IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO.
3, JULY 2007
Virtual Instrument for Lightning Impulse Tests
A. Palani and V. Jayashankar, Member, IEEE
Abstract—We propose an objective formulation of the impulse
analysis problem from a signal analysis viewpoint. The winding
response is quintessentially that of a deterministic network to a
finite energy signal, with breakdown and partial discharge being
inherently nonlinear events. A significant improvement to the ac-
quisition of waveforms is demonstrated by a virtual instrument ap-
proach. It retains the advantages of the time- and frequency-do-
main methods. The drawbacks of the transfer function method are
highlighted and a new piecewise linear approach is proposed for
analysis. Experiments on a discrete lumped parameter model of
the winding are used to validate the PXI based instrument.
Index Terms—Breakdown, extrapolation, impulse test, partial
discharge, virtual instrument.
I. INTRODUCTION
T HE impulse test on a transformer is a routine test for trans-
formers of 132 kV and above. The test procedure has a
fairly long history and involves the application of a sequence
of voltages from a Marx generator. The procedure is covered
in standards such as IEC 60076—pt.IV [1]. As a winding is a
complex structure from a dielectric viewpoint, failure detection
during the test is fairly involved. This can be gauged from the
fact that both IEC and ANSI have separate guidelines for failure
identification. The earliest approach involved the visual compar-
ison of current and voltage records obtained on impulse oscil-
loscopes. The drawbacks with this approach were the need to
have identical wave shapes at reduced and full voltage, and the
subjective nature of comparison. Digital techniques [2], [3] have
been increasingly used for recording waveforms during impulse
testing. In principle, subjective evaluations could be avoided
with such records. However, it is observed that the responses of
the winding to varying wave shapes such as the standard light-
ning impulse (LI) and chopped impulse (CLI) cannot be com-
pared with time domain records alone. The transfer function
approach [4] was proposed to overcome these drawbacks. The
method is not yet mandatory as per standards and some prob-
lems do exist with the method.
Irrespective of the methods of acquisition, limitations exist in
the failure identification techniques. They are:
• lack of an objective criterion for distinguishing PD from
breakdown;
• lack of objective identification criteria for breakdown with
LI and CLI waveforms.
In this work, we proceed from first principles and propose an
approach based on signal analysis.
Manuscript received June 29, 2006. This work was supported by the MHRD,
India. Paper no. TPWRD-00361-2006.
The authors are with the Department of Electrical Engineering, IIT Madras,
Chennai, India (e-mail: tamilpalani@iitm.ac.in; jshankar@ee.iitm.ac.in).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2007.900089
0885-8977/$25.00 © 2007 IEEE
1309
II. REQUIREMENTS OF AN ANALYSIS SYSTEM
In proposing any new method for analysis, the following con-
ditions need be met. It must:
• be capable of addressing different waveforms at reduced
and full voltage;
• objectively distinguish partial discharge from failure;
• reproduce existing results in a comparable or better
manner;
• be consistent implying that results are valid for simple
breakdown events.
III. SIGNAL ANALYSIS PRELIMINARIES
The standard 1.2/50 lightning impulse (LI) excitation,
which is usually produced from a Marx generator can be written
in the form
(1)
where “a” and “b” are adjusted to produce a 1.2/50 wave-
form. Similarly, the wave shape chopped on the tail (CLI) can
be written in the form
(2)
Both the signals are finite energy deterministic signals with
(3)
For such signal, a Fourier transform exists and one can compute
the frequency domain equivalent as
(4)
By Parseval’s relation, it is also known that
(5)
Tolerances exist on the front and tail of the LI and the time
to chop of the CLI. Fig. 1(a) shows the typical LI with a peak
value of 1 V and Fig. 1(b) shows its normalized frequency do-
main equivalent. Fig. 2(a) and (b) shows corresponding wave-
forms for the CLI. The excitation in the frequency domain as
shown in Figs. 1(b) and 2(b) gives an indication of the absolute
frequencies involved. The frequency domain records have been
normalized such that the maximum value of each waveform oc-
curs at 0 dB.
The device under test is a transformer winding and for the
frequencies of interest can be considered as a lumped param-
eter model of the form of Fig. 3 [5], [6]. IEC-60076 treats the
device as a single-input single-output (SISO) system with the
1310
Fig. 1. LI excitation in time and frequency domain.
Fig. 2. CLI excitation in time and frequency domain.
Fig. 3. Lumped parameter model of a winding.
Fig. 4. Schematic representation of faults.
stimulus as v(t) and the response is i(t). In order to study anal-
ysis methods, faults are placed across any two nodes or a node to
ground. The types of faults are shown in Fig. 4. In brief, break-
down is simulated by a switch, which closes at “ ” and stays
“ON” for the duration of the response.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO. 3, JULY 2007
Fig. 5. Modal equivalent circuit of 400-kV transformer [Glaninger’86].
To simulate PD the classical “ ” model is used with the
time of discharge “ ” being of the order of tens of ns to 5 [7].
A nonlinear element is required to simulate arresters. Which are
sometimes placed across sections of the winding. The values of
Ls, Rs, Cs, and Cg are derived from the geometry of the winding.
IV. FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM
Although a number of papers have appeared in the recent
times on impulse testing, the drawback with several of them is an
inconsistent formulation. For example, several do not consider
all classes of faults, or involve hypothetical fault models with no
experimental results or do not state the resolution of the method.
Recently a comprehensive fault model [8] was proposed to cater
to all faults that can occur during imputes tests. Experimental
results to corroborate the model were demonstrated in [9]. It
is well known that a lumped parameter model can be used to
characterize the high frequency behavior of a winding [10]. We
hence formulate the impulse analysis problem in the following
manner. “Given a lumped parameter model of a winding, sub-
ject to a class of inputs, and a set of fault models, the objective
of analysis is to identify if the device withstood the test, break-
down occurs or discharge occurs or a nonlinear element exists
within”, measuring system for LI.
V. MEASURING SYSTEM FOR LI TESTS
The current standard for the LI test treats the winding as an
SISO system. Here, the applied voltage is the excitation and the
winding current is the response. Since the input is a finite
energy signal across a deterministic model, the response is
also a finite energy signal. Its energy can be computed in time
and frequency domain.
Consider the modal equivalent of a 400-kV transformer re-
ported by Glaninger [11], as shown in Fig. 5. It is energized
with a pulse, 1.2/50 LI. The current response
is as shown in Fig. 6. The frequency domain equivalent of the
current is shown in Fig. 7. The resonance and anti-resonance
frequencies of the winding marked as and
respectively. The distribution of energy
until (9 kHz) is 94.808%, from to (between
10 to 80 kHz) is 5.094% and after is 0.098%.
The main aim of impulse test analysis is to identify break-
down events and hence it would be appropriate to acquire sig-
nals associated with breakdown as accurately as possible. With
present digitizers, it is feasible to sample low frequency signal
PALANI AND JAYASHANKAR: VIRTUAL INSTRUMENT FOR LI TESTS
Fig. 6. A 400-kV transformer winding current for a 01000 kV LI.
Fig. 7. Normalized winding current of 400-kV transformer.
with good vertical resolution. It would thus be appropriate to
acquire the low frequency response with a separate digitizer. In
order to decide on the cut off frequency, one can study the cur-
rent response in the frequency domain as seen in Fig. 7. The first
anti-resonant frequency forms a natural separation of low and
high frequency responses. Thus one could choose the cutoff of
this filter to be below . From an analysis of the PD events
in literature [12], [13] and [14] it is known that PD events can
occur from 1 ns to a few microseconds ( ). Hence it would be
appropriate to have one digitizer that can sample at the highest
frequencies. The choice is dictated by available hardware and
with existing technology 1 GSa/s at 8 bits seems feasible with
many oscilloscopes. A high-pass filter can be utilized so that
high temporal resolution is possible. It is known that the location
of the poles shift during breakdown events. Hence an interme-
diate band pass filter would complete the requirement. In effect
we are proposing a hardware acquisition with three analog fil-
ters in the front end. The schematic of the proposed instrument
is shown in Fig. 8. F1, F2, and F3 are three analog filters, of the
Bessel type. A1, A2 and A3 are analog gain stages. Three A/D
converters with different resolutions and sampling rates follows
the analog section. The improvement due to this scheme are de-
scribed in Appendix A.
Analysis involves time and frequency domain computation. It
would be convenient if the instrument incorporated with a bus
based architecture such as a PXI bus with software support. A
1311
Fig. 8. Block diagram of lightning impulse test measuring system (DUT: de-
vice under test).
Fig. 9. Ten section physical model of a winding with discrete elements.
LabVIEW environment provides such a facility. Thus our pro-
posal is to incorporate an analog front end with programmable
filters. This is followed by three A/D converters with different
resolutions. A further stage of digital filtering follows the A/D
converter helps to reduce noise level. This filter can now have a
much higher order approaching ideal brick wall.
VI. VALIDATION OF PROPOSED INSTRUMENT
In order to validate the proposed hardware, it is necessary
to perform controlled measurements. We hence construct a
physical model of a uniform layer winding. The validity of this
model has been proved by a number of investigators [15], [16].
This consists of discrete inductors, capacitances to ground and
capacitance across sections. The 10-node physical model is
shown in Fig. 9. Here, Rs (18 ) represents the resistance of
the winding, Ls (2.5 mH) its leakage inductance, Cs (150 pF)
capacitance across sections and Cg (850 pF) ground capaci-
tance, which would complete the equivalent circuit. The main
advantage of the discrete element model is that controlled
experiments involving breakdown and partial discharge are
possible. It is energized with an exponentially decaying voltage,
v(t) (with a peak value of 10V) similar to the standard 1.2/50
LI wave shape. The winding current (which is the response
of the system) is monitored in a current viewing resistor, Rm.
Figs. 10 and 11 show the time-domain and frequency-domain
responses of excitation and winding current.
The energy distribution of current in the physical model is
• (upto 20 kHz) ;
• to (20 to 114.5 kHz) ;
• Greater than (114 to 500 kHz) .
The low-frequency response provides a good indication of
breakdown as was shown in the earlier section. It is known that
the location of the fault can be estimated based on changes in
the resonant frequency [17]. Hence, band pass filter F2 provides
an indication of the location of the fault. Some events such as
partial discharge or minor structural deformations affect the cur-
rent signal at high frequency region. Hence, filter F3 is designed
to acquire such events.
1312
Fig. 10. Stimulus and winding current through 10-section discrete element
physical model.
Fig. 11. Normalized frequency domain equivalent of Fig. 10.
On the basis of Section V, the physical model under consider-
ation, F1 cutoff frequency is 3 kHz, F2 is a BPF with lower and
upper cutoffs of 10 kHz and 130 kHz, and F3 is a HPF with a
cutoff of 120 kHz. The resolutions of the three digitizers A/D1,
A/D2 and A/D3 that follow the front end analog filters are dif-
ferent and are chosen in accordance with optimal requirements.
The low frequency digitizer has a resolution of 24 bits with a
maximum sampling of 102 kSa/s. The second digitizer which
typically has a bandwidth of 500 kHz has a vertical accuracy of
12 bits with a sampling of 1.2 MSa/s. The third digitizer has a
bandwidth of 100 MHz and is sampled at 200 MSa/s.
VII. RECOGNITION BREAKDOWN AND PARTIAL DISCHARGE
The design as proposed in Fig. 8 was implemented on a PXI
system. Fig. 24 in Appendix B shows the front panel of the pro-
posed instrument. The three digital filters following analog fil-
ters are implemented in LabVIEW. The cutoff of the three filters
is adapted to the resonant behavior of the winding. Windows in
Fig. 24 are marked . Here, A shows the applied LI
input and B and C show the time and frequency domain views of
the winding current without filter as in the conventional method.
Windows D, E, and F show the responses across F1, F2, and F3.
The corresponding frequency domain views are in G, H, and I.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO. 3, JULY 2007
Fig. 12. Simulating breakdown across resistive elements.
In order to demonstrate the utility of the instrument, fault
studies are conducted. To simulate breakdown, a wire is placed
across the two nodes 4–5 of the model. The front panel of the
virtual instrument as in Fig. 24 shows the current in the model
with and without breakdown (BD), in window B. The response
across the LPF (F1) is shown in window D. The corresponding
frequency domain record is shown in window G. The response
of band pass filter with and without fault is shown in window E.
The shift of resonant frequencies is evident in window H.
In order to simulate PD, an arbitrary function generator con-
nected to an analog switch, which is placed across the capac-
itor “a” of the “abc” model of Fig. 4. Here, ` ' ,
` ' and ` ' . The time and frequency records
with and without partial discharge are shown in window F and
I. From I it is evident that the presence of PD changes the high
frequency response of the winding.
VIII. IMPROVEMENTS IN IMPULSE ANALYSIS
In the previous section, experimental investigations were
done by shorting a wire across nodes in order to simulate
breakdown. In practice breakdown occurs after a finite time
from the initiation of excitation. This was seen in the examples
shown in [10]. This has a very significant influence on the esti-
mation of parameters during the impulse test. For example, the
computation of the transfer function [2] implicitly assumes that
the device under test continues to be linear during breakdown.
We demonstrate the limitations of this approach in Section IX.
IX. LIMITATION OF THE TRANSFER FUNCTION METHOD
We show the limitations of the transfer function approach by
considering a simple resistive circuit with two elements. We ini-
tially consider a circuit with two resistors R1 and R2 each of
10 , as shown in Fig. 12. A LI voltage of 10 V is applied
across them and the current through them noted. The current
is shown in Fig. 13. Let be the current in the circuit when
energized by . The transfer function .
Let be the current with a break down at 5 . The break-
down is simulated with an analog switch that closes at 5 and
stays closed for the duration of the response. Similarly faults
are created at 20 , 30 etc. and these currents are shown
in Fig. 14. The normalized frequency domain representation of
currents with no fault, , and is
shown in Fig. 15.
The transfer functions computed with faulted waveform are
. From Fig. 16 we see that the transfer
function is modulated by the fault and the response is different
PALANI AND JAYASHANKAR: VIRTUAL INSTRUMENT FOR LI TESTS
Fig. 13. Unfaulted current, i(t), through the resistive network (excitation 10 V
LI).
Fig. 14. Current in the resistive network with fault at various time instants.
Fig. 15. Frequency-domain representation of Fig. 14.
from what is intuitively obvious for such a circuit. Although
one can identify a change in transfer function, the answer does
not permit further analysis. In order to retain the utility of the
transfer function, we proceed on the following lines.
We estimate a current from the value of after the
fault. In other words, we estimate a current that would flow
in the circuit if the fault occurred at . This is shown in
Fig. 17 as . The new transfer function is now computed as
1313
Fig. 16. Computed transfer functions from Figs. 14 and 15.
Fig. 17. PWL approach to extrapolate the 5 s faulted response.
Fig. 18. Transfer function with conventional and PWL approach (t = 5 s).
. As shown in Fig. 18, this transfer func-
tion matches what one would expect for the circuit.
X. GENERALIZATION OF THE PWL APPROACH
TO R-L CIRCUITS
We now extend the analysis to the case of R-L circuit. The
low frequency equivalent of the 10-section physical model is
shown in Fig. 19. Here we replace R1 and R2 of Fig. 12 with
R-L elements of value 0.1R and 0.1L and 0.9R and 0.9L with
R, L being 180 and 25 mH. In this case, a switch is placed
across the 0.1R, 0.1L combination. This R-L model is evident
1314 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO. 3, JULY 2007

Fig. 19. Low-frequency model of a winding.

Fig. 22. PWL approach for R-L networks.

Fig. 20. Time-domain response across filter F1 (DUT: 10-section physical

model).

Fig. 23. Transfer functions computed for Fig. 22.

The current with being the excitation and the

transfer function are computed in a similar manner. Fig. 22
shows the current for fault at 5 . The current is
then estimated from . The enlarged view of current before
and after the fault is also shown in same plot. The transfer
function, is then estimated and is shown in Fig. 23. It can
be appreciated that the estimation of is a simplified form
of a model reference approach. Here only the low frequency
parameters R, L are estimated. This is generally possible to a
high degree of accuracy. This eliminates the drawback of the
model reference approach which requires a model for the entire
Fig. 21. Transfer functions computed for Fig. 20. range of frequencies [8].

XI. IMPROVED VIRTUAL INSTRUMENT

because at low frequencies, Cs and Cg would have impedances, We have shown that the estimated transfer function forms
which are substantially larger than R, L. As far as identification a basis of identifying breakdown when initiation of faults oc-
of breakdown is concerned, the response across the first filter curs after a finite time. We define the following terms—reduced
F1 is significant [18]. We can prove that the response across transfer function (RTF) and full transfer function (FTF):
this filter does not change with the low frequency (R-L) equiv-
alent circuit as opposed to the complete (Rs-Ls-Cg-Cs) circuit. (6)
Fig. 20 shows the response across F1 for each of these circuits
for LI excitation.
where and are the current and voltage at the reduced
Fig. 20 shows that the response across F1 is exactly identical
level and
to that across the R-L elements alone. Fig. 21 shows the transfer
function computed for response across F1 with the R-L and RLC
(7)
circuits.
PALANI AND JAYASHANKAR: VIRTUAL INSTRUMENT FOR LI TESTS 1315

Fig. 24. Front panel of proposed instrument for LI tests (Legend, A: applied impulse. B: response with reduced and full level impulse. C: FFT of B. D: LPF
response of B. E: BPF response of B. E: HPF response of reduced level and PD invoked between two nodes. G: FFT of D. H: FFT of E. I: FFT of F. J: reduced
transfer function of LPF response. K: full level extrapolated transfer function of LPF response).

is the transfer function determined from the estimated values of
and . the analysis tool. The major analysis changes proposed by us
The virtual instrument is now modified to display estimated
transfer functions. The two new windows J and K are shown in
Fig. 24 in Appendix B. A further advantage of this method is
that the transfer functions computed at the output of filter F1
permit a comparison between the chopped and standard LI.
XII. DISCUSSION
The hardware and analysis tool developed here is a culmi-
nation of a series of intermediate steps and is to be viewed in
this context. Fault simulation studies [9], [10] form the basis of
which forms a far more comprehensive approach, as opposed to
the transfer function method of [2], [19] or the wavelet method
of [20], [21] can be summarized as follows:
• we compute , the frequency domain current;
• we evaluate the response across three band of filters F1, F2,
and F3;
• breakdown can be identified by the estimated transfer func-
tion, rather than current response alone;
• the location of breakdown can be estimated using the esti-
mated response across F2 [17].
1316
The location of partial discharge can be obtained from a cor-
relation based study of the response across F3 [22]. The com-
parison of chopped wave test with that of the LI was shown in
[23]. The recognition of these faults, including identification of
nonlinear elements within, can be automated based on the re-
sponses obtained in the virtual instrument [24]. As an additional
feature, the instrument can be adapted for recognizing winding
deformations during short-circuit tests [25].
XIII. CONCLUSION
A virtual instrument was developed for analysis of impulse
test records in transformers. The front-end hardware has three
analog filters that precede three digitisers with varying resolu-
tion. Breakdown and partial discharge events can be identified
clearly. A new piecewise linear approach is suggested for evalu-
ating the transfer function when breakdown occurs after a finite
time. The location of breakdown, as well as partial discharge,
can be identified based on further analysis of the records.
APPENDIX A
IMPROVEMENTS OF SNR OF MEASURMENT
In order to quantify the improvements with the proposed front
end (Fig. 9), we introduce the notion of signal to noise ratio
(SNR) of the measurement process. Any measured signal based
on sampling can be expressed of the form
(A.1)
where is the current in the absence of noise and is
a noise term. With a sampling-based system, will have a
contribution from quantization. Expression A.1 can be written
in the frequency domain as
(A.2)
One measure of the SNR of the process can be defined to be
(A.3)
This follows because is finite energy and is the vari-
ance of the noise. With the introduction of the three analog filters
in the front end, the SNR considerably improves. To prove this,
we need the notion of the noise equivalent bandwidth (NEB) of a
system. It can defined as area under the actual power gain curve
equals that of the theoretical rectangular power-gain curve with
width B and height of a convenient value [26].
NEB is mathematically represented as
(A.4)
where is the transfer function of the system and is the
gain. The transfer function of a second-order Bessel low-pass
filter is given as
(A.5)
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO. 3, JULY 2007
where is quality factor. The NEB for such a filter is
where is the cutoff of the filter. As the first stage filter is low
pass, it will have a lower NEB than a system with no filter. The
variance due to quantisation is given by [27]
(A.6)
where is the quantization step
(A.7)
where is the number of bits of ADC.
For the three ADC converters of 8, 16 and 24 bits
(A.8)
(A.9)
(A.10)
The variance of quantization noise which is the denominator
of (A.3) thus reduces considerably. This results in improved
SNR for the measurement.
APPENDIX B
Fig. 24 shows the proposed virtual instrument for LI tests.
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A. Palani received the B.E. degree in instrumentation and control engineering
from the University of Madras, Chennai, India, in 1999 and the M.E. degree
in mechatronics engineering from Anna University, Chennai, in 2002. He is
currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree in the Department of Electrical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, Chennai.
V. Jayashankar (M’06) received the B.Tech., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees in 1982,
1991, and 1995, respectively.
From 1994 to 2000, he was with the National Institute of Ocean Technology,
Chennai, India. Currently, he is an Associate Professor in the Department of
Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, Chennai.