Chapter I

Chemical Bonding

Q. Define Atom. Name the subatomic particles.

Ans: Atom is the smallest particle of an element which cannot be further sub
divided and which takes part in all chemical changes.
Proton, electron and neutron are the fundamental (subatomic) particles
of an atom

Q. Define Atomic number & Atomic mass number

Ans: Atomic number (Z): The number of protons present in one atom of
element is called as atomic number. It is denoted by the symbol “Z”.
Z=p=e
The atomic number of Na is 11 & Carbon is 6

Atomic mass number (A): Atomic mass number is the sum of number of
protons & neutrons present in the nucleus of atom of an element OR The
total number of protons and neutrons present in one atom of an element
is called as atomic mass number. It is denoted by the symbol “A”
A=p+n
The atomic mass number of Na is 23 & Carbon is 12

Q. Define Isotopes & Isobars with examples

Ans: Isotopes: The different atoms of same element having the same atomic
number but different atomic mass number are called as isotopes
Ex:1H1 , 1H2, 1H3. 8O16 ,8O17 ,8O18

1
 Isobars: The different atoms of different elements having same atomic
mass number but different atomic numbers are called as isobars.
Ex: 18Ar40,19K40, 20Ca40. 28Ni
64
,30Zn64.

Q. Write isotopes of carbon. Give applications of carbon isotopes.

Ans: The isotopes of carbon are 6C12, 6C13, 6C14

1. C12_ It is used in all metabolic processes such as respiration and

photosynthesis.
2. C12_ It is used for the fossil fuels are created from dead carbon based
organic matter.
3. C13_ It is widely used in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) which is
helpful to determine the protein structure.
4. C14_ It is used to determine identity of water sources
5. C14_ It is used in radioactive carbon dating technique which is helpful
to determine the age of carbon containing material.

Q. Write application of cobalt isotope.

Ans: The uses of cobalt 60 isotopes are as follows:

1. It is used in radiotherapy i.e. in a treatment of cancer

2. It is useful as a “gamma” ray source
3. It is also useful for sterilization of medical appliances and food.
4. In concrete density measurement
5. Used to detect flaws in metal

The uses of cobalt 57 are as follows:

1) It is radioactive metal used in medical tests
2) It is used as radiolabelling for vitamin B12uptake
3) Useful for schilling test

2
Q. State the properties of isotopes.
Ans: 1) They have same atomic number
2) They occupy same place in periodic table.
3) They have identical electronic configuration
4) They have identical chemical properties
Ex: 1H1,1H2,1H3. 17Cl
35
,17Cl37,

Q. State the properties of isobars

Ans: 1) They have same atomic mass numbers
2) They occupy different place in periodic table
3) They have different electronic configuration
4) They have different chemical properties
Ex: 92U235, 93Np235,94 Pu235. 64 64
28Ni ,30 Zn .

Q. Why is an atom is electrically neutral?

Ans: Atom consists of equal number of positively charged protons in the
nucleus which is exactly balanced by negatively charged electrons
present in extra nuclear part. Therefore atom is electrically neutral.

Q. Why nucleus of an atom is always positively charged?

Ans: Atom consists of nuclear part (Nucleus) & extra nuclear part. Nucleus
consists of positively charged protons & charge less neutrons. Therefore
nucleus of an atom is always positively charged.

Q. Why electron do not fall into the nucleus?

Ans: The electrostatic force of attraction between electron & nucleus is exactly
balanced by the centrifugal force so that electron do not fall into the
nucleus.

3
Q. Why sodium is electropositive? Explain with electronic configuration.
Ans: Electronic configuration of sodium
Na (11) – (2,8,1) - 1s2,2s2, 2p6,3s1
Sodium consists of one valence electron in its last shell so it loses the
valence electron to complete its octet & aquires unit positive charge &
becomes electropositive.
Na → Na++ e-
(2,8,1) (2,8)

Q. Why chlorine is electronegative? Which type of valency it will show

with hydrogen.
Ans: Chlorine consists of seven valence electrons in its last shell so it take one
valence electron to complete its octet & aquires unit negative charge &
becomes electronegative
Cl + e- → Cl-
(2, 8, 7) (2, 8, 8)

Chlorine shows covalency with hydrogen

Q. State Octet rule with example.

Ans. Statement: The tendency of an atom to have eight electrons in outermost
shell is known as the octet rule.
Ex: Argon [ 18] - (2,8,8)

Q. State Duplet rule.

Ans: Statement: The tendency of an atom with only one orbit to have two
electrons (duplet) in the outermost orbit (shell) is known as duplet rule.
Ex: Helium consist of two electrons (duplet) in outermost orbit

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Q. Arrange the following orbitals in the increasing order their energies
2p,4p,3s,3d,4s,3p,2s.
Ans: The increasing order of energies of orbital as per aufbau‟s principle is as
follows -
2s<2p<3s<3p<4s<3d<4p

Q. State Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity.

Ans: When several orbital of same energy are available then the electrons first
fills all the orbitals with parallel spin before pairing takes place in any
one orbital.

Q. Define valency and valency electrons.

Ans: Valency: The valency of an element is the number of electrons that atom
can lose, gain or share so as to complete its octet or duplet and become
stable.
Ex: The valency of Na is 1, Mg is 2, Cl is 1 , O is 2
Valency electrons: The electrons which are present in outer most orbits
(last shell) are known as valency electrons.

Q. Name isotopes of hydrogen. Draw their atomic diagram.

Ans: The isotopes of hydrogen are Protium, Deuterium and Tritium.

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Q. State Aufbau principle.
Ans: Statement: The electrons always enter in the various orbitals in the
order of increasing energy. i.e. the lower energy orbitals are filled first
and then high energy orbitals are filled.

1s<2s<2p<3s<3p<4s<3d

Q. Write any four postulates or assumptions of Bohr’s atomic theory

Ans: Following are the main postulates of Bohr‟s theory

1. An atom consist of a dense positively charged central part called as

nucleus, it is at rest.
2. The electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed circular path called as
„orbit’ or shell.
“The electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and electron
is exactly balanced by the centrifugal force”. So, the electron do not fall
into the nucleus and the atom remains stable.

3. An electron revolves around the nucleus only in ‘certain permitted

orbits’ which are known as “stationary states”.
4. Each stationary state is having definite amount of energy. Therefore,
these are also called as energy shells or energy levels.
5. Electron in the energy level nearest to the nucleus has lower energy and
those are at greater distance from the nucleus have higher energy.

6. An ‘excited electron’ can jump from a lower energy level to higher

energy level by absorbing energy. Whereas the excited electron jumps
from higher energy level to lower energy level by emitting (losing) the
energy.

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Q. Differentiate between atomic number and atomic mass number
Ans:

Atomic Number Atomic Mass Number

The number of protons present in one
atom of element is called as atomic
number
Z= p= e
It is denoted by symbol ‘Z’.
Ex: Atomic no. of Na is 11.
The total number of protons and
neutrons present in one atom of element
is called as atomic mass number.
A=p+n
It is denoted by symbol ‘A’.
Ex: Atomic mass no. of Na is 23.

Different element have different atomic Atoms of same or different elements

number. Eg. 2He4, 1H1, 6C12 may or may not have same atomic mass
number.

Atomic number fixes the position of an Atomic mass number does not fixes the
element in the periodic table. position of an element in periodic table

Elements are placed in periodic table Elements are not placed in periodic table
according to their atomic number according to their atomic mass number.

Chemical properties of an element Chemical properties of element are not

depend on atomic number. depend on atomic mass number

Atomic number does not decide atomic Atomic mass number decide atomic
weight of element weight of element

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Q. Describe structure of modern atom.
Ans: Atom consist of two parts

 Nuclear part ( Nucleus ) – Positively charged central part

 Extra-nuclear part – Part outside the central part

Nuclear part (Nucleus) consist of positively charged protons and

changeless neutrons (called as nucleons) so that nucleus of atom is
positively charged

Extra-nuclear part consist of negatively charged electrons

Atom consists of equal number of positively charged protons in the

nucleus which is exactly balanced by negatively charged electrons
present in extra nuclear part.
Therefore atom as whole electrically neutral.

Q. Differentiate (Compare) between electron, proton and neutron with

respect to their symbol, mass, charge and location. OR
Write characteristics (properties) electron, proton and neutron

Ans: Proton, electron and neutron are the fundamental (subatomic) particles
of atom

Description Electron Proton Neutron

Symbol e– p+ N
Mass 0.000555 a.m.u. 1.007825 a.m.u. 1.008665 a.m.u.
Charge - 1 +1 0
Location Outside the nucleus Inside the nucleus Inside the nucleus

8
Q. Differentiate between isotopes and isobars.
Ans:
Isotopes Isobars
They have same atomic number but They have same atomic mass number
different atomic mass number. but different atomic number

They occupy same place in periodic They occupy different place in

table. periodic table.

They have identical electronic They have different electronic

configuration. configuration.
They have identical chemical They have different chemical
properties. properties.

They have same number protons and They have different number of
electrons but different number of protons, electrons and neutrons.
neutrons.
Ex:1H1, 1H2, 1H3. 8O16, 8O17, 8O18, Ex: 18Ar40, 19K40, 20Ca40. 28Ni64,30Zn64,
35
17Cl , 17Cl37. 6C
12
, 6C13, 6C14, 92U
235
, 93NP235, 94Pu235.

Q. Differentiate between orbit and orbital.

Ans:
Orbit Orbital ( Atomic orbital )
The electron revolve around the The three dimensional region around
nucleus in fixed circular path is called the nucleus where probability
as orbit. (possibility) of finding an electron is
maximum called as orbital.

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They are denoted by capital letters K, They are denoted by small letters
L, M, N etc. s,p,d,f. etc.

They have either circular or elliptical They have different geometrical shapes
shape. such as s-spherical p-dum bell shape
etc.
The maximum numbers of electrons The maximum number of electrons in
in an orbit is given by 2n2 rule i.e. any orbital is two with opposite spin
K=2, L=8, M=18, N=32. [↑↓]
Orbit has two dimensional Orbital have three dimensional
representation. representation
The number of orbit from the nucleus The number of orbital relative to any
are n=1, 2,3,4,5 etc. orbit is n2=1,4,9,16 etc.

Q. Differentiate between energy level and sub energy level.

Ans:
Energy level Sub-energy level
The electrons revolve around the The close grouping of a number of
nucleus in fixed circular path with energy levels in the main energy level
definite amount of energy are known are known as sub-energy levels.
as energy levels
They are denoted by capital letters They are denoted by small letters s, p,
K, L, M, N etc. d, f etc.

They have either circular or elliptical The sub energy levels consist of orbital
shape. which have different geometrical shape
such as s- spherical and p-dumbell.

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The maximum number of electrons in The maximum number of electrons
an energy levels is given by 2n2 rule, present in sub-energy levels are s=2
where, n=main energy number i.e. p=6 d=10, f=14.
K=2, L=8, M=18, N=32
It describes size of an electron cloud It describes shape of electron cloud.

Q. Differentiate between electrovalent compound and covalent

compound.
Ans:
Electrovalent compound Covalent compound
The compounds which are formed by The compound which is formed by
loss or gain of electrons between two mutual sharing of electrons between
dissimilar atoms of an element are two similar or dissimilar atoms of an
called as electrovalent compound. element are called as covalent
compound.
They are found to exist in the form of They are not found to exist in the form
ions even in solid state. of ions in the solid or liquid state.
They are polar They are non-polar.
They have high melting point and They have low melting point and
boiling point boiling point.
They are non-volatile They are volatile.
They are soluble in polar solvent like They are soluble in non-polar solvent
H2O and insoluble in non-polar like benzene, CS2, CCl4, and insoluble
solvents like benzene CS2, CCl4. in polar solvent like H2O
Ex: NaCl, MgO, CaCl2. Ex: H2, CO2, N2.

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Q. Explain Electrovalency and Covalency with examples.
Ans: Electrovalency:The valency obtained by loss or gain of electrons so as
to complete the octet (or duplet) is called as electrovalency. There are
two types of valency
A) Positive electrovalency
B) Negative electrovalency
A) Positive electrovalency: The valency obtained by loss of valence
electron by metallic atom so as to complete its octet is called as positive
electrovalency. Ex: Sodium atom loses one electron to complete its last
shell. Thus positive electrovalency of sodium is +1
Na → Na+ + e-
Atom (2,8,1) Ion (2,8)

2. Negative electrovalency: The valency obtained by gain of valence

electron by non-metallic atom so as to complete its octet is called as
negative electrovalency.Ex: Chlorine atom gains one electron to
complete its last shell. Thus negative electrovalency of chlorine is -1

Cl + e- → Cl-
Atom (2, 8, 7) Ion (2, 8, 8)

Covalency: The number of electrons that an atom of element can share to

complete the octet is called as covalency. OR
The valency obtained by mutual sharing of electrons between two
similar or dissimilar atoms of an element so as to complete its octet is
called as covalency.
Ex:In the formation of chlorine molecule, each atom of chlorine shares
one electron to complete the octet hence, covalency of chlorine is 1.

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Q. Why Chromium &Copper shows anomalous behavior in electronic
configuration?
Ans: The atomic number of chromium is 24.The expected electronic
configuration of chromium is,
Cr (24) - 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d4.
But the observed electronic configuration of chromium is,
Cr (24) - 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s1, 3d5.
Because one electron from 4s orbital goes to empty 3d orbital of
chromium and has both 4s and 3d orbitals are half filled

The atomic number of copper is 29.The expected electron configuration

of copper is,
Cu (29) - 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d9.

But the observed electronic configuration of copper is,

Cu (29) - 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s1, 3d10.
Because one electron from 4s orbital goes to empty 3d orbital of copper
and has 4s orbital is half filled and 3d orbital is completely filled.
As half-filled and completely filled orbitals have less energy and
therefore they are more stable.

Q. Define electronic configuration.Write orbital electronic configuration

of elements from Hydrogen to Argon.
Ans: The distribution (filling) of electrons in various orbitals (subenergy
levels) is called as electronic configuration
(Note: While writing electronic configuration remember the order of
filling of electron in orbital - 1s<2s<2p<3s<3p<4s<3d & maximum
capacity of electron i.e. s = 2, p = 6, d = 10.)

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Element Atomic No. Electronic configuration
Hydrogen (H) 1 1s1
Helium (He) 2 1s2
Lithium (Li) 3 1s2 , 2s1
Beryllium (Be) 4 1s2 2s2
Boron (B) 5 1s2,2s2 ,2p1
Carbon (C) 6 1s2,2s2, 2p2
Nitrogen (N) 7 1s2, 2s2, 2p3
Oxygen (O) 8 1s2 ,2s2, 2p4
Fluorine (F) 9 1s2, 2s2, 2p5
Neon (Ne) 10 1s2, 2s2 ,2p6
Sodium (Na) 11 1s2, 2s2 ,2p6 ,3s1
Magnesium (Mg) 12 1s2, 2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2
Aluminium (Al) 13 1s2, 2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p1
Silicon (Si) 14 1s2, 2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p2
Phosphorous (P) 15 1s2, 2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p3
Sulphur ( S) 16 1s2, 2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p4
Chlorine (Cl) 17 1s2, 2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p5
Argon (Ar) 18 1s2, 2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6

Q. Write electronic configuration of potassium & calcium.

Ans:

Element Atomic No. Electronic configuration

Potassium (K) 19 1s2, 2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6, 4s1
Calcium (Ca) 20 1s2, 2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6, 4s2

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Q. Write electronic configuration of elements from Scandium to Zinc.
Ans:

Element Atomic No. Electronic configuration

Scandium ( Sc) 21 1s2 ,2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6 ,4s2,3d1
Titanium (Ti) 22 1s2 ,2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6 ,4s2,3d2
Vanadium (V) 23 1s2 ,2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6 ,4s2,3d3
*Chromium (Cr) 24 1s2 ,2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6 ,4s1,3d5
Manganese (Mn) 25 1s2 ,2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6 ,4s2,3d5
Ferrous (Fe) 26 1s2 ,2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6 ,4s2,3d6
Cobalt (Co) 27 1s2 ,2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6 ,4s2,3d7
Nickel (Ni) 28 1s2 ,2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6 ,4s2,3d8
*Copper (Cu) 29 1s2 ,2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6 ,4s1,3d10
Zinc (Zn) 30 1s2 ,2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6 ,4s2,3d10

Q. State maximum no. of electrons & number of sub shells present in K,

L, M, N orbit (shells)
Ans:
Main shells Maximum no. of No. of sub shells
(Energy level) electrons
K 2 1 i.e. s
L 8 2 i.e. s, p
M 18 3 i.e. s, p, d
N 32 4 i.e. s, p, d, f

15
Q. Name different subenergy level. State maximum number of electrons
and number of atomic orbital present in s, p, d, and f shell.
Ans:
Sub shells Maximum no. of No. of atomic
(Sub energy level) electrons orbitals
s 2 1

p 6 3
d 10 5
f 14 7

Q. Explain formation of NaCl molecule. Name the type of bonding in it

OR Describe the formation of NaCl molecule. Predict the valency of
Na and Cl atom in NaCl.
Ans: Sodium chloride molecule is formed by combining one atom of sodium
and one atom of chlorine.

1. The atomic number of sodium is 11. So its electronic configuration is

(2,8,1). The atomic number of chlorine is 17 so its electronic
configuration is (2,8,7).
2. Sodium atom contains one electron in the last orbit. So it loses one
valence electron and aquires +1 charge and attains a stable
configuration (2,8) as that of Neon (2,8)
3. Chlorine atom contains seven electrons in last orbit. So it takes one
electron from sodium atom and aquires -1 charge and attains a stable
configuration (2,8,8) as that of Argon (2,8,8)
4. These two equally and oppositely charged ions (Na+&Cl-) are
combined together by electrostatic force of attraction to form sodium
chloride (NaCl).

16
 5. Thus sodium chloride (NaCl) consists of single electrovalent bond.
6. The positive electrovalency of Na is +1 and negative electrovalency
of Cl is -1

Q. Explain the formation of MgO molecule. Name the type of bonding in

it. OR Describe the formation of MgO molecule. Predict the valency
of Mg and O atom in MgO.
Ans: Magnesium oxide molecule is formed by combining one atom of
magnesium and one atom of oxygen.

1. The atomic number of Magnesium is 12 so its electronic configuration

is (2,8,2). The atomic number of oxygen is 8 so its electronic
configuration is (2, 6)
2. Magnesium atom contains two electrons in last orbit. So it loses its
two valence electrons and aquires +2 charges and attains stable
configuration (2,8) as that of Neon (2, 8)

3. Oxygen atom contains six electrons in last orbit. So it takes two

electrons from magnesium atom and aquires -2 charges and attains stable
configuration (2,8) as that of Neon (2, 8,)

4. These two equally and oppositely charged (Mg++ and O--) ions are
combined together by electrostatic force of attraction to form magnesium
oxide molecule (MgO).

17
 5. Thus magnesium oxide molecule (MgO) consists of single
electrovalent bond.

6. The positive electrovalency of Mg is + 2 and negative electrovalency

of O is - 2

Q. Explain the formation of Calcium chloride (CaCl2) molecule. What is

the nature of bonding in it? OR
Describe the formation of CaCl2 molecule. Predict the valency of Ca
and Cl atom in CaCl2.
Ans: Calcium chloride molecule (CaCl2) is formed by combining one atom of
calcium and two atoms of chlorine.

1. The atomic number of Calcium is 20 so its electronic configuration is

(2, 8, 8, 2).
The atomic number of chlorine is 17 so its electronic configuration is
(2, 8,7).
2. Calcium atom contains two electrons in last orbit. So it loses its two
valence electrons and aquires +2 charge and attains a stable
configuration (2,8,8) as that of Argon (2, 8, 8)
3. The electrons lost by calcium atom are gained by two chlorine atoms
and each chlorine atom acquires -1 charge and attains a stable
configuration (2,8,8) as that of Argon (2, 8, 8)

18
 4. These equal and oppositely charged (Ca++ and 2Cl-) ions are
combined together by electrostatic force of attraction to form calcium
chloride molecule (CaCl2)
5. Thus calcium chloride (CaCl2) molecule consists of single
electrovalent bond.
6. The positive electrovalency of Ca is + 2 and negative electrovalency
of Cl is -1

Q. Explain the formation of Water molecule (H2O).Name the type of

bonding in it

Ans: The water molecule is formed by combining two atoms of hydrogen and
one atom of oxygen.

1. The atomic number of oxygen is 8 so its electronic configuration is

(2, 6). It contains 6 valence electrons. So it is in short of two
electrons to complete the octet.
2. Each hydrogen atom has electronic configuration (1). So it is in short
of one electron to complete the duplet.
3. Therefore, oxygen atom shares two electrons with two hydrogen
atoms to complete the octet & attains stable configuration (2, 8) as that
of Neon (2, 8). Also hydrogen completes its duplet.

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 4. There is a seperate single covalent bond between oxygen and two
atoms of hydrogen.

Q. Explain the formation of Carbon dioxide molecule (CO2).Name the

type of bonding in it
Ans: Carbon dioxide molecule is formed by combining one atom of carbon and
two atoms of oxygen.

1. The atomic number of carbon is 6. So its electronic configuration is

(2,4). It contains 4 valence electrons. So it is in short of four
electrons to complete the octet.
2. The atomic number of oxygen is 8. Each oxygen atom has electronic
configuration (2, 6).
3. It contains 6 valence electrons. So it is in short of two electrons to
complete the octet.
4. Therefore carbon atom shares four electrons with two oxygen atoms
to complete the octet and attains stable configuration (2,8) as that of
Neon (2,8).
5. There is a seperate double covalent bond between carbon and two
oxygen atoms.

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Q. Explain the formation Nitrogen molecule.
Ans: The nitrogen molecule is formed by combining one atom of nitrogen with
other atoms of nitrogen. It is a diatomic.

1. The atomic number of nitrogen is 7. Each nitrogen atom has electronic

configuration (2, 5). It contains 5 valence electrons so it is in short of
three electrons to complete the octet.
2. Therefore, nitrogen atom shares three electrons with other nitrogen to
complete the octet and both attain stable configuration (2,8) as that of
Neon (2,8)
3. There is a triple covalent bond between two nitrogen atoms.

21
 Chapter II
Electrochemistry

Q. Define following terms.

1. Conductor: A substance which allows electric current to pass through

it is called a conductor.

Ex: all metals, impure water, graphite, fused salts, aqueous solution of
acids, bases and salts.

2. Insulator: It is a substance which does not allow the electric current to

pass through it.

Ex: wood, paper, rubber, plastics, oils, alcohols, glass, petrol etc.

3. Dielectric: The materials which are used to prevent the loss of

electricity through certain parts in an electrical system are known as
dielectrics or electrical insulating materials.

4. Electrolyte: These are the substances which in aqueous solution or in

molten (or fused) state liberate ions and allow electric current to pass
through it resulting in its chemical decomposition.

Ex: Acids, bases and electrovalent salts.

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 5. Electrolysis: It is the process of chemical decomposition of an
electrolyte by passage of electric currents.

6. Strong electrolyte: Electrolytes which are highly ionized in solution

and hence have a high degree of ionization known as strong
electrolytes.

Ex: Strong acids like H2SO4, HCl , HNO3,Strong bases like KOH,
NaOH and electrovalent salt NaCl, KCl etc.

7. Weak electrolyte: Electrolytes which are weakly ionized in the solution

and hence, have a low degree of ionization known as weak electrolytes.

Ex: organic acids like acetic acid, oxalic acid, weak bases like NH4 OH
and salts like BaSO4,Al(OH)3 etc.

8. Non-electrolyte: It is a substance which is non-conductor of

electricity. Ex: alcohol, petrol, oils, starch, sugar are non electrolytes.

Q. Define metallic conductor and electrolytic conductor.

Ans: Metallic conductor: These are the substances which conduct electricity
without any chemical decomposition
Ex:All metals,graphite etc.

Electrolytic conductors: These are the substance which in aqueous

solution or in molten (or fused) state liberates ions and allows electric
current to pass through it, resulting in its chemical decomposition.
Ex: Acids, bases and electrovalent salts.

23
Q. Define cathode and anode.
Ans: Cathode: The electrode which is connected to the negative pole (or
terminal) of the battery is called cathode or negative electrode. When an
electric current is passing there is a flow of electrons from negative pole
of battery to the cathode.

Anode: The electrode which is connected to the positive pole (terminal)

of the battery is called anode or positive electrode. When an electric
current is passing there is a flow of electrons from the anode to the
positive pole of battery.

Q. Why blue colour of copper sulphate solution turns to colourless after

its electrolysis by using platinum electrode?
Ans: When a current is passed through a CuSO4solution by using platinum
electrodes then Cu++ ions (blue) discharged at cathode hence after
electrolysis CuSO4 solution turn to the colourless at cathode.

Cu+++2e-→Cu↓

Q. Justify the following. Instead of H+ ions only Cu2+ ions migrate

towards cathode in the electrolysis of CuSO4 Solution.
Ans: Discharged of cations at cathode depends on “ its position in the activity
series .”
i.e. Cation at lower position is discharged easily than cation at higher
position.
Ex: In case of electrolysis of CuSO4 solution there are H+ & Cu2+ ions but
only Cu2+ions migrate towards cathode as they are at lower position than
H+ ions in activity series.

24
Q. Why copper is electrorefined when it is to be used in electrical
industries? OR Why blister copper is electro refined?
Ans: Blister copper contains 3 to 5% impurities like Zn,S,As,Ni,Au etc. Such
impure copper is not fit to be used as an electrical conductor.
Conductivity is lowered by the traces of impurities.Copper with 100%
purity is required for electrical conductivity. Hence the blister copper is
refined by the process of electro refining.

Q. Define ionization.
Ans: The process of breaking of substance into charged atoms, radicals or
ions is known as ionization. i.e. ionization is process of formation of
ions in solution or in fused state or gaseous state.
Ex. Heat causes ionization of gas.

Q. Define electrolytic cell and electrochemical cell.

Ans: Electrolytic cell:
“It is the device in which electrical energy is converted into chemical
energy and vice-versa.”
Due to passage of electric current non spontaneous chemical reaction take
place.

Electrochemical cell:
“It is the device in which chemical energy is converted into electrical
energy.”
In this type of cell the electricity can be generated by “spontaneous redox
reaction”.

25
Q. Differentiate between following
Ans:

1. Strong electrolyte and Weak electrolyte

Strong electrolyte Weak electrolyte

Electrolytes which are highly ionised Electrolytes which are feebly (weakly)
in solution hence having high degree ionised in solution hence having low
of ionisation are known as strong degree of ionisation are known as weak
electrolyte. electrolyte.
Eg:Strong acids like HCl,H2SO4, Eg: Weak acid like CH3COOH,
strong bases like NaOH, KOH etc. H2CO3,weak bases like NH4OH

2. Metallic conduction and Electrolytic conduction

Metallic conduction Electrolytic conduction

It involves flow of electrons in a It involves movement of ions in a
conductor solution
There is no change in the chemical The chemical reactions take place at the
properties of conductor. electrodes with the decomposition of
the electrolyte.
It does not involves any transfer of It involves transfer of electrolyte in the
matter form of ions.
It shows the increase in resistance as It shows the decrease in resistance as
the temperature is increased the temperature is increased

26
Q. Define PH and POH.

Ans: PH: PH of a solution can be defined as the negative logarithm to the

base 10 of hydrogen ion concentration expressed in mole/ litre
PH= -log10 [H+]

POH: POH of solution can be defined as the negative logarithm to the

base 10 of hydroxyl ion concentration expressed in moles/litre.
POH= -log10 [OH-]

Q. What is PHScale? State its significance.

Ans: Hydrogen ion concentration in molarity is conveniently expressed on
logarithmic scale known as PH Scale.
It is a simple logarithmic scale. It is the measure of acidity, alkalinity and
neutrality of solution. It is numerically expressed from 0 to 14.

Significance:
1) When PH value of a solution is 7, then solution is neutral.
2) When PH of a solution is less than 7, then solution is acidic.
3) When PH of a solution is greater than 7, then solution is basic
4) When PH=14 then solution is extremely basic.
5) When PH=0 then solution is extremely acidic.

27
Q. What is the PH of extremely acidic and alkaline (basic) solution?
Ans: For extremely acidic solution PH is Zero (0)
For extremely basic solution PH is fourteen (14)

Q. Define electrolytic dissociation.

Ans: The process of breaking up of an electrovalent compound
(electrolyte) into ions when dissolved in solvent like water is called as
electrolytic dissociation.

Q. Explain Arrhenius theory of electrolytic Dissociation. OR State four

postulates of Arrhenius theory of ionization. OR Write the four
assumptions of Arrhenius theory of ionization.
Ans: In 1887 Arrhenius put forward theory of ionization. The main postulates
of Arrhenius theory are as follows.

1. When a molecule of electrolyte is dissolved in solvent like water, it

produces
Positively charged cation

Negatively charged anion

2. Cations are obtained from metal by the loss of electrons

Na Na+ + e-
(2,8,1) (2,8)
Atom Cation (Sodium ion)

Anions are obtained from non metal by the gain of electrons

Cl + e - Cl-
(2, 8, 1) (2, 8, 8)
Atom Anion (Chloride ion)

28
 3. In a solution total number of positive charges on cations and total
numbers of negative charges on anions are equal and hence solution as a
whole electrically neutral.

4. The number of positive charges on cation and negative charges on

anion indicates the valency of that element from which it is derived

5. Cation and anions present in solution are constantly reuniting to form

original undissociated molecule

NaOH N a+ + OH –

Q. Define degree of ionization. Explain the factors affecting degree of

ionization(dissociation).
Ans: Degree of ionization: The fraction of the total numbers of molecules of
an electrolyte that ionizes in solution is known as degree of ionization.

Degree of ionization = Numbers of molecules ionised into ions

Total number of molecules dissolved in solvent

Following are the factor affecting degree of ionization

1) Nature of solute
2) Nature of solvent
3) Concentration of solution
4) Temperature

Nature of solute:
Ionic compounds like acids, bases and salts are highly ionized in solution.
Strong electrolyte like HCl, H2SO4, NaOH, NaCl are highly ionised but

29
 weak electrolyte like CH3COOH,NH4OH are weakly ionised. Hence
degree of ionization depends upon the nature of solute.

Nature of solvent:
In polar solvent like H2O, NH3 degree of ionization is more. In non polar
solvents like benzene, CCl4, ether, CS2 degree of ionization is less i.e.
degree of ionization depends on the nature of solvent.

Concentration of solution:
The degree of ionization is inversely proportion to the concentration of
solution. If concentration of solution is more, then degree of ionization is
lessEx:8 Molar HCl ionizes to only 80% while 0.1molar ionizes to 100%

Temperature: Due to increase in temperature the molecular velocities

increases.This increased molecular velocity increases the force of
attraction between positive and negative ions. At higher temperature
molecules aquire higher thermal energy hence degree of ionisation
increases with increases in temperature.
.
Q. Define electrode potential. What is oxidation &reduction potential?
Ans: Electrode Potential: It is defined as the difference of potential between
the electrode and its surrounding solution at equilibrium.

Oxidation Potential: It is defined as the difference of potential between

the electrode and its surrounding solution at equilibrium due to
oxidation. Ex: Zn electrode dipped in its salt (ZnSO4) solution.

Reduction Potential: It is defined as the difference of potential between

the electrode and its surrounding solution at equilibrium due to
reduction Eg: Cu electrode dipped in its salt solution (CuSO4) solution

30
Q. Explain mechanism of electrolysis with suitable example.
Ans: Electrolysis: It is the process of chemical decomposition of an electrolyte
by passage of electric currents.
Consider, electrolysis of fused electrolyte AB (salt) taken in electrolytic
cell. Two electrodes are dipped in it. Cathode is connected to the negative
terminal and anode to the positive terminal of the battery.
The salt is ionised as,
AB → A+ + B-
Salt Cation anion
When electric current is passed through the bath, electrolysis take place

At Cathode: Cations (A+) move towards cathode and get discharged by

attracting electrons and become neutral atom.
A+ + 1e- → A (Reduction)
This is primary reaction at cathode.

At anode: Anions (B-) move towards anode and get discharged by losing
electrons and become neutral atom
B- → B + 1e- (Oxidation)

31
 This is primary reaction at anode. “If the product of primary reaction is
not stable then secondary reaction takes place ̋,to form stable product.

Examples:
At cathode: Reduction of cation takes place
Na+ + 1e- → Na (neutral sodium atom)

At anode: Oxidation of anion take place

Cl- → Cl + e- (neutral chlorine atom)

Q. Explain the electrolysis of CuSO4 solution using platinum electrode.

Write the product of electrolysis.
Ans: Aqueous solution of CuSO4 contains H+, Cu ++, OH- and SO4-- ions

According to electrochemical series, Cu++ ions are discharged at the

cathode in preference to H+ ions and copper is deposited as cathode. At
anode,OH- ions are discharged in preference to SO4-- ions and oxygen is
liberated at anode

Then ionization of CuSO4 takes place which is shown below

CuSO4 → Cu++ + SO4- - (strongly ionised)

H2O → H+ + OH- (weakly ionised)

At cathode: (Reduction)

Cu++ + 2e- → Cu (s)

Ion Neutral atom

32
 At anode : ( Oxidation)

OH- → OH + e- (Primary reaction)

Neutral radical

A neutral radical (OH) is not stable product, hence secondary reaction

take place.

4OH → 2H2O + O2 (Secondary reaction)

Product of electrolysis:

1. At cathode, Cu is deposited and at anode O2 gas is evolved

2. In electrolytic cell, colourless sulphuric acid is formed
(2H+ + SO4- -→ H2SO4)

Q. Explain electrolysis of CuSO4 solution using copper electrode. Write

the product of electrolysis.
Ans: Aqueous solution of CuSO4 contains H+, Cu ++, OH- and SO4-- ions

According to electrochemical series, Cu++ ions are discharged at the

cathode in preference to H+ ions and copper is deposited as cathode.

At anode, Cu++ ions are formed as when a same metal in contact with its
own salt solution. These Cu++ ions go to cathode and discharged.

Then ionization of CuSO4 takes place which is shown below.

CuSO4 → Cu++ + SO4- - (strongly ionised)

H2O→ H+ + OH- (weakly ionised)

33
 At Cathode: (Reduction)
Cu++ + 2e- → Cu(s)

At Anode: (Oxidation)
Cu(s) → Cu++ + 2e-

Product of electrolysis:

1. Cu metal is deposited at cathode

2. Cu anode is slowly dissolved in solution
3. Neither SO4- - nor OH- ions are discharged
Therefore concentration of CuSO4 solution remains constant

Applications:

1. This process is useful for refining (purification) of copper.

2. It is also used in copper plating.

Q. State Faraday`s first law of electrolysis.

Ans: Statement: “The weight of substance deposited or liberated at an
electrode during electrolysis is directly proportional to the quantity of
electricity passed through its solution”.
Explanation: If „W‟ is the amount of substance deposited or liberated at
an electrode and „Q‟ is the quantity of electricity passed through the
electrolyte solution

Then, WαQ
But C = Q/t
Q = ct
W α ct

34
 W=Zct
Where, c = Current in ampere
t= time in seconds
Z= Electrochemical equivalent.
If c =1 ampere and t = 1 sec
Then W= Z

Q. State & explain faraday’s second law of electrolysis. Give its

mathematical relation.
Ans: Statement: When same quantity of electricity is passed through different
electrolyte arranged in series then the weight of different substances
deposited or liberated at the respective electrode is directly proportional
to the chemical equivalents (Equivalent weight of substance)

Explanation: Let the same electric current is passed through CuSO4 and
AgNO3 solution arranged in series as shown in figure.
According faradays 2nd law

 Weight of copper (Cu) deposited (Wcu) α Chemical equivalent of

copper (Ecu) - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
 Weight of silver (Ag) deposited (WAg) α Chemical equivalent of
Silver (EAg) - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)

35
 Dividing equation (1) by (2) we get

Weight of Cu deposited (Wcu) = Chemicl aequivalent of Cu (Ecu)

Weight of Ag deposited (WAg) Chemical equivalent of Ag (EAg)

Wcu = Ecu OR W1 = E1
WAg EAg W2 E2

Q. Define electrochemical equivalent. Write its unit.

Ans: “Electrochemical equivalent of a substance is defined as the weight of
substance deposited or liberated at an electrode when a current of 1
ampere passed for 1 sec through its solution
Unit – grams/coulomb

Q. State the relation between chemical equivalent (CE) and

electrochemical equivalent (ECE).
Ans: Equivalent weight of substance (C.E.) is 96,500 times to the
electrochemical equivalent. Therefore,

Chemical equivalent (C.E.) = 96,500 × Electrochemical equivalent

C. E. = 96,500 × Z

Q. Define electroplating. Write applications of electroplating. Describe

electroplating of iron with silver with diagram.
Ans: Electroplating: It is the process of obtaining metallic coating of a
superior metal (like silver, gold, nickel, Cr) on inferior base metal with
the help of electric current is called as electroplating.

36
 The purposes (Applications) of electroplating are as follow,

1. For decoration purpose

2. Protection from corrosion
3. Repairing of worn out machinery parts
4. To improve surface hardness of metals
5. For making plastic surface conducting

Process:
A plating of silver on iron spoon is done in a rectangular tank made up of
steel. Potassium argentocyanide solution K [Ag (CN) 2] is used as
electrolyte.

1. The iron spoon is first thoroughly cleaned by boiling with caustic soda to
remove grease and dirt.
2. Then it is washed with water until free from caustic soda. Then it is
treated with dil. HCl to remove any oxide layer. Again it is washed with
water and polished carefully.
3. The iron spoon is then made as cathode. The plate or block of pure silver
metal is made as anode.

37
 4. The cathode and anode both are immersed in electrolytic solution taken in
cell.
5. When current is passed, then iron spoon get plated with a smooth and
bright deposit of silver.
6. The silver anode gets slowly dissolved in solution by giving Ag + ions
Ionisation of K [Ag (CN) 2] take place as follows

K [Ag (CN) 2] → K+ + [Ag (CN) 2]-

[Ag (CN) 2] → Ag+ + 2CN-

At cathode- Ag+ + e- → Ag

At anode- Ag → Ag+ + e-

Q. What is electrorefining? Explain electrorefining of blister copper

(impure copper) with diagram.
Ans: Electrorefining: Electrorefining is the process in which pure metal can
be obtained from impure metal by the method of electrolysis.

Principle: An impure metal as anode dissolves and gets deposited at

cathode by passing the electric current
.
Example: Electrorefining of blister copper

38
Process: In this process15% CuSO4+ 5-10%H2SO4 solution is used as
electrolyte

Impure copper is made as anode

Pure copper is made as cathode.

1. The two electrodes are then dipped in an electrolytic cell containing

CuSO4 solution
2. On passing electric current Cu anode is slowly dissolved in solution
and deposited on the surface of cathode
3. The impurities of less active metal like Ag, Au and Pt fall down from
the anode and settle below anode as anode mud.
4. From anode mud, precious metals like Ag, Au and Pt are recovered.
Electro refined copper is 99.95% pure

Ionisation: CuSO4 → Cu++ + SO4- -

H2O → H+ + OH-

At cathode - Cu++ + 2e- → Cu(s)

At anode - Cu(s) → Cu++ + 2e-

39
 Chapter III
Metals & Alloys

Q. Define Following Terms.

Mineral: A naturally occurring substance present in earth crust which

contains metal in free state or in combined state is known as mineral.
Ex: Hematite (Fe2O3) , Galena (PbS), Limestone (CaCO3) .

Ore: A mineral from which a metal can be extracted economically &

easily is called as ore.
Ex: Hematite (Fe2O3) is ore of iron, Bauxite (Al2O3.H2O) is ore of
aluminium

Gangue or Matrix: The unwanted impurities like sand, clay, rocks

associated with the ores are called as gangue or matrix.
Ex: In Hematite (Fe2O3) ore, silica is gangue.

Flux: The substance used during extraction of metal to remove gangue is

known as flux.
Ex: For removal of gangue like silica (SiO2), calcium oxide (CaO) is
used as flux

Slag: The fusible substance formed by combination of added flux &

gangue present in ore is known as slag.
SiO2 + CaO → CaSiO3

40
 Metallurgy: Metallurgy is the process of extraction of metal easily,
economically and profitably from their ores.
Ex: Iron is extracted from Hematite ore.

Q. Define following terms.

1. Hardness: It is the ability of the metal to resist wear or abrasion &

resist penetration.

Ex: Tungsten metal is found to be the hardest metal

2. Ductility: It is the property of the metal by which it can be stretched

into length and allows it to drawn into wires without breaking.

Ex: Gold, silver, and platinum having this property can be easily
drawn into wires.

3. Malleability: It is the property of metal by which it can be rolled into

thin sheet without breaking.

Ex: Gold, silver, platinum, copper, aluminium, are most malleable

metals.

4. Toughness: The property of a metal to resist repeated shocks or

vibrations without breaking is called as toughness

Ex: Gold & Silver are tough metals.

5. Tensile Strength: The tensile strength of a metal is the ability of

metal to carry load without breaking.

41
6. Brittleness: It is the property of a material (like glass) which don’t
permit permanent deformation without breakage.

7. Weldability: It is the process of uniting two pieces of metals by

means of heat by bringing their ends in the molten state.

8. Castability: (Casting): It is the process of pouring molten metal into

a mould& allowing it to solidify is known as casting.

9. Machinability: A property due to which a metal can be easily cut by

cutting tools to produce a desired shape & surface finish on its
surface. Ex: Sawing, Shaping, Drilling, etc.

10.Forging: It is the process of giving predetermined shape to a piece of

metal at sufficiently high temperature when metal is in the plastic state
it is known as forging.

11.Soldering: It is defined as a process of joining the metal surface by

introducing a molten non ferrous alloy with melting point below
4000C between them is known as soldering.

12. Brazing: It is defined as a process of joining the metal surface by

introducing a molten non ferrous alloy with melting point above
4000C between them is known as brazing.

42
Q. Define concentration of ore. Name physical & chemical processes of
concentration of ore.
Ans: The process of removal of unwanted (Gangue or matrix) impurities from
the ore is called as concentration of ore.
Physical Process (Methods)

1) Gravity separation method

2) Magnetic separation method
3) Froth floatation method

Chemical Process (Methods)

1. Calcination
2. Roasting

Q. Why wood metal is used in electric fuses?

Ans: Wood metal used in electric fuses because the melting point of wood
metal is 710C so it is easily fusible. As the fuse wire is made up of wood
metal due to sudden high voltage the temperature of the fuse wire
increases and wire gets melted and the circuit breaks. This makes the
current supply off, which keeps the electrical equipment safe and saves
from damage.

Q. Define refining. Name the methods of refining of metals.

Ans: The process of purification a metal to get extra pure metal is called as
refining. The methods used for refining of metals are as follows.

1. Poling
2. Liquation
3. Distillation
4. Electrolytic refining

43
Q. Define alloy and binary alloy with example.
Ans: Alloy: The homogeneous mixture of two or more element in which one
must be a metal. Ex: Brass, Bronze.

Binary alloy: The alloy which contain only two components is known as
binary alloy Ex: Brass (Cu + Zn), Bronze (Cu + Sn)

Q. When alloy is called amalgam? Give two examples. OR What is

amalgam?
Ans: An amalgam is prepared by mixing element with mercury.
When an alloy contains mercury as one of the component then it is called
as amalgam.
Ex: Na- Hg Zn- Hg

Q. Name/State the methods of preparation of alloys.

Ans: Following are the methods used for preparation of alloy.

1. Fusion
2. Compression
3. Electrode position
4. Reduction

Q. Give classification of alloys with examples. OR Classify alloy. Give

example of each class.
Ans: Alloys are classified into two types

1) Ferrous alloys
2) Non-Ferrous alloys

Ferrous alloys: These alloys have iron as one of the main component
Ex: Magnetic steel, Stainless steel etc.

44
 Non- ferrous alloy: These alloys do not contain iron as one of the main
component. Ex: Brass, Bronze, Duralumin etc.

Q. State the purposes of alloying of metals

Ans: 1) To increase the hardness of a metal
2) To increase the tensile strength
3) To increase corrosion resistance of metal.
4) To modify colour.
5) To modify the chemical reactivity.
6) To lower the melting point of metal.
7) To reduce malleability & ductility.

Q. Differentiate between metals and non-metals.

Ans:

Metals Non–metals
Chemically these elements have Chemically these elements have
tendency to donate or lose the tendency to accept or share the
electrons. electrons.
Ex: Na, Fe, Ni, Mg etc. Ex: Sulphur, carbon, chlorine etc.
Metals are solid at ordinary Non-metals are solid, liquid or gas at
temperature except mercury which is ordinary temperature.
liquid.

They have high melting & boiling They have low melting & boiling
point. point.
They have high density. They have low density.
They are good conductor of heat and They are bad conductor of heat &
electricity. electricity.

45
They are malleable & ductile. They are neither malleable nor ductile.
They are generally hard. They are generally soft.
Metals form basic oxides. Non metals form acidic oxides

Q. Explain concentration process for hematite & tinstone ore.

OR Explain gravity separation method with labelled diagram.
Ans: Principle: This method of concentration of ore is based on the difference
in densities of the ore & impurities.

Process: In this process

1. The finely powdered ore is placed on a sloping platform.

2. Then the powdered ore is allowed to flow with water on a sloping
platform.
3. The platform has depressions on certain intervals.
4. After that the heavier particles of ore settle down (collected) in the
bottom of sloping platform.
5. The lighter particles of the gangue are washed away with water

46
Q. Explain electromagnetic separation process with suitable diagram.
OR Name & explain the process used for the concentration of
tinstone ore which contain tungstates of iron & manganese.
Ans: This method used for concentration of iron ores, tin ores, tin stone ores.

Principle: This method is based on the principle of magnetism i.e. for

separation of magnetic impurities from non-magnetic particles & vice
versa.
Ex: Tinstone (ore of tin) in which tinstone (SnO2) is non magnetic, while
the impurities like tungastate of iron & manganese are magnetic.

Process: In this process

1. Firstly the finely powdered ore (containing magnetic impurities) is

allowed to fall through hopper on a non magnetic belt of leather or
rubber moving over the electromagnetic rollers.
2. Then the magnetic impurities fall below the magnetic roller due to
attraction by magnet.
3. While the non magnetic ore falls in a separate heap away from the
magnet.

47
Q. Explain froth floatation process with diagram. OR Which method is
used to concentrate sulphide ore? Explain with diagram. OR Name
the physical method used for concentration of sulphide ore. Explain
it with diagram.
Ans: The froth floatation method is especially used for concentration of
Sulphide ores like copper pyrite (CuFeS2), & Zinc blende (ZnS) etc.

Principle: This process is based on the difference in wetting

characteristics of the gangue particles with oil & water respectively.

Process:
1. In this process firstly the powdered sulphide ore is mixed with water
& pine oil.
2. Then the whole mixture of ore, water and pine oil is stirred
vigorously by passing compressed air through it.
3. After that the oil forms froth with air bubbles.
4. Then sulphide ore particles get attached with the froth & floats on the
surface.
5. The gangues (impurities) are wetted by water & sink to the bottom of
the tank.
6. The floating froth overflows the tank & collected in the settling basin
where ore particles settle down after some time.

48
Q. Define smelting. State the principle of smelting of hematite ore using
a chemical equation. OR Coke and limestone is added during the
extraction of iron. Explain with proper justification. OR Describe
smelting process in blast furnace.
Ans: Smelting: It is the process of conversion of oxide into metal.

Principle: It is the reaction of metal oxide with carbon (or its compounds
like CO, CO2, charcoal, coke) at high temperature.

Process: The calcined or roasted ore is mixed with coke and flux (in the
ratio of 8:4: 1) and heated in a blast furnace or reveberatory furnace, in
the presence of controlled air supply. The reducing agent coke converts
oxide of metal (ore) into molten metal while the flux removes the
gangue in the form of fusible mass known as slag. This process is
called smelting

The iron oxide ore, Hematite (Fe2O3) is reduced by using coke as a

reducing agent in the blast furnace.

Heat
Fe2O3 + 3C 2Fe + 3CO
Hematite Coke Iron Carbon
(Ore) (Reducing agent) metal monoxide

Lime stone i.e. flux removes the impurities in the form of fusible mass
called as slag.

CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3

Flux Gangue Slag

49
Q. Explain all ores are minerals but all minerals are not ores.
OR Explain the term mineral and ore.
Ans: Ore: A mineral from which the metal can be extracted economically is
called as ore.

Mineral: A naturally occurring substance present in the earth crust

which contain metal in free state or in combined state is called as
mineral.

“It is not possible to extract metal in profitable amount from all the
minerals of same metal.”
Ex: Clay & Bauxite are minerals of aluminium but aluminium is
extracted economically from bauxite & not economically from clay
hence, clay & Bauxite are minerals but ore is only “Bauxite.”
Therefore, all ores are minerals but all minerals are not ores.

50
Q. Explain the purposes of alloying of metal. OR Write any four
purposes of alloying of metals with suitable examples.
Ans: Following are the main purposes for making alloys.
1. To increase the hardness of a metal: Generally pure metals are soft
so that hardness of the metal can be increased by adding other metal.
Ex: In preparation of ornaments of gold & silver little copper is added
into it to improve their hardness & to resist wear & tear.

2. To increase the tensile strength: The tensile strength of pure metal is

low so it can be increased by alloying it with suitable element.
Ex: Tensile strength of iron can be increased by 10 times by addition
of 1% of carbon

3. To increase corrosion resistance: Alloys are more resistant to

corrosion than pure metals.Ex.Bronze alloy (Cu+Sn) is more
corrosion resistant than copper. Iron gets corroded but stainless steel is
not corroded.

4. To lower melting point: The melting point of pure metal is high. It

can be decreased by alloying with suitable elements.
Ex. Rose metal is an alloy of bismuth, lead & tin has melting point
1000C

5. To modify colour: Colour is a natural characteristics of metal

therefore we cannot change the colour of given metal but the colour of
the metal can be modified by alloying it with suitable element.

Ex: An alloy of brass is yellow in colour which is obtained from

copper (Red) & zinc (silvery white).

51
 6. To modify chemical reactivity: The reactivity of some metals can be
controlled by adding some other metal to it.Ex: In sodium amalgam
(Na-Hg) alloy, the reactivity of sodium is modified by adding mercury
to it

Q. Explain any one method for the preparation of an alloy.ORDescribe

fusion method for the preparation of an alloy. OR What is the
principal method used for preparation of binary alloy? Explain the
process.
Ans: Fusion method is used for preparation of binary alloy

Process: It is the most common method used for alloy preparation.

1. In this method the component metal having higher melting point is
first melted in crucible (melting pot)
2. The other component of metal having lower melting point are added
into it in required quantity.
3. Then the surface of ‘molten mass’ is covered with fine charcoal
powder to avoid oxidation of molten metal due to high temperature.
4. Then the mixture is stirred vigorously to obtain uniform alloy.
5. The molten mass is then allowed to cool which gives the required
alloy.

52
 Ex: Manufacture of Brass: Brass is a mixture of Cu & Zn. Cu ( M.P.
10890C) is melted first & then required quantity of Zn ( M.P. 4190C)
added to it which melts immediately.

Q. Describe compression method for the preparation of alloy

Ans: In this method two or more components of metal powders are uniformly
mixed. This mixture is compressed to a high pressure in a suitable
mould. The temperature of molded article is increased to just below the
melting point. Due to high temperature the tiny particles of the metal are
welded to one another producing an alloy. Ex. solder alloy of lead and tin
is prepared by this method.

Q. Write chemical composition, properties and uses of Duralumin.

Ans: Duralumin: It is an important alloy of aluminium.

Composition: Al = 95 %, Cu = 4 %, Mg = 0.5 %, Mn = 0.5 %

Properties:
1. It is light, tough, highly ductile, easily, castable& corrosion resistant.
2. It is good conductor of heat and electricity.
3. It has high machinability & it can be easily worked.
4. It has low density(2.8gm/cm3)

Applications:
1. It is used for making automobile, aeroplanes & locomotive parts from
“alclad” sheets.
2. It is used for making electrical cables, surgical instruments, rivets,
bars, body of vechicles & housing cases etc.

53
Q. Write chemical composition, properties and application of Wood
metal.
Ans: Wood metal: This is fusible alloy of bismuth, lead, tin, cadmium.
Composition: Bi = 50 %, Pb = 25 %
Sn = 12.5 %, Cd = 12.5 %.
Properties:
1. It is easily fusible alloy.

2. It‟s melting point is low(710C)

Applications:
1. It is used for making safety plugs of pressure cookers, boilers, and fire
alarams.
2. It is used for fuse wire in electric fuses.
3. It is used for taking impressions of coins & medals.
4. It is used as casting for dental work.

Q. Write chemical composition, properties & application of Babbit

metal.
Ans: Babbit metal: It is tin, antimony, copper alloy.
Composition: Sn = 88 %, Sb = 8%, Cu = 4 %.
Properties:

1. It is silvery white soft metal alloy.

2. It has low coefficient of friction.3.It resists wear & corrosion.

Application:
1. It is used in making ball bearings of I.C. engines & general machinery.
2. It is used as a common bearing metal in cast iron boxes.

54
Q. Explain the term calcination. What are the purposes of calcination?
OR With the help of figure, explain the process of calcination. OR
How carbonate ore are concentrated by using chemical method.
Ans: Calcination: “It is the process of heating the ore strongly in the absence
of air below its melting point.”

Generally carbonate, hydroxide ores are concentrated by this method.

Calcination is carried out in the hearth of a reverberatory furnace by
keeping the doors closed.

Purposes of calcination:
1. To convert carbonate & hydroxide ores into oxides.
Ex: CaCO3 CaO + CO2
Limestone Calcium oxide

2. To remove moisture from ore.

Fe2O3 .3 H2O Fe2O3+3 H2O
3. To remove the volatile impurities.
4. To make the ore porous for easy reduction.

55
Q. How sulphide ores are concentrated by using chemical method? OR
Explain the term roasting. What are the purposes of roasting? OR
What is roasting of the ore? Give purposes of roasting.
Ans: Roasting: “It is the process of heating the ore strongly in the presence of
excess of air below its melting point.”
Generally sulphide ores are concentrated by this method.
Roasting is carried out in the hearth of a reverberatory furnace by keeping
the door open.
Purposes of Roasting:
1. To convert sulphide ores into oxides &sulphate.
Ex: 2PbS + 3O2 2PbO + 2SO2
Galena Lead oxide

PbS + 2O2 PbSO4

Galena Lead sulphate

2. To remove the moisture from ore.

Fe2O3.3 H2O Fe2O3+3 H2O
3. To remove volatile impurities like sulphur, arsenic, antimony in the
form of their oxides
4. To make the ore porous for easy reduction.

Q. Differentiate between Calcination & Roasting.

Ans:
Calcination
It is the process of heating the
ore in absence of air below its
melting point.
The purpose of calcination is to
convert carbonates & hydroxides
of metal into its oxides.
Roasting
It is the process of heating the ore in
presence of air below its melting point
The purpose of roasting is to convert
sulphides of metal into oxides &
sulphates.

Impurities are evaporated on Impurities are oxidized and then

heating. evaporated.

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 Decomposition reaction takes Oxidation reaction takes place in
place in calcination. roasting
The mass become highly porous The mass become less porous on
on calcination. roasting.
Purpose is to remove the Purpose is to remove the moisture &
moisture & volatile impurties the impurities like S,P,As & oxidation
of ore
Ex: CaCO3 CaO + CO2 Ex: PbS + 2O2 PbSO4
Limestone Calcium oxide Galena Lead sulphate

Q. Draw the flow chart for extraction of metal from its ore.

Q Why duralumin sheets are used in making aeroplanes body?

Duralumin sheets are used in making aeroplanes body because it is light,
tough, highly ductile, easily castable & corrosion resistant and have low
density. It has high machinability & it can be easily worked

57
 Chapter IV
Non-metallic Engineering Materials

Q. Define. 1) Plastic
2) Polymer
3) Polymerisation
Ans:

1. Plastic: Plastic are synthetic organic materials having high molecular

weight which can be moulded into any desired shape when subjected
to heat & pressure in presence of catalyst.

2. Polymer: Polymer is a substance obtained from large number of

small molecules having low molecular weight.

3. Polymerisation: It is the process of uniting (linking) together a large

numbers of small molecules (monomers) to form large molecule
(polymer) under specific conditions of temperature, pressure &
catalyst is known as polymerization.

Q. Name (state) the types of plastic. Give two example of each type.
Ans: There are two types of plastic

1) Thermosoftening plastic (Thermoplastic)

Ex: PVC, Polythene, PTFE , polystyrene

2) Thermosetting plastic
Ex: Bakelite, Nylon 6:6, polysters

58
Q. Write chemical equation to show formation of polyethylene.

Ans: n(CH2=CH2) Polymerisation (-CH2-CH2)n

Ethylene heat,pressure, polythylene
catalyst

Q. Describe the formation of Nylon 6:6 ORHow Nylon 6:6 is prepared?

Ans: Nylon 6:6 is obtained by condensation polymerisation of hexamethylene
diamine and adipic acid with the elimination of two water molecules.

Q. PVC is soft whereas Bakelite is hard. Why? OR Thermosetting

plastics are not regenerated whereas thermo softening plastics are
generated. Explain.
Ans: PVC is thermo softening plastic i.e. the plastic which can be softened on
heating & return to its original property on cooling whereas Bakelite is
thermosetting plastic i.e. the plastic which once can hardened cannot be
made soft again .

Q. Write the constituents present in plastic.

Ans: a) Resins (Binder) b) Fillers c) Pigments d) Plasticizers e) Accelerator

59
Q. Define Natural rubber.
Ans: Natural rubber is high molecular weight linear hydrocarbon polymer
which exhibit elasticity & other rubber like properties.

Q. Which organic compound present in the natural rubber.

Ans: Isoprene (C5H8)n is the organic compound present in the natural rubber.

Q. Define synthetic rubber .Give examples of synthetic rubber

Ans: These are group of high polymer which posses physical p[roperties of
natural rubber called as synthetic rubber.
Examples: 1) Buna-S 2) Buna-N 3) Neoprene 4)Thiokol
5)Butyl rubber.

Q. How polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is prepared?

Ans: Polyvinyl chloride is prepared by addition polymerization of vinyl
chloride in presence of hydrogen peroxide as catalyst.

Polymerisation
n(CH2 = CH-Cl) (CH2–CH–Cl)n
Vinyl chloride H2O2 polyvinyl chloride

Q. Why thermosetting plastic cannot reshaped and reused?

Ans: Thermosetting plastic is formed by condensation polymerization. This
plastic is hard and rigid material. It cannot be softened on heating. If it is
heated intensively, the bonds between monomers are permanently broken
and cannot reset after cooling. Therefore this plastic cannot be reshaped
and reused.

60
Q. Define thermal insulator. State the properties of good thermal
insulating material. OR State any four characteristics of ideal (Good)
thermal insulator
Ans: Thermal insulator: “The substances having extremely low conductivity
which prevents the loss of heat by conduction or radiation are called as
thermal insulators. For e.g. in cold storage, refrigerators, boilers, ovens,
steam carrying pipes etc. all need thermal insulator like glasswool,
thermocole, cork, asbestos etc

Properties (characteristics) of good (ideal) thermal insulating

material are as follow:

1. They have low thermal conductivity.

2. It should have low density.
3. It should be cheap.
4. It should be fire proof.
5. It should be odourless during use.
6. It should be waterproof and hence resist absorption of moisture.
7. It should be stable at working temperature.
8. It should be chemically inert to water, surrounding atmosphere and
high temperature.
9. It should withstand the effect of shock and vibrations.

Q. Give the classification of thermal insulators.

Ans: Classification of thermal insulator: Thermal insulators are classified
into two types

1. Organic thermal insulators: These are suitable for low temperature

work, up to 1500C. These are naturally occurring materials such as

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 wool, cotton, silk, paper, charcoal powder, saw dust, coke powder,
rubber etc. which generally have low density and possess very large
number of small air pockets.

2. Inorganic thermal insulators: These are suitable for temperature

higher than 1500C.

These are glass fiber, glass wool, calcium silicate, porous silica,
refractory insulating bricks. The most commonly used thermal
insulators are Glasswool and Thermocole

Q. What is Glasswool? How glasswool is prepared? Write properties

and applications of glasswool.
OR Write application of glasswool based on different properties
Ans: “Glasswool is fibrous wool like material which is made up of fine
filaments of glass like ordinary wool.”

Preparation: It is obtained by passing molten mass of alkali free glass

through sieve holes of 0.0005 cm diameter.
The filaments obtained are then thrown over a revolving drum to get glass
wool.
Properties:

1. It has low thermal conductivity

2. It is soft, flexible and has low density.
3. It has low electrical conductivity.
4. It is resistant to chemicals.
5. It is fire proof and non-combustible.
6. Its tensile strength is very high.

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 7. It is waterproof.
8. It is light in weight.

Application/ Uses:

1. It is widely used as thermal insulating material in domestic and

industrial appliances such as motors, ovens, refrigerators, walls and
roof of houses because it is soft, heat proof, fire proof, flexible and
even insect proof.
2. It is used for sound and electric insulation.
3. It is resistance to chemicals so it is used for filtration of corrosive
liquids like acids and in acid industry.
4. It is used in air filters as a dust filtering material.
5. It is used in manufacturing fiber glass by reinforcing with plastic
resins.

Q. How Thermocole is prepared? Write properties and application of

thermocole. OR
Write application of thermocole based on different properties
Ans: “Thermocole is foamed plastic obtained by blowing compressed air
through molten polystyrene or polyurethanes.”

Properties: It is spongy, porous and has foam like structure

1. It has low thermal conductivity.

2. It has very low density (22kg/m3).
3. It has low electrical conductivity.
4. It light and shock proof also strong.
5. It can be used up to 550C
6. It is chemically inert.

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 Applications:

1. As it has low coefficient of thermal and electrical expansion, it is used in

refrigerator, air conditioning, ice boxes and in cold storage
2. As it spongy, porous, strong, light in weight, it is used in packing of
delicate electrical and electronic instruments.
3. It is used for decorative purpose i.e. art, craft and models.
4. It is used for protecting screens of radars.

Q. Explain addition polymerization with suitable example

Ans: Definition: It is the process in which monomer which contain at least

one C=C bond undergo repeated addition, resulting in the formation of
long chain polymer without elimination of simple molecules like
H2O,HCl, NH3

Example: Formation of polyethylene from ethylene

 In addition polymerization, monomers which are taking part in

polymerization must contain at least one double bond.
 Ethylene (C2H4) is unsaturated hydrocarbon contain one C=C double
bond.
 When ethylene is heated in the range 1500C to 2500C and at the
pressure above 300 atmospheric pressure.
 Then number of ethylene molecules gets united to form a long chain
of polyethylene.
 During this process one of the double bonds between the carbon atoms
of ethylene (CH2=CH2) is open up and forming an unstable molecule
of ethylene.

64
  The unstable molecule (monomer) to form dimmer and the process
continues to form large molecule of polyethylene.

Q. Explain condensation polymerization with suitable example

Ans: Definition: “It is the process in which the monomers of different types
are joined together by condensation forming a large polymer with the
elimination of simple molecule like H2O, HCl and CH3OH etc.

Example:“Bakelite” can be prepared by condensation of phenol with

formaldehyde in presence of acidic /alkaline catalyst.
During the reaction oxygen atom of carbonyl group of formaldehyde and
two hydrogen atoms of benzene ring of phenol are eliminated in the form
of H2O molecule.

65
Q. What are the drawbacks (Defeciencies) of natural rubber?ORWhy it
is necessary to vulcanise rubber? OR Vulcanisation of rubber is done
before industrial use.Explain OR Natural rubber is not useful in
permanent application where elastomer is used. Why?
Ans: The drawbacks of natural rubber are as follows:

1. During summer, the raw rubber becomes soft and sticky & in winter
stiff (hard) and brittle.
2. It has low tensile strength.
3. It is too weak to be used in heavy duty operation.
4. It has a large water absorbing capacity.
5. On stretching, it undergoes permanent deformation.
6. It is affected by the organic solvents like benzene, CCl4 etc.
7. It gets tarnished in air due to oxidation i.e. its durability decrease.

Therefore, to remove the drawbacks and improve the properties, it is

necessary to vulcanise rubber.

Q. Explain Vulcanization of rubber with chemical reaction OR Describe

the process of Vulcanization of rubber
OR Name and explain the process which increases the stiffness of
rubber OR Which treatment is used to make useful the natural
rubber?Explain
Ans: Vulcanization is the process that increases the stiffness of rubber.
Natural rubber is compounded with some substances like Sulphur, SF6,
and H2S etc.
When natural rubber is compounded (heated) with sulphur at 100-1400
C, the process is called as vulcanization of rubber and sulphur is called
as vulcanizing agent.”

66
 Process: In this process crude (raw) rubber is heated with sulphur at
high temperature. The sulphur combines chemically at the double
bonds in the rubber molecule of different rubber springs. This prevents
the intermolecular movement or sliding of rubber springs making the
rubber stiff. The stiffness depends upon amount of sulphur added.
Example:

1. A rubber tyre contains 3-5% sulphur

2. A battery case contains 30% of sulphur
3. Ebonite contain 50% of sulphur

Thus vulcanization makes the rubber tough, strong, abrasion resistance,

chemically resistant, stiff hence it is necessary to vulcanise rubber.

Q. What is compounding of Plastic? Explain compounding of plastic.

OR What are different substances added during compounding of
plastic? Give functions of each
Ans: “The plastic are in short of some properties required for engineering
application therefore to improve the required properties some substances
like fillers, resin, plasticizers, and accelerators are added into it during
polymerization. This process is known as compounding of plastic.

67
 Fillers: These are the substances added to the plastics to improve hardness,
tensile strength, finish, workability & opacity Ex. Wood, mica, Quartz,
Asbestos
Resin(Binder): It is the substance which are used to bind (hold) various
constituents of plastics together also called as binder Ex. Polythene, PVC,
Polyesters,teflon,nylon,

Plasticizers: These are added into plastic to improve plasticity & flexibility
Ex. Camphor, Tributyl phosphate, oleic acid, stearic acid

Accelerators/Catalyst: It is used as catalyst which speed up polymerization

process Ex. Zncl2 , H2O2 , Calcium oxide, benzoyl peroxide

Pigments: Different dyes & colored pigments are added to plastic to

provide desired colour or shade. The pigment should resistant to sunlight
Ex. Cobalt blue, Chrome green, Red lead.

Q. Differentiate between Natural rubber and Synthetic rubber.

Ans:
Natural Rubber Synthetic Rubber

It is an elastic material obtained It is rubber like product obtained by

naturally from „latex‟ of rubber plant some chemical reaction Ex. Buna-S,
Buna-N, Thiokol,

It is an polymer of isoprene (C5H8 )n It is polymer of substance having

molecule. unsaturated nature

It is non resistant to oxidation It is highly resistant to oxidation

It is weak so that cannot be used in It is strong so can be used in heavy

heavy duty operation duty operation

It becomes soft & sticky at higher It does not becomes soft & sticky at
temperature higher temperature

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It is plastic in nature It is elastic in nature

It is soluble in organic solvent It is insoluble in organic solvent

Q. Differentiate between thermosoftening (Thermoplastic) plastic and

thermosetting Plastic.OR Write characteristics of thermosoftening
plastic and thermosetting Plastic
Ans:
Thermosoftening plastic Thermosetting plastic
They are prepared by addition They are prepared by condensation
polymerization polymerization
They have linear chain structure They have network chain structure
They have smaller molecular weight They have higher molecular weight
They can be reshaped & reused They cannot be reshaped & reused
They are soft, weak & less brittle They are hard, strong & more brittle
They are soluble in organic solvent They are insoluble in organic solvent
They can be reclaimed from waste They cannot be reclaimed from waste
They are linked by weak covalent bond They are linked by strong covalent
bond
Ex: Polyethylene,PVC Ex: Bakelite,Polyster.

Q. State any four properties of plastics.

Ans: Properties of plastic

1. They are light in weight and have specific gravity from 1 to 2.4
2. They have low thermal and electrical conductivity.
3. They are highly resistant to corrosion and chemicals.
4. They can readily mould, drilled and machined.

69
 5. They have low melting point.
6. They are not attacked by fungi, insects etc.
7. They have high tensile strength (5500 kg/cm2).
8. They are highly resistant to the attack of light, oil, acids and moisture.

Q. Differentiate between addition polymerization and condensation

polymerization
Ans:
Addition polymerization Condensation polymerization

It is the process in which monomers It is the process in which monomers

undergo repeated addition resulting in of different types are joined together
the formation long chain polymer by condensation forming a large
without elimination of simple polymer with the elimination of
molecules like H2O, HCl, and NH3etc simple molecule like H2O, HCl,
CH3OHetc.
Unsaturated monomers undergo this Functional monomers undergo this
reaction reaction
For this low pressure &temperature is For this high pressure &
required temperature is required

Thermo softening plastic are prepared Thermosetting plastic are prepared

by this method by this method

Linear or chain structure is formed in Three dimensional structure is

Polymer formed in polymer
It is fast reaction It is slow reaction

Reaction gives only main product Reaction gives main product &
subsidary product

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Q. Write any four applications of plastic based on its properties. OR
Write properties of plastic and its related applications
Ans: Applications of plastic

Properties Applications

They are used in aircraft, motor cars

Low density and high tensile strength
and in structural industries.

They are used in electronic industry

Low electrical conductivity
for electrical insulation of PCB,
cabinets of TV, computer.

Low thermal conductivity They are used for making handles of

electric irons, soldering gun, pressure
cookers

They are used in chemical industry in

Corrosion resistant and chemical
manufacturing of tanks, tubes, pipes,
resistance
absorption towers etc.

It is used in furniture like chairs ,

Light in weight and strong
tables, stools, decorative items like
clocks, toys, panels sheet, mirror case
etc.

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Q. Explain the structure of thermosoftening and thermosetting plastic

Structure of thermosoftening plastic: This plastic is formed by

addition polymerization. It has long chain linear polymer with
negligible cross links. Its monomer has atleast two active valencies.
Under suitable conditions these valencies links with other similar
monomers forming linear chain as shown below

If M is monomer

Structure of thermosetting plastic: This plastic is formed by condensation

polymerization. It has three dimensional network chain structure. Its
monomer has at least three active valencies. Under suitable condition these
valencies link with other type of monomers forming network chain structure
as shown below

If M is monomer

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Q. Write chemical unit and structure of rubber
Ans: The chemical unit of rubber is (C5 H8) x where, x = 5000 or more units in
polymer chain
Structure of rubber

Q. Write any four applications of rubber based on their properties.OR

Give engineering application of rubber
Ans: Applications of rubber

Properties Based application

Elasticity, toughness, tensile strength For making rubber bands, tubes of
vehicles, sports goods, telephone
reciever, ball etc.
Abrasion resistant Used in tyres of vehicles, shoe heels
and Soles, V-belt, conveyor belt, floor
tiles, Rubber mats, etc.
Bad conductor of electricity Used for insulation wires and cables,
switch board panels, plug, sockets, and
battery cases.
Hardness Rubber gaskets are used for sealing
refrigerator, cabinet doors, cookers,
autoclave etc.
Chemical resistance Rubber is used for lining in chemical
tank, as gaskets, rubber seals, pumps

73
Q. Define the following properties of synthetic rubbers.
1. Elasticity 2. Tack 3. Abrasion resistant
4. Tensile strength 5.Hardness 6.Rebound
Ans: Properties of synthetic rubber

Elasticity: Elasticity is the property by virtue of which a material

undergoes deformation under stress and regains its original shape on
removal of the stress.

Ex: rubber bands, automobile tubes.

Tack: Tack is the special characteristic of rubber by virtue of which two

or more surface can stick to each other.

Ex: In manufacturing of rubber tyres.

Abrasion resistance: Abrasion resistance is process of wearing away

the surface of rubber by friction.Ex: Automobile tyres, shoe soles.

Tensile strength (stress and strain): When a dumbbell shaped piece of

rubber is taken and placed in the machine and further it is stretched until
it breaks. The load at which it breaks is its tensile strength

Ex. V belts and conveyor belts.

Hardness: Hardness is ability of rubber to with stand wear, abrasion

and resists penetration. Ex: shock absorber, gaskets etc

Rebound: It is the ability to absorb energy and return without permanent

deformation of a synthetic rubber.

Ex: Rubber ball will bounce when dropped used in shock absorbers.

74
 CHAPTER -1
Chemical Bonding
FORMULAE:

1. Z = P = e
2. A = Z + n
3. No. of neutrons ( n ) = A – Z

Where, Z = Atomic number

P = no. of protons

e = no. of electrons

A = Atomic mass number

Example 1:
235 .
A radioactive element is represented as 92U Find number of neutrons and
number of electrons.
Solution:
Atomic number (Z) = 92 = Number of electrons.
Atomic mass no (A) = 235
No. of neutrons = A - Z = 235 – 92 = 143

Example 2:
If atomic number and atomic mass number of an element is 11 and 23
respectively. Write number of protons, neutrons and electrons.
Solution:
Atomic number = Z = 11
Atomic mass number =A = 23

75
No. of protons (Z) = 11
No. of electrons (Z) = 11
No. of neutrons (n) = A – Z = 23 – 11 = 12

Example 3:
Nucleus of an atom consists of 19 protons and 20 neutrons. Calculate atomic
no., atomic mass no. and state its electrochemical nature.
Solution:
Protons = 19. Neutron (n) = 20
Atomic number = Number of proton P = Z = 19
Atomic mass number (A) = Z + n = 19 + 20 = 39
This element is potassium which is electro positive

Example 4:
Calculate the atomic number and atomic mass number of an atom containing
20 electrons and 20 neutrons.
Ans: Atomic Number = number of electrons in extra nuclear part
Z = 20
Number of electrons = Number of protons
Number of protons = 20
Atomic mass number = No. of protons + No. of neutrons
= 20 + 20
= 40
Atomic no. is 20 & atomic mass no. is 40

76
 CHAPTER -2
Electrochemistry

FORMULAE:

1. W = Z × C × t

2. Faraday’s 2nd law :

Wt.of A substance deposited = C.E. of substance A
Wt. of B substance deposited C.E. of substance B

3. C.E. (Eq.wt ) = Z ( E.C.E ) × 96500 Eq. wt= Atomic weight /Valency

Example 1:

What current strength in Amperes will be required to liberate 12.7 gms of

Iodine from KI solution in 40 minutes? (Given E.C.E. of Iodine = 0.0013).

Ans.Given :t = 40 min = 40 × 60 = 2400 sec.

W= 12.7 gms,Z = 0.0013

To find : C = ?

Soln : We have W = Z × C × t

12.7 = 0.0013 × C × 40 × 60

C= 12.7
0.0013 × 40 × 60

C = 4.07 amperes

Current strength required is 4.07 amperes.

77
Example 2:

A given quantity of electricity is passed through two cells containing copper

sulphate and silver nitrate respectively. If 0.99 gms of silver and 0.29 gms of
copper are deposited, find equivalent weight of silver when that of copper is
31.6.

Ans.Given :Wt. of Ag deposited = 0.99 gm

Wt. of Cu deposited = 0.29gm

Eq. wt of Cu = 31.6

To find: Eq. wt of Ag = ?

Soln : From Faraday‟s second law.

Wt. of Ag deposited = Eq. wt. of Ag

Wt. of Cu deposited Eq. wt. of Cu

Eq. wt. of Ag = Wt. of Ag deposited × Eq. wt. of Cu

Wt. of Cu deposited

= 0.99 × 31.6 = 107.87

0.29

Eq. wt. of Ag is 107.87

Example 3:
A current of 3 amperes passing through silver nitrate solution for 20 minutes
deposit 4.0 g of silver. What is the E.C.E. of silver?
Ans. Given : C = 3 amp.
t = 20 min = 20 × 60 = 1200 sec.
W = 4.0 g
To find: Z=?

78
Soln : From Faradays first law of electrolysis
W=Z×C×t
Z = W = 4.0 = 0.00111 gms.
C ×t 3×1200

E. C.E. of silver is = 0.00111 gms

Example 4:
When the same amount of current is passed through the solution of CuSO4
and ZnSO4, then 0.7 and 0.7164 gms of Cu and Zn get deposited on respective
electrodes. Calculate equivalent weight of Zn (atomic wt. of Cu = 63.5 ).

Ans. Given: Wt. of Cu deposited = 0.7

Wt. of Zn deposited = 0.716
At. Wt. of Cu = 63.5
To find: Eq. Wt. of Zn = ?
Soln: Eq. Wt. of Cu = At .Wt = 63.5 = 31.75
Valency 2

From Faraday‟s second law of electrolysis

Wt. of Cu deposited = Eq. Wt. of Cu

Wt. if Zn deposited Eq. Wt. of Zn

Eq. wt. of Zn = Wt. of Cu deposited × Eq. wt. of Cu

Wt. if Zn deposited

= 0.7 × 31.75
0.716
= 31.04

Eq. wt. of Zn = 31.04

79
You Are The Creator Of …….
Your Own Destiny…!!!

Prof. Atul B. Waghmare [9527202189, 9657824223]

[ M. Sc. Analytical Chemistry]

Shri Yogeshwari Polytechnic College, Ambejogai

Winners Never Quit…….

Quitters Never Win…….!!!

Best of Luck

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