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Number
Chapter 1
COMPLEX NUMBERS
Im A complex number can be represented by an expression of the form a bi, where a and
2+3i b are real numbers and i is a symbol with the property that i 2 1. The complex num-
_4+2i ber a bi can also be represented by the ordered pair a, b and plotted as a point in a
i plane (called the Argand plane) as in Figure 1. Thus, the complex number i 0 1 i is
identified with the point 0, 1.
0 1 Re
_i The real part of the complex number a bi is the real number a and the imaginary
_2-2i 3-2i part is the real number b. Thus, the real part of 4 3i is 4 and the imaginary part is 3.
Two complex numbers a bi and c di are equal if a c and b d, that is, their real
parts are equal and their imaginary parts are equal. In the Argand plane the horizontal axis
FIGURE 1 is called the real axis and the vertical axis is called the imaginary axis.
Complex numbers as points in The sum and difference of two complex numbers are defined by adding or subtracting
the Argand plane their real parts and their imaginary parts:
The product of complex numbers is defined so that the usual commutative and distributive
laws hold:
a bic di ac di bic di
ac adi bci bdi 2
Since i 2 1, this becomes
EXAMPLE 1
1 3i2 5i 12 5i 3i2 5i
2 5i 6i 151 13 11i
1 3i
EXAMPLE 2 Express the number in the form a bi.
2 5i
SOLUTION We multiply numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of 2 5i,
namely 2 5i, and we take advantage of the result of Example 1:
1 3i 1 3i 2 5i 13 11i 13 11
2 2 i
2 5i 2 5i 2 5i 2 5 29 29
Im
z=a+bi
The geometric interpretation of the complex conjugate is shown in Figure 2: z is the
i
reflection of z in the real axis. We list some of the properties of the complex conjugate in
the following box. The proofs follow from the definition and are requested in Exercise 18.
0 Re
_i
Properties of Conjugates
Thomson Brooks-Cole copyright 2007
–
z=a-bi
zwzw zw z w zn zn
FIGURE 2
1
2 ■ COMPLEX NUMBERS
Im
The modulus, or absolute value, z of a complex number z a bi is its distance
from the origin. From Figure 3 we see that if z a bi, then
@ z=a+bi
bi
+„ „b„
„@
œ „a
|z|
= b z sa 2 b2
0 a Re
Notice that
FIGURE 3 zz a bia bi a 2 abi abi b 2i 2 a 2 b 2
and so zz z 2
z zw zw
w ww w 2
Since i 2 1, we can think of i as a square root of 1. But notice that we also have
i2 i 2 1 and so i is also a square root of 1. We say that i is the principal
square root of 1 and write s1 i. In general, if c is any positive number, we write
sc sc i
With this convention, the usual derivation and formula for the roots of the quadratic equa-
tion ax 2 bx c 0 are valid even when b 2 4ac 0:
b sb 2 4ac
x
2a
1 s1 2 4 1 1 s3 1 s3 i
x
2 2 2
We observe that the solutions of the equation in Example 3 are complex conjugates of
each other. In general, the solutions of any quadratic equation ax 2 bx c 0 with real
coefficients a, b, and c are always complex conjugates. (If z is real, z z, so z is its own
conjugate.)
We have seen that if we allow complex numbers as solutions, then every quadratic equa-
tion has a solution. More generally, it is true that every polynomial equation
a n x n a n1 x n1 a 1 x a 0 0
of degree at least one has a solution among the complex numbers. This fact is known as
the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra and was proved by Gauss.
POLAR FORM
Im We know that any complex number z a bi can be considered as a point a, b and that
a+bi
any such point can be represented by polar coordinates r, with r 0. In fact,
r
b a r cos b r sin
¨
Thomson Brooks-Cole copyright 2007
z rcos i sin
b
where
r z sa 2 b 2 and tan
a
The angle is called the argument of z and we write argz. Note that argz is not
unique; any two arguments of z differ by an integer multiple of 2.
Im
1+i
œ„
2
z s2 cos i sin
4 4
π
0
4
π
(b) Here we have r w s3 1 2 and tan 1
s3 . Since w lies in the
_
6
Re fourth quadrant, we take
6 and
2
œ„
3-i w 2 cos i sin
6 6
The polar form of complex numbers gives insight into multiplication and division. Let
¨¡ Therefore, using the addition formulas for cosine and sine, we have
Re
¨¡+¨™
1 z1z2 r1r2 cos1 2 i sin1 2
z¡z™
This formula says that to multiply two complex numbers we multiply the moduli and add
FIGURE 6 the arguments. (See Figure 6.)
A similar argument using the subtraction formulas for sine and cosine shows that to
divide two complex numbers we divide the moduli and subtract the arguments.
Im
z z1 r1
cos1 2 i sin1 2 z2 0
r z2 r2
1 1
r z 1 1
If z rcos i sin , then cos i sin .
z r
FIGURE 7
4 ■ COMPLEX NUMBERS
EXAMPLE 5 Find the product of the complex numbers 1 i and s3 i in polar form.
1 i s2 cos
4
i sin
4
Im
z=1+i
and s3 i 2 cos
6
i sin
6
zw
So, by Equation 1,
œ„
2
2œ„2
π
12 1 i(s3 i) 2s2 cos i sin
0 Re 4 6 4 6
2
w=œ„
3-i
2s2 cos
12
i sin
12
FIGURE 8 This is illustrated in Figure 8.
z r cos i sin
In general, we obtain the following result, which is named after the French mathematician
Abraham De Moivre (1667–1754).
This says that to take the nth power of a complex number we take the nth power of the
modulus and multiply the argument by n.
1
2
1
i
2
s2
2
cos
4
i sin
4
So by De Moivre’s Theorem,
1
2
1
i
2
10
s2
2
10
cos
10
4
i sin
10
4
25
2 10
cos
5
2
i sin
5
2
1
32
i
De Moivre’s Theorem can also be used to find the n th roots of complex numbers. An n
Thomson Brooks-Cole copyright 2007
wn z
COMPLEX NUMBERS ■ 5
sn r or s r 1
n
From the fact that sine and cosine have period 2 it follows that
2k
n 2k or
n
Thus
w r 1
n cos
2k
n
i sin
2k
n
Since this expression gives a different value of w for k 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1, we have the
following.
3 Roots of a Complex Number Let z r cos i sin and let n be a positive inte-
ger. Then z has the n distinct n th roots
wk r 1
n cos
2k
n
i sin
2k
n
where k 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1.
Notice that each of the nth roots of z has modulus wk r 1
n. Thus, all the nth roots
of z lie on the circle of radius r 1
n in the complex plane. Also, since the argument of each
successive nth root exceeds the argument of the previous root by 2
n , we see that the n
th roots of z are equally spaced on this circle.
EXAMPLE 7 Find the six sixth roots of z 8 and graph these roots in the complex
plane.
SOLUTION In trigonometric form, z 8cos i sin . Applying Equation 3 with n 6,
we get
wk 8 1
6 cos
2k
6
i sin
2k
6
We get the six sixth roots of 8 by taking k 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in this formula:
w0 8 1
6 cos
6
i sin
6
s2
s3
2
1
i
2
w1 8 1
6 cos
2
i sin
2
s2 i
Thomson Brooks-Cole copyright 2007
w2 8 1
6 cos
5
6
i sin
5
6
s2
s3
2
1
i
2
6 ■ COMPLEX NUMBERS
Im
œ„2 i w¡
w3 8 1
6 cos
7
6
i sin
7
6
s2
s3
2
1
i
2
w™ w¸
w4 8 1
6 cos
3
2
i sin
3
2
s2 i
2
_œ„ 0 2 Re
œ„
11 11 s3 1
w£ w∞ w5 8 1
6 cos i sin s2 i
6 6 2 2
w¢
_œ„2 i All these points lie on the circle of radius s2 as shown in Figure 9.
FIGURE 9
The six sixth roots of z=_8
EXERCISES
1–14 Evaluate the expression and write your answer in the 25. 3 3i 26. 1 s3 i
form a bi. 27. 3 4i 28. 8i
1. 5 6i 3 2i 2. (4 i) (9 i)
1 5 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
2 2
29–32 Find polar forms for z w, z
w, and 1
z by first putting z
3. 2 5i 4 i 4. 1 2i 8 3i
and w into polar form.
5. 12 7i 6. 2i ( 12 i )
29. z s3 i, w 1 s3 i
1 4i 3 2i
7. 8. 30. z 4 s3 4i, w 8i
3 2i 1 4i
31. z 2 s3 2i, w 1 i
1 3
9. 10. 32. z 4(s3 i ), w 3 3i
1i 4 3i
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
35. (2 s3 2i ) 36. 1 i 8
5
number.
37–40 Find the indicated roots. Sketch the roots in the complex
15. 12 5i 16. 1 2 s2 i plane.
17. 4i 37. The eighth roots of 1 38. The fifth roots of 32
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
(c) z n z n, where n is a positive integer 41–46 Write the number in the form a bi.
[Hint: Write z a bi, w c di.] 41. e i
2
42. e 2 i
19–24 Find all solutions of the equation. 43. e i
3 44. e i
19. 4x 2 9 0 20. x 4 1 45. e 2i 46. e i
21. x 2 2x 5 0 22. 2x 2 2x 1 0 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
23. z 2 z 2 0 24. z 2 z 0 47. Use De Moivre’s Theorem with n 3 to express cos 3 and
1 1
2 4
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ sin 3 in terms of cos and sin .