CHAPTER - 2

VHF Omni-Range (VOR)

15
2 VHF OMNI-DIRECTIONAL RADIO RANGE (VOR)

2.1 VOR as a navigational aid

VOR (Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Radio Range) is the standard short range
air navigation aid used by the member states of the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) all over the world. The VOR system, which is comprised of ground
transmitting station and air-borne receiver, provides visual azimuth information to the
pilot with respect to magnetic north. The angular information provided by the VOR is
called radial which is clockwise from the magnetic north and represents degree for
degree as measured from the location of the VOR station.

ICAO has recommended having the accuracy of the VOR not exceeding  2. The
modern VOR provides accuracy better than 0.5. Thus, an aircraft can fly to and from a
VOR station with high accuracy.

N
0

270 90
W E
VOR station

180 
S

(Radials of VOR)
Fig. # 2.1

2.2 Frequency Band

The VOR operates in the frequency band 111.975 to 117.975 MHz. The highest
assignable frequency is 117.950 MHz. However, in some special conditions, as
explained in ICAO Annex-10, a VOR may be permitted to operate in the band 108 to
111.975 MHz also so long as use of such frequency is acceptable and the operating
VOR does not make any interference with other navaids equipment.

The channel separation between the VOR's is generally taken either 100 KHz or
200KHz. from place to place with frequency tolerance of  0.005%. In order to
accommodate more VOR beacons, in some densely installed areas, the channel
separation may be used as close as 50 KHz. But to avoid harmful interference or inter-
modulation the frequency tolerance of all the nearby VOR's should be maintained at 
0.002.

16
2.3 General principal of operation

The VOR operates on the principal that the phase difference between two signals can be
employed as a mean of determining azimuth if one of the signals maintains a fixed
phase throughout 360, and the phase of the other is made to vary continuously as
direct linear function of azimuth. The phase difference between these two signals will
then indicate the azimuth of the aircraft with respect to the VOR station. In practice two
30 Hz signals are used. These signals are termed as reference phase (REF) and
variable phase. The Fig. 3.2 below shows the principals of REF and VAR signals and
the phase relationships between these two at various angles.

N Ref

Ref
Var

Var 0
Ref
W E
VOR station
270 Var

Ref 90
S

Var

180 (Fig.2.2)

The reference 30 Hz phase signal frequency modulates a 9960 Hz sub-carrier, which in

turn is used to amplitude modulate the station RF carrier signal. The entire signal is then
space modulated to create 30 Hz variable phase. This is achieved by formation of
cardioid pattern and then rotating it at 1800 revolutions per minute. Frequency
separation between the reference phase and variable phase 30 Hz signals is then
accomplished in the aircraft receiver to find the azimuth of the location. The station is
identified by an identification signal, which is amplitude modulated with a tone 1020Hz in
the form of coded two to three letters signal in Morse code.

17
2.4 Basic VOR transmission techniques

The following block-diagram, Fig. 2.2.3, explains the basic transmission techniques of a
VOR and describes in details the formation of reference and variable signals by rotation
of signal in space.

Fig. of eight pattern

Mod. Gonio-
eliminator meter

Cardioid

9960 Hz 30 Hz FM 30% AM RF Amp.

Generator Modulator Modulator Omnidirectional

( General block diagram of a VOR)

Fig. 2.3)

A 9960 Hz generator produces the sub-carrier frequency, which is the basis for the REF
signal. The 9960 Hz is fed to a 30Hz frequency modulator in order to produce the
frequency deviation of  480 Hz. This again is amplitude modulated with 30% on the
VHF transmitter, normally 50 to 200 Watts output. The REF signal is fed to an
Omnidirectional antenna, which normally is a loop antenna, called Alford loop antenna.
The REF signal is also in parallel fed to a modulation eliminator, which removes the
modulation, and the signal output from this block is then a clean continuous wave (CW)
signal with the same carrier frequency. This signal is fed to the horizontally polarized
dipole antenna to obtain the figure of eight pattern.

Since the frequency of these two signals are the same, they will combine together to
form a cardioid. The goniometer rotates the figure of eight at 1800 rpm, which will also
cause the cardioid to rotate at the same rate.
max

Variable phase
30 Hz AM
+
Ref.phase +
30 Hz FM
-

fc- (9960  480) fc-30 fc fc+30 fc+ (9960  480) min.

( Frequency spectrum of VOR in space) ( Formation of cardioid pattern)

Fig. 2.4 Fig. 2.5

A cardioid has maximum and minimum radiation pattern. While rotating, when the
maximum pattern is towards the receiver it will receive maximum signal and for minimum
pattern the signal received will be minimum. Therefore, if the cardioid is made to rotate

18
at 1800 times per minute (30 times per second), the receiver will get the signal as 30 Hz
AM. The following Fig. 2.2.6 explains the rotation of the cardioid pattern and the resulting
AM signals received by the airborne VOR receivers at north, east, south and west
directions. Form these figures it is evident that the variable phase of the amplitude
modulation (space modulation) is dependent of azimuth degree by degree.

W E

+ NORTH

-
+ EAST

+ SOUTH

+ WEST

(Rotation of cardioid and reception of signal in N.S.E.and W)

Fig. 2.6

From the above illustration it is seen that the signal received at various points are
different although received from the same source. At the rotation speed of 1800 rpm (30
times per second) cardioid makes 30 revolution per second. Accordingly 30 wavelengths
are produced (30Hz). This is the variable phase. Reference phase is contained in 9960
KHz which, is frequency modulated at 30 Hz and is received with the same phase
regardless of position.

2.5 Rotation of cardioid

As explained earlier, position of cardioid is dependent of position of figure of eight

pattern. Therefore, if the figure of eight pattern is rotated the cardioid will also rotate at
the same speed. In the old VOR a motor at the speed of 1800 rpm rotated the dipole.
The device, which rotates the pattern, is called goniometer. Since, the accuracy of a
VOR is highly dependent on rotation of cardioid, any change in motor speed caused

19
serious problems. Nowadays fixed antennas are used and the goniometer produces
such signal to the VOR antenna that the figure of eight pattern is electronically rotated.

Figure 2.2-7 indicates a Goniometer and its two outputs, i.e. one sinusoidal pattern and
other cosinusoidal pattern. Both patterns have the same RF carrier phase which, is
indicated by Ecos t.

Esinpt.cost (Sine pattern)

Fihure of eight pattern

To dipole NE-SW

Crossed dipoles
Ecost Electronic
Gonio NW NE
meter SW SE
From Modulation
eliminator
To dipoles SE-NW

Ecospt.cost (Cosine pattern)

Ecospt

(Fig..2-7)

There are two inputs to the Goniometer, one CW signal (Ecost) from the modulation
eliminator and the other a LF signal (Ecospt) which modulates the RF carrier. The
antenna system consists of two crossed dipoles or slot antennas facing NE/SW and
SE/NW. The cosine output from the goniometer, which is called green sideband, is
always connected to the NW/SE antenna. The sine output from the Goniometer is called
red sideband and is connected to NE/SW antenna.

As seen from the goniometer diagram, the red and green outputs are 90 out of phase.
Therefore at any time when the cosine signal is maximum the sine signal is zero and
vice versa. This means, when NW/SE antenna will radiate the figure of eight pattern with
maximum energy the NE/SW antenna will not radiate any. Similarly, after some time
when NE/SW antenna will get maximum energy NW/SW will not radiate any.
Because sinusoidal variation is smooth, the rotation will also be smooth. Also, the
envelope of the curves, i.e. sine and cosine patterns, are provided with frequency of 30
Hz, the resulting figure of eight pattern will also rotate with 30 Hz (1800 rpm).

Each pair of the antennas are fed with a steady increase or decrease in power,
therefore, the individual figure of eight pattern will be radiating only in two fixed directions
90 apart. Since the carrier frequency of both patterns are the same, the vector sum of
these two will produce a resulting figure of eight pattern that will rotate with correct
frequency of 30 Hz.

By inspecting the following diagram (Fig. 2.2-8) one can easily visualize how the rotation
takes place. Since the cardioid pattern is formed by vector addition of figure of eight and
non-directional circular patterns, it will also rotate with the same speed as figure of eight
pattern, i.e. at 30 Hz.

20
 Time Antenna NW/SE Antenna NE/SW Resultant diagram

+ +
T = 0
- -

T = 45
+

+ +
T = 90
- -

T = 135
- +

- -
T = 180
+ +

-
T = 225
+

- -
T = 270
+ +

+
T = 315 + -

( Electronically rotation of figure of eight pattern)

Fig.2-8

2.6 VOR Errors

Since VOR works in VHF band, all the propagation limitations applicable to VHF
transmission are also true for VOR. Although in comparison to an NDB a VOR is more
reliable and accurate, but it suffers complications in mountainous terrain.

1) Multi-path errors: The major bearing errors in the VOR system are caused by multi-
path reception. Signals reaching the aircraft receiver may include those that arrive after
reflections from natural or man-made objects as well as those arriving by a direct path.
The multi-path signals will add and subtract as the phases of direct and reflected signals
vary while the aircraft flies along the course. Thus instead of a straight course the aircraft
may receive the signals in the following forms:

21
# Course roughness - It is a series of rapid irregular deviations of a radial.

+3

-3
-3
(Fig. 2-9)

# Course scalloping - It is a series of faster rhythmic deviations of a radial.

+3

(Fig. 2-10)
- 3

# Course Bends - It is very slow rhythmic deviation of a radial

+3

(Fig. 2-11)
-3

# Combination - In practice, combination of all three types may be noticed.

+3

(Fig. 2-12)
- 3
The level of multi-path is a function of altitude. Multi-path effect is higher at lower
altitudes than the higher altitudes. Thus where the VOR ground beacon is installed in the
vicinity of the obstructions or when the aircraft flies over the mountainous terrain, more
scalloping or roughness is felt.

VOR also gets errors from other sources, such as:

2) Ground station errors : results from misphasing of the 30 Hz reference and variable
phases, misalignment of the north and other calibration errors at the VOR station. The
major ground station error is due to spurious vertical polarization generated by the
antennas resulting in undesirable vertically polarized 30 Hz azimuth dependent
component. This spurious 30Hz component will not be in phase with the actual 30 Hz
horizontally polarized variable phase. The aircraft antenna, although horizontally
polarized, will pick up some of this vertically polarized signal when the aircraft will tilt.
These factors may cause an additional error to the tune of 1.

22
3) Aircraft receiver error: It is a function of the cost and age of the aircraft receiver. The
older generation aviation receivers tend to have errors, which in new equipment have
been essentially eliminated. The modern aircraft receivers have performance better than
2.

3) Pilotage or flight technical error: It is a function of many parameters, which are all
difficult to measure. Studies of flight technical errors show the error to be higher when
the aircraft makes a turn than on a straight-line route.

Since all errors are independent with respect to each other, the total error can be
calculated as follows:

Total error =  (Em2 + Eg2 + Ea2 +Ep2)

Where: Em - Multi-path error

Eg - Ground station error

Ea - Aircraft receiver error

Ep - Pilotage error

2.7 Sitting requirements

As the VOR is working on VHF band, it is subject to multi-path reflections from the
surrounding objects. It is therefore important to analyze the near and distant terrain
where the VOR shall be situated in order to obtain the best possible signal quality. See
Fig. 2.2-13.

The following are the general guidance in respect of siting of a VOR.

a) The site should be on the highest ground in the vicinity to obtain maximum line of
sight coverage. Preferably 1000 ft - 2000 ft. the land around the station should be
circular and as flat as possible. A downward slope up to a gradient of 4% is acceptable.

b) The height of the high-tension lines or wire fences should not subtend a vertical angle
of more than 1.5

c) Single trees of moderate size of up to 30 ft. may be allowed beyond 500 ft. No group
of trees is allowed within 1000 ft. if they subtend vertical angle greater than 2 from the
VOR antenna.

23
d) No metallic structure should subtend a vertical angle greater than 1.2 or should be
within 500 ft. from the station. Wooden structures with negligible metallic contents may
be allowed if they subtend vertical angle no more than 2.5.

e) In the mountainous terrain, a mountain top site will often be preferable. The
site should be on the highest accessible hilltop or mountain, the top of which
should be graded flat to a radius of at least 150-ft. On such sites, the antenna system
should be installed approximately a half wavelength above the ground level in the center
of the graded area and the transmitter building should be beyond the graded area down
the slope below the optical line from the antenna array. No ground trees, power lines,
buildings etc. between 150 ft. and 1200 ft. should be within optical line of site of the
antenna array.

2.5 Wooden structures

No obstructions
2 Group of trees
1.5 High tension lines
1.2 Metallic structures
VOR
0

1000'  5% slope
( VOR SITING REQUIREMENTS)
Fig. 2-. 13

2.8 Doppler VOR (DVOR)

2.8.1 General

As seen from the above siting criteria, to install a VOR several factors have to be taken
in to consideration regarding obstructions, fence lines, power lines, trees etc. This may
lead to very expensive groundwork, removal of existing high-tension lines, structures,
and prohibition of development activities close to the VOR building in future. This is not
only impractical but also unacceptable by the population living around the airport.

The development of Doppler VOR, or in short DVOR, was stimulated by the need to
provide VOR facility in the locations where siting problems rendered the conventional
VOR incapable of meeting minimum siting requirements.

Before the development of DVOR thousands of aircraft all over the world were already
using the conventional VOR and associated receivers. Therefore, it was not practical to
shut down the entire system and transfer in to new system. Therefore, ICAO, while
approving the specifications for DVOR, set out the conditions that the new system
should be designed in such a way that the aircraft should not feel any difference whether
receiving a conventional VOR or DVOR signal. In other words, from the user's point of
view, the DVOR is completely compatible with the conventional VOR although the
method of generating and radiating the navigational signals is changed considerably.

24
If the Doppler VOR system was not constrained by the parameters of the conventional
VOR system and the designers were free to vary the carrier frequency, sub-carrier FM
deviations etc., the design problems would have been significantly solved. However, that
was not the case, and several experiments were done all over the world prior to
approving the new system.

The Doppler VOR has successfully demonstrated that it is relatively insensitive to siting
effects and provides overall better performance than the conventional VOR. Therefore,
most of the countries are installing the DVOR than the conventional VOR. The following
table makes a comparison of siting criteria between the two VOR's.

Obstructions CVOR DVOR

1. Flat area without any obstructions 1000-2000' 450'-900'
2. Wooden structures 2.5 5.6
3. Group of trees 2 4.4
4. Overhead lines 1.5 3.3
5. Metallic structures 1.2 2.6
6. Fences 0.5 1.1

(Siting criteria between two VOR's)

2.8.2 Advantages of DVOR

DVOR always provides a significant improvement on any site and can be installed even
in very difficult locations. It is seen that for a reflecting signal equal to 10% of the direct
signal the maximum scalloping of CVOR is 5.75 in comparison to 0.4 for a DVOR. In
flat areas and where the reflecting object is between the station and aircraft, both will
perform equally.

In general, the accuracy and overall performance of a DVOR is at least 5 to 10 times

better than the conventional VOR. This improved accuracy and stability means less
maintenance and less flight check expenses by the Civil Aviation authorities.
Course scalloping

Reflector

6 CVOR 
Aircraft
3

1 DVOR
(Fig. 2-14)
0 90 180 

The DVOR has the following distinct advantages over the conventional VOR:

# Where the site position is fixed and no alternate site exists DVOR gives a higher
guarantee of performance and also requires less expertise on site to achieve that
performance.

25
# Where heavy constraints on site selection do not apply but higher performance is
required, DVOR being less site critical, reduces the problems of land acquisition, access,
services and rental by virtue of greater number of sites which qualify for consideration.

# Very good VOR service is always required in high-growth areas. DVOR will ensure that
its performance will not deteriorate with the future expansions in the locality.

# DVOR suffers less from the effects of industrial interference than CVOR.

These advantages are not, of course, available at no cost. At present situation a DVOR
may cost at least four times more than a conventional VOR. Nonetheless, when
reduction in normal maintenance costs, frequent flight testing expenses, and reliability
are taken in to consideration, initial high cost becomes less significant. The cost of
ownership of a DVOR over its normal life can be considerably less than for conventional
VOR, and it will give an operationally more useful and reliable service during its lifetime.

2.8.3 Principal of operation of DVOR

Doppler VOR employs two fundamental principals:

a) Utilization of Doppler effect for generating the frequency modulated bearing

information.
b) Use of wide-aperture antenna array for minimizing the effects of multi-path wave
propagation, which is the main cause of bearing deviations in VOR.

Unlike in the conventional VOR, in DVOR the reference signal is Amplitude Modulated
(AM) and the variable signal is frequency modulated (FM). Since to find the azimuth of a
place only the phase difference of two signals is required, it is therefore not important
which one is which. Hence the aircraft receiver is compatible for both systems. In DVOR,
frequency modulation of 9960 Hz sub-carrier is accomplished by the Doppler Effect. The
manner in which this effect is utilized in DVOR may be explained by imagining a single
radiating antenna fastened one end by a long horizontal arm, which is being rotated,
about a central point at 1800rpm.

Anti-clockwise fc +9960 Hz (upper sideband0

rotation
fc

Central
antenna

(Generation of FM by Doppler effect)

Fig. 2-15

As the antenna will move towards and away from the receiver, the received frequency at
any point in space will vary due to Doppler effect. If the rotation frequency is fixed then

26
the amount of frequency deviation will solely depend on the diameter of the circle about
which the antenna rotates. As ICAO specifies this deviation to be as  480 Hz for 30 Hz
modulation, the required diameter will be approximately 5/, or 13.5 m for a VOR
frequency working on 115 MHz (mid frequency) and rotating at a constant speed of 30
revolutions per second. Due to technical difficulties, in DVOR rotation takes place anti-
clockwise direction, whereas, in conventional VOR it is in clockwise direction.

If the rotation is exactly 30 times per second, due to Doppler effect, the frequency of the
rotating signal will be received at any azimuth as follows:

Closer end Opposite end

Apparent FM

Detected 30 Hz signal
One cycle in one revolution

(Fig. 2-16)

In order to appear this deviation as  480 Hz of 9960 KHz sub-carrier, a second antenna,
located in the center of the 13.5-m diameter circle, must is used to radiate a signal,
which differs, by 9960 KHz from that of the rotating antenna.

The beating of these two frequencies in the receiver will produce a 9960 KHz frequency
modulated at 30 Hz with a deviation  480 Hz. The phase of this FM signal will vary from
place to place, and for the rotation speed of 30 Hz it will vary exactly degree to degree
throughout 360 radials. Therefore this space modulated FM signal will be received as
the variable phase signal by the aircraft.

It is obviously impractical to rotate an antenna at 30 Hz rate at the end of an arm 7-meter

long. Therefore, to achieve the same effect, an electronic distributor feeds 48 antennas,
equally spaced on the periphery of a circle of 7-m radius, in turn. The RF energy fed to
the central carrier antenna is 30 Hz amplitude modulated. It acts as the reference signal
since the phase of this signal will not change with the azimuth. The central antenna also
amplitude modulates a two to three letters Morse coded 1020 Hz sinusoidal tone to
identify the station.

There are three different types of DVOR systems:

# Single sideband
# Double sideband
#Alternating sideband

27
Out of the above three types, the double sideband became more popular due to better
technical performance. In double sideband, two different frequencies, called side-bands,
are rotated around the circle. One is fc+9960 Hz and the other is fc-9960 Hz. To
maintain compatibility with the existing VOR receivers DVOR radiates signals within the
same frequency spectrum that is assigned to the VOR. However, opposed to the
conventional VOR the azimuth-dependent information is contained in the phase of the
frequency-modulated signal as illustrated below:

AM 30 Hz reference signal
Carrier

Lower sideband Upper sideband

 480 Hz  480 Hz

fc - 9960 Hz fc-30 fc fc+30 fc+9960 Hz

(Frequency spectrum of a double sideband DVOR)

Fig.2-17

2.9 Airborne VOR receiver

The aircraft receiver consists of a special aerial, a VHF receiver, frequency selector, and
a display unit. Normally the display unit is combined with other VHF systems, such as
Instrument Landing System (ILS) or VHF air-ground radio communication, etc. There are
various types of display units available these days. For simplicity, a conventional display
unit has been illustrated in Fig. 2.2-18

Indicator needle TO/FROM Indicator

TO
VOR Radial

045

O OBS
B
S
(A typical VOR indicator in the aircraft)
Fig. 2-18

OBS is the Omni Bearing Selector. It selects the required radial of the VOR, which a pilot
would like to fly. TO/FRM indicates whether the aircraft is flying to or from the VOR.
Here, for example, 045 is selected which means the aircraft is flying to a VOR at 45
bearing from a VOR station. When the needle is exactly vertical, then it is on exact
course. Full-scale deflection of the needle to the left or right normally corresponds to 10.

28
Each dot therefore is approximately 2. Left means, it is more than the selected radial,
whereas right means less.
The airborne equipment is capable of presenting bearing within 2 but, due to terrain
effects and site limitations, it is usual to regard the accuracy as  5 for practical
purposes. This means that when the deviation needle is centered the receiver is within
5 of the selected track.

The following illustration clarifies the operation of display unit of the airborne VOR
receiver.

TO

225
TO 45 radial

225

North
75 radial

VOR

TO
Aircraft route

225

From

225 radial
225

(A typical VOR indication when an aircraft flies in and outbound)

Fig. 2-19

As the aircraft turns to 45 radial (225 in-bound) the needle centers the vertical line.
When the aircraft passes over the VOR on to 225  outbound radial the TO indicator
changes to FROM.

29
2.10 Antenna system

Many surveys conducted on the performance of VOR installations have shown that
obstacle in the near field and below the horizontal lines mostly cause course errors.
Significant improvement in performance can be achieved by use of a narrower vertical
pattern. Accordingly, manufacturers design the VOR antenna so as to achieve the
radiation pattern as stated above. ICAO Annex-10 has specified: " The VOR shall
provide signals such as to permit satisfactory operation of a typical aircraft installation at
the levels and distances required for operational reasons, and up to an elevation angle
of 40". The VOR emission is essentially horizontally polarized. The vertical polarized
component should be as small as technically possible. The vertical radiation pattern of a
VOR should be as follows:

No radiation
(Cone of confusion)

40 40

VOR

( VOR vertical radiation pattern)

Fig. 2-20

Above 40 there is virtually no radiation or very little field strength. Therefore, the aircraft
receiver gets confused in this area, so it is called the cone of confusion. The cone of
confusion is above the VOR beacon and the aircraft crosses this area quickly. After
crossing the cone of confusion area, the indicator in the aircraft receiver changes from
TO to FROM. The field strength or power density of VOR signals required to permit
satisfactory operation of an aircraft receiver within the specified coverage area should be
90V per miter or -107dbW/M2. Therefore, the transmitter power and antenna
configurations are chosen to satisfy above requirements. The typical VOR antennas
used by most of the manufacturers are as follows:

2.10.1 Conventional VOR antenna

The conventional VOR antenna is a four slot cylindrical antenna, similar to crossed
dipoles. Slot antenna is an infinitive metallic plane and acts like a dipole.

Diameter
D

RF in

( A slot antenna)
Fig. 2.21

30
The slot antenna poses very interesting properties. Depending upon the ratio of the
diameter of the cylinder to wavelength of rf signal different radiation pattern can be
generated from the slot antenna.

Slot slot slot

D/ = 0.125 D/ = 0.25 D/ = 8

Therefore, by using two slots, a figure of eight pattern can be generated. In VOR four
slots are used , and they are designated NE (northeast), SE (southeast), SW
(southwest), and NW (northwest)

NW NE

SW SE

To obtain the circular pattern, power output from the rf unit is fed to all four slots. The
goniometer feeds sinusoidal signal to NE/SW slots and cosinusoidal signal to NW/SE
slots. This provides the rotating figure of eight. Consequently, a cardioid is formed which
rotates.

2.10.2 Doppler VOR antenna

Doppler VOR antenna system is relatively much bigger than the conventional VOR
antenna. Most the DVORs these days are double sideband. In double sideband VOR the
amplitude modulated carrier is transmitted from the central antenna, and two side-bands
(fc +9960 and fc -9960) are rotated electronically at the speed of 1800 rpm in anti-
clockwise direction by switching in turn a circle of sideband antennas. Studies have
shown that to limit the undesired amplitude modulation of sideband signals, and to avoid
parasitic couplings between two neighboring antennas, 40 to 50 antennas are required.
In Nepal 48 antennas are used for sidebands and the central antenna radiates the AM
signal.

31
 A ring of 48 antennas

Monitor antenna
(80 m away)

13.5 m one central antenna

Metallic counterpoise

30 m

(DVOR antenna configuration)

Fig. 2.22

The counterpoise is a metallic structure top of which is covered by chicken wire. The
height of the counterpoise varies from place to place depending upon the site and
coverage required. Since the signals from the antennas bounce at the edges of the
counterpoise, wider the counterpoise better the immunity from the nearby reflections.
This causes less multi-path reflections and gives space and frequency diversity effect.
Therefore, as a whole, the accuracy of a DVOR gets better. The monitor antenna is
placed at several wavelengths away from the radiating elements, and is normally located
beyond 80 meters from the central antenna. The height of the counterpoise in Nepal is
kept at approximately 3 meters from the ground level. All antenna elements are Alford
Loop type. The antennas are kept at a height of approximately /2 from the counterpoise
top. Due to physical dimensions of the Alford loop, 48 antennas can be accommodated
in a ring of 13.5 m without any problem. Also, this antenna is ideal with the radiation
point of view and widely used in Doppler VOR system worldwide.

Feed
point

( An Alford loop antenna) ( Horizontal pattern) (Vertical pattern)

(Fig. 2.23)

32
2.11 Transmitting techniques

2.11.1 Conventional VOR

A simplified Block diagram of a conventional VOR is shown in figure 2.2-24.

The Goniometer provides a 30 Hz frequency modulated 9960 Hz sub-carrier signal to

the Control Unit, which also gets a 1020 Hz Morse coded station identification signal
from the Keyer Unit. The Control Unit sends both signals to the AM Modulator.

AM Modulator amplitude modulates the sub-carrier at 30% and the Identification signal
at 10% to the station frequency. This composite signal is amplified in the RF Amplifier
from 50 to 200W depending upon the power of the VOR station.

The Amplitude modulated full power rf energy goes via Modulation Eliminator and RF
Phasing Unit to the non-directional antenna and gives a circular pattern. The Modulator
Eliminator does not make any changes to the main power output signal.

To create a figure of eight pattern, the Modulation Eliminator samples a small rf signal
from the main stream, removes the modulation and amplifies this signal to provides
approximately 1/10-th of clean rf carrier power to the Goniometer at the station
frequency.

The Goniometer creates two different sine and cosine signals at the same power and
same station frequency, and sends to RF Phasing Unit. These signals are called Upper
Sideband (USB) and Lower Sideband (LSB). Creation of 9960Hz 30 Hz FM signal is
independent to this operation.

In RF Phasing Unit, the phases of the main carrier and sidebands are adjusted correctly
to get an amplitude-modulated signal. To achieve correct modulation depths, powers of
main signal and sidebands are adjusted in the Modulation Eliminator.

Two monitors work independently and monitor the radiated signals throughout the
operation of VOR. The Control Unit, as the name denotes, controls the entire VOR
system. The main power to the transmitter is switched through this unit. In an event of a
malfunctioning, or misalignment of radiated signal, the monitors provide command
signals to it, and the control unit disconnects the power or transfers to standby
equipment.

The antenna is installed on top of a counterpoise, approximately 4-5 m diameter.

The monitor antenna is installed at the edge of the counterpoise.

33
 Power supply to Tx To antenna

LSB

Voice
Control AM RF Amp. RF Phasing USB
Unit Modulator Unit Unit
Unit
Keyer

Monitor Power supply 100W 100W 10W 10W

No.1

Modulation Goniometer
Monitor Eliminator Unit
No.2 Unit 10W

Sub-carrier signal 9960 Hz  480 Hz (30Hz FM)

( A simplified Block-diagram of a VOR)

Fig.2.24

34
2.11.2 Doppler VOR

Based on antenna rotation techniques, three different types of DVOR have been
developed. These are,single sideband, double sideband, and alternate sideband.

Single sideband: - In SSB-DVOR one sideband, fc + 9960 KHz is fed to the commutator
and switched around the ring of radiating elements. The system is capable of radiating
the correct frequency spectrum. However, in space a receiver finds some variation in
field strength. The nearer antenna gives higher field strength than the opposite far end
antenna, as they are placed apart. This gives rise to an additional unwanted 30 Hz AM in
variable FM signal.

3
d1

d2

Double sideband:- Double sideband operation reduces the above counterpoise effect to
almost zero. In this system, upper and lower sideband signals are radiated
simultaneously from antennas diametrically opposite to each other. Both sidebands are
commuted at 30 Hz in the same direction.

24 Lower sideband

(Fig. 2.26 )
1
Upper sideband

Alternate-sideband:- The alternate-sideband is the simplification of the double-sideband.

The two sidebands are radiated alternately from opposite sides. Although technically
perfect, it requires some additional modifications in aircraft receiver, ald also requires
larger counterpoise than the above two.

Lower sideband

Upper sideband (Fig.2-27)

Out of above three systems, the double sideband VOR became more popular. In Nepal
all DVORs are working with double sidebands.

35
2.11.3 Antenna switching:- There are 48 antennas closely placed in a ring of
approximately 13.5 m. This causes problems associated with mutual antenna coupling.
This gives rise to additional unwanted modulation in sub-carrier. Perfect simulation of a
continuously rotating antenna by an integral number of fixed antennas requires that the
feed to each have a modulation envelope represented by the function:

f(x) = Sinx/x.

(Ideal switching pulse)

The function is physically impossible to implement. Several other types of impulses were
suggested to feed to the antenna system, such as, tri-angular, Cos0.83 X, CosX, etc. In
the VORs in Nepal CosX function is used. It is easy to generate and rotation effect is
acceptable.

2.11.4 Simplified DVOR Block-diagram

A simplified block-diagram of a Doppler VOR is indicated in the following figures.

Reference signal generation :- Station carrier frequency fc is generated in a crystal VHF

oscillator and sent to the Driver Unit through manual and automatic phase shifter units.
In the driver unit Amplitude Modulation of 30 Hz reference signal and 1020 Hz keyed
station identification signals takes place. The AM modulated signal from the driver unit is
amplified by three power amplifiers and combined to produce a VHF signal of
approximately 50 Watts output. This output is sent to the central Alford loop antenna for
omni-directional radiation.

Since the phase of the reference signal should not change, an automatic phase
correction system is available. A phase detector checks for any change in outgoing and
generated phase of 30 Hz reference signal. If so, then a control voltage, equivalent to
the phase difference, will be sent to the VHF Oscillator for automatic phase correction. A
Manual Phaser allows to set the phase of 30 Hz reference signal to align it with magnetic
north.

Forward and reflected signals are also sniffed from another directional coupler (DC2)
and sent to a Control Unit. In an event of a mismatch of antenna, the reflected signal will
become too high. This will activate the corresponding circuit in the control unit to shut
down the power supply to the RF power amplifiers.

Sideband generation:- ICAO Annex-10 states that the sub-carrier signal 9960 KHz
should be within  1%. Since, 10 KHz is within that tolerance and relatively easier to
generate (being the decimal unit), the DVOR uses 10 KHz as sub-carrier in stead of
9960 KHz.

36
Two crystal controlled USB and LSB oscillators generate two sideband frequencies, fc +
10 KHz and fc- 10 KHz independently. These sideband signals are mixed in two
independent mixers with the reference signal fc from the station VHF oscillator. The
phases of the two 10 KHz signals received from the Mixer units and Master Oscillator
are compared in the phase detectors. The phase detectors generate a correction dc
signal in the event of mis-phasing.

As explained earlier, for smooth rotation of the signal, these two sidebands have to be
modified in to cosine impulses prior to feeding to the antenna ring. Shaping of the
required impulses take place in two varactor bridges. A varactor or a varicap is a voltage
dependent capacitor, capacity of which changes in accordance with the bias applied to it.
When a set of two varying voltages are applied to this bridge, the sideband carrier wave
changes into series of two different Cosine impulses, 90 apart, as illustrated below:

Fc  10 KHz O/P Cosine impulses

Varactor bridge

Even o/p

Odd o/p

fc 10 KHz carrier

Voltage input No.1

Voltage input No.2

(Generation of sideband impulses)

Such impulses are produced because of two pre-defined input voltages are applied to its
inputs. The unit, which generates such input waveforms, is called Blending Function
Generator. Two varactor bridges produce four sets of impulses. Each set produces
signals for even and odd antennas. The impulses are then fed to the antenna
changeover unit that switches the rf energy to various antennas in a prescribed order.
Rotation of sidebands produces FM 30 Hz modulation in space due to Doppler effect.
This is azimuth dependent signal and is called Variable signal.

37
 PA No.1

Automatic
Phaser unit Driver Unit Splitter Unit Combiner
PA No.2 Unit

PA No.3
Voice
Power
supply
Ident

Modulator Power Control unit

30 Hz
supply

Manual
phaser

VHF
oscillator Phase
detector

Control voltage

To USB/LSB mixers

( DVOR CARRIER GENERATION)

38
fc from VHF Oscillator

fc +10
Mixer Unit Phaser Unit USB Osc.. Varactor
Bridge No. 1 Even
Ant.
C/O
Unit
fc+10 Even ant.

Blending
Master osc. Function gen.
Odd
Fc -10 Ant.
C/O Odd ant.
Unit

Fc -10
Mixer Unit Phaser Unit LSB Osc. Varactor
Bridge No.2

( DVOR sideband generation)

39
2.12. Monitoring

The VOR equipment usually has two independent monitors, which monitor the
performance of the radiated signals throughout VOR operation. Monitors are
independent equipment and they do not share any circuitry with each other or with the
VOR transmitter system. Should any of the parameters deviate beyond the specified
limits, the monitors will indicate an alarm, and will shut down the transmitter. The
standby transmitter will then turn ON.

The following are the specified limits of a VOR or DVOR:

# A change in access of 1 at the monitor site of the bearing information transmitted by
the VOR

# A reduction of more than 15% of modulation depth of the reference and variable
signals.

# Failure of monitors.

2.13 Calibration

VOR is a very dependable radio navigational aid. Therefore its accuracy has to be
monitored continuously by regular ground and flight checks.

Ground checks: Ground checks are performed by the operations technicians in a

regular basis by using portable equipment. Signals are monitored at already surveyed
and known points to see if there is in change in radial. If so then the corrective measures
are taken.

Flight checks: The flight checks are performed in rather longer intervals. Special
equipped aircraft fly various orbits and radials to find if there are any deviations in
bearing information. The readings or observations are analyzed to take corrective
measures.

40