioners[10] Lady Pat Nixon at the AEC's Hanford
Site in 1971
Sumner T. Pike : October 31, 1946 – December 15,
1951
David E. Lilienthal, Chairman : November 1, 1946 –
February 15, 1950
Robert F. Bacher : November 1, 1946 – May 10, 1949
William W. Waymack : November 5, 1946 – December
21, 1948
Lewis L. Strauss : November 12, 1946 – April 15, 1950 ;
Chairman : July 2, 1953 – June 30, 1958
Gordon Dean : May 24, 1949 – June 30, 1953 ;
Chairman : July 11, 1950 – June 30, 1953
Dixy Lee Ray, last person to chair
Henry DeWolf Smyth : May 30, 1949 – September 30,
the AEC, with Robert G. Sachs,
1954
director of the Argonne National
Thomas E. Murray : May 9, 1950 – June 30, 1957
Laboratory
Thomas Keith Glennan : October 2, 1950 – November 1,
1952
Eugene M. Zuckert : February 25, 1952 – June 30, 1954
Joseph Campbell : July 27, 1953 – November 30, 1954
Willard F. Libby : October 5, 1954 – June 30, 1959
John von Neumann : March 15, 1955 – February 8, 1957
Harold S. Vance : October 31, 1955 – August 31, 1959
John Stephens Graham : September 12, 1957 – June 30, 1962
John Forrest Floberg : October 1, 1957 – June 23, 1960
John A. McCone, Chairman : July 14, 1958 – January 20, 1961
John H. Williams : August 13, 1959 – June 30, 1960
Robert E. Wilson : March 22, 1960 – January 31, 1964
Loren K. Olson : June 23, 1960 – June 30, 1962
Glenn T. Seaborg, Chairman : March 1, 1961 – August 16, 1971
Leland J. Haworth : April 17, 1961 – June 30, 1963
John G. Palfrey : August 31, 1962 – June 30, 1966
James T. Ramey : August 31, 1962 – June 30, 1973
Gerald F. Tape : July 15, 1963 – April 30, 1969
Mary I. Bunting : June 29, 1964 – June 30, 1965
Wilfrid E. Johnson : August 1, 1966 – June 30, 1972
Samuel M. Nabrit : August 1, 1966 – August 1, 1967
Francesco Costagliola : October 1, 1968 – June 30, 1969
Theos J. Thompson : June 12, 1969 – November 25, 1970
 Clarence E. Larson : September 2, 1969 – June 30, 1974
James R. Schlesinger, Chairman : August 17, 1971 – January 26, 1973
William O. Doub : August 17, 1971 – August 17, 1974
Dixy Lee Ray : August 8, 1972 ; Chairman : February 6, 1973 – January 18, 1975
William E. Kriegsman : June 12, 1973 – January 18, 1975
William A. Anders : August 6, 1973 – January 18, 1975

Relationship with science

Ecology
For many years, the AEC provided the most conspicuous example of the benefit of atomic age technologies to biology and
medicine.[21]:649–684 Shortly after the Atomic Energy Commission was established, its Division of Biology and Medicine began
supporting diverse programs of research in the life sciences, mainly the fields of genetics, physiology, and ecology.[7] Specifically
concerning the AEC's relationship with the field of ecology, one of the first approved funding grants went to Eugene Odum in
1951.[7] This grant sought to observe and document the effects of radiation emission on the environment from a recently built nuclear
facility on the Savannah River in South Carolina. Odum, a professor at the University of Georgia, initially submitted a proposal
requesting annual funding of $267,000, but the AEC rejected the proposal and instead offered to fund a $10,000 project to observe
[7]
local animal populations and the effects of secondary succession on abandoned farmland around the nuclear plant.

In 1961, AEC chairman Glenn T. Seaborg established the Technical Analysis Branch (to be directed by Hal Hollister) to study the
long-term biological and ecological effects of nuclear war.[22] Throughout the early 1960s, this group of scientists conducted several
studies to determine nuclear weapons' ecological consequences and their implications for human life. As a result, during the 1950s
and 1960s, the U.S. government placed emphasis on the development and potential use of "clean" nuclear weapons to mitigate these
effects.[23]

In later years, the AEC began providing increased research opportunities to scientists by approving funding for ecological studies at
various nuclear testing sites, most notably at Eniwetok, which was part of the Marshall Islands. Through their support of nuclear
testing, the AEC gave ecologists a unique opportunity to study the effects of radiation on whole populations and entire ecological
systems in the field.[7] Prior to 1954, no one had investigated a complete ecosystem with the intent to measure its overall metabolism,
but the AEC provided the means as well as the funding to do so. Ecological development was further spurred by environmental
concerns about radioactive waste from nuclear energy and postwar atomic weapons production. In the 1950s, such concerns led the
AEC to build a large ecology research group at their Oak Ridge National Laboratory, which was instrumental in the development of
radioecology. A wide variety of research efforts in biology and medicine took place under the umbrella of the AEC at national
[21]:649–684 As a result of increased funding as well as the
laboratories and at some universities with agency sponsorship and funding.
increased opportunities given to scientists and the field of ecology in general, a plethora of new techniques were developed which led
to rapid growth and expansion of the field as a whole. One of these techniques afforded to ecologists involved the use of radiation,
namely in ecological dating and to study the effects of stresses on the environment.[7]

In 1969, the AEC's relationship with science and the environment was brought to the forefront of a growing public controversy that
had been building since 1965. In search for an ideal location for a large-yield nuclear test, the AEC settled upon the island of
Amchitka, part of the Aleutian Islands National Wildlife Refuge in Alaska.[18]:246 The main public concern was about their location
choice, as there was a large colony of endangered sea otters in close proximity. To help diffuse the issue, the AEC sought a formal
agreement with the Department of the Interior and the U.S. state of Alaska to help transplant the colony of sea otters to other former
habitats along the West Coast.[18]:247

Arctic ecology
The AEC played a role in expanding the field ofarctic ecology. From 1959 to 1962, the Commission's interest in this type of research
peaked. For the first time, extensive effort was placed by a national agency on funding bio-environmental research in the Arctic.
Research took place at Cape Thompson on the northwest coast of Alaska, and was tied to an excavation proposal named Project
Chariot.[8]:22 The excavation project was to involve a series of under
ground nuclear detonations that would create an artificial harbor
,
consisting of a channel and circular terminal basin, which would fill with water. This would have allowed for enhanced ecological
research of the area in conjunction with any nuclear testing that might occur, as it essentially would have created a controlled
environment where levels and patterns of radioactive fallout resulting from weapons testing could be measured.[8]:23 The proposal
never went through, but it evidenced the AEC's interest in Arctic research and development.

The simplicity of biotic compositions and ecological processes in the arctic regions of the globe made ideal locations in which to
pursue ecological research, especially since at the time there was minimal human modification of the landscape.[8]:25 All
investigations conducted by the AEC produced new data from the Arctic, but few or none of them were supported solely on that
basis.[8]:25 While the development of ecology and other sciences was not always the primary objective of the AEC, support was often
given to research in these fields indirectly as an extension of their ef
forts for peaceful applications of nuclear energy.

Reports
The AEC issued a large number of technical reports through their technical information service and other channels. These had many
numbering schemes, often associated with the lab from which the report was issued. AEC report numbers included AEC-AECU
(unclassified), AEC-AECD (declassified), AEC-BNL (Brookhaven National Lab), AEC-HASL (Health and Safety Laboratory),
AEC-HW (Hanford Works), AEC-IDO (Idaho Operations Office), AEC-LA (Los Alamos), AEC-MDCC (Manhattan District), AEC-
TID, and others. Today, these reports can be found in library collections that received government documents, through the National
Technical Information Service(NTIS), and through public domain digitization projects such asHathiTrust.[24]

See also
Anti-nuclear movement in the United States
Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Harold Hodge, administrator and researcher for theManhattan Project
List of anti-nuclear groups in the United States
Manhattan Project
Kenneth Nichols (first general manager of AEC)
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Nuclear waste
Operation Plowshare
Oppenheimer security hearing
Price-Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act
Alvin Radkowsky (Chief Scientist, Office of Naval Reactors from 1950 to 1972)
The Cult of the Atom: The Secret Papers of the Atomic Energy Commission
Unethical human experimentation in the United States
United States Department of Energy
We Almost Lost Detroit

References
1. "U.S. Department of Energy: Germantown Site History"(http://science.energy.gov/bes/about/bes-organizational-histo
ry/germantown-natural-history/germantown-site-history/)
. United States Department of Energy. Retrieved March 13,
2012.
2. Moss, William; Eckhardt, Roger (1995)."The Human Plutonium Injection Experiments"(https://fas.org/sgp/othergov/
doe/lanl/pubs/00326640.pdf)(PDF). Los Alamos Science. Radiation Protection and the Human Radiation
Experiments (23): 177–223. Retrieved November 13, 2012.
3. "The Media & Me: [The Radiation Story No One Would T
ouch]", Geoffrey Sea, Columbia Journalism Review,
March/April 1994.
4. Niehoff, Richard (1948). "Organization and Administration of the United States Atomic Energy Commission".Public
Administration Review. 8 (2).
 5. Atomic Energy Act of 1946(Pub.L. 79–585 (http://legislink.org/us/pl-79-585), 60 Stat. 755 (http://legislink.org/us/stat-
60-755), enacted August 1, 1946)
6. Hewlett, Richard G. & Oscar E. Anderson (1962).A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission
.
University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.
7. Hagen, Joel Bartholemew (1992).An Entangled Bank: The Origins of Ecosystem Ecology
. New Brunswick, N.J.:
Rutgers University Press.
8. Wolfe, John N (1964). "National Agency Programs and Support of Arctic Biology in the United States: Atomic Energy
Commission" (http://www.fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/lib-www/la-pubs/00390244.pdf)(PDF). BioScience. 14 (5):
22–25. doi:10.2307/1293192 (https://doi.org/10.2307/1293192).
9. "Atomic Energy Commission"(https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/glossary/atomic-energy-commission.html).
Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Retrieved 2009-11-16.
10. Buck, Alice L. (July 1983).A History of the Atomic Energy Commission(http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/AEC%20Hi
story.pdf) (PDF). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy.
11. FBI memo, Mr. Tolson to L.B. Nichols, "Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer, 8 Jun. 1954, FBI FOIA (http://vault.fbi.gov/rosenb
erg-case/robert-j.-oppenheimer/robert-j-oppenheimer-part-03-of)
12. Rebecca S. Lowen, "Entering the Atomic Power Race: Science, Industry , and Government." Political Science
Quarterly 102.3 (1987): 459–479.in JSTOR (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2151403)
13. "Guide to House Records: Chapter 23 Atomic Energy"(https://www.archives.gov/legislative/guide/house/chapter-23-j
oint-atomic-energy.html). August 15, 2016.
14. Newman, James R. and Miller, Byron S. (1948). The Control of Atomic Energy. p. 4.
15. Stephanie Cooke (2009). In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age
. Black Inc.
16. Goliszek, Andrew (2003).In The Name of Science. New York: St. Martin's Press.ISBN 978-0-312-30356-3.
17. Seaborg, Glenn Theodore & Benjamin S. Loeb (1993).The Atomic Energy Commission under Nixon: adjusting to
troubled times. New York: St. Martin's Press.
18. Hacker, Barton C (1994). Elements of Controversy: The Atomic Energy Commission and Radiation Safety in Nuclear
Weapons Testing, 1947–1974. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
19. R.C. Longworth. Injected! Book review:The Plutonium Files: America's Secret Medical Experiments in the Cold ar W
(http://intl-bos.sagepub.com/content/55/6/58.full.pdf+html)
, The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Nov/Dec 1999,
55(6): 58–61.
20. "Farewell ERDA, Hello Energy Department"(http://energy.gov/articles/farewell-erda-hello-energy-department).
Energy.gov.
21. Creager, Angela N.H. (2006). "Nuclear Energy in the Service of Biomedicine: The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission's
Radioisotope Program, 1946–1950.".Journal of the History of Biology. 39: 649–684. doi:10.1007/s10739-006-9108-
2 (https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-006-9108-2).
22. " "Atomic Energy Commission, Studies of Biological Consequences of Nuclear W
ar" 13 December 1961"(http://nsar
chive2.gwu.edu//dc.html?doc=3983216-Document-02-Atomic-Energy-Commission-Studies-of) . National Security
Archive. August 30, 2017.
23. " "Atomic Energy Commission, Studies of Biological Consequences of Nuclear W
ar" 13 December 1961"(http://nsar
chive2.gwu.edu//dc.html?doc=3983216-Document-02-Atomic-Energy-Commission-Studies-of) . National Security
Archive. August 30, 2017.
24. Hathitrust search for "Atomic Energy Commission"(http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/ls?field1=ocr;q1=AEC;a=srchls;lmt
=ft&facet=authorStr:%22U.S.%20Atomic%20Energy%20Commission.%22) . Accessed May 23, 2013.

Further reading
Clarfield, Gerard H., and William M. Wiecek.Nuclear America: military and civilian nuclear power in the United
States, 1940–1980 (Harpercollins, 1984).
Richard G. Hewlett; Oscar E. Anderson. The New World, 1939–1946.University Park: Pennsylvania State University
Press, 1962.
Richard G. Hewlett; Francis Duncan.Atomic Shield, 1947–1952.University Park: Pennsylvania State University
Press, 1969.
Richard G. Hewlett; Jack M. Holl.Atoms for Peace and War, 1953–1961: Eisenhower and the Atomic Energy
Commission. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.
 Rebecca S. Lowen. "Entering the Atomic Power Race: Science, Industry , and Government," Political Science
Quarterly 102#3 (1987), pp. 459–479in JSTOR
Mazuzan, George T., and J. Samuel Walker. Controlling the atom: The beginnings of nuclear regulation, 1946–1962
(Univ of California Press, 1985)online.

External links
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Glossary: "Atomic Energy Commission"
Diary of T. Keith Glennan, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
Papers of John A. McCone, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
Technicalreports.org: TRAIL—Technical Report Archive and Image Library– historic technical reports from the
Atomic Energy Commission (& other Federal agencies) are available here .
Briefing Book: "Clean" Nukes and the Ecology of Nuclear W ar, published by the National Security Archive

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