All You Ever Wanted To Know About Toyota Parts: A Guide For Toyota Owners

ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO
KNOW ABOUT TOYOTA PARTS

A GUIDE FOR TOYOTA OWNERS
All You Ever Wanted to Know About Toyota Parts
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Table of Contents
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT AIR CONDITIONING........................................7
TAKE NOTE ABOUT REFRIGERANT RULES....................................................................9
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT AIR FUEL RATIO SENSORS............................9
UNDERSTANDING AIR/FUEL RATIO SENSORS...............................................................9
AIR/FUEL RATIO SENSOR VS O2 SENSOR....................................................................9
THE BOTTOM LINE ON AIR/FUEL RATIO SENSORS.....................................................11
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT ALTERNATORS.............................................12
MODERNIZING CARS WITH ALTERNATORS................................................................12
EVOLVING DESIGNS.................................................................................................13
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT BRAKE CALIPERS........................................14
UNDERSTANDING THE BRAKING SYSTEM..................................................................14
CALIPER TYPES.......................................................................................................15
THE BOTTOM LINE...................................................................................................15
WHAT ARE BRAKE PADS MADE OF?..........................................................................16
FIRST, THE BEST BRAKE PAD ADVICE YOU’LL EVER GET.............................................16
WHICH MATERIALS ARE USED TO MAKE BRAKE PADS...............................................16
THE MOST COMMON BRAKE PAD MATERIALS..........................................................17
ORGANIC VS SEMI-ORGANIC VS METALLIC VS CERAMIC BRAKE PADS.......................19
WHICH BRAKE PAD MATERIAL(S) ARE BEST?.............................................................20
SOME NOTES ABOUT HIGH PERFORMANCE AFTERMARKET BREAK PADS...................20
AFTERMARKET BRAKE PADS MAY CONTAIN ASBESTOS!............................................20
BRAKE PAD PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS............................................................21
WHAT ARE TRANSFER FILM BRAKE PADS?................................................................22
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT CONTINUOUSLY VARIABLE TRANSMISSIONS
........................................................................................................................................22
THE STORY OF CVT..................................................................................................23
THE MODERN CVT...................................................................................................23
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT CRANK BEARINGS.......................................24

WHAT CRANK BEARINGS DO....................................................................................25
HOW CRANK BEARINGS ARE BUILT...........................................................................25
WHAT CAUSES CRANK BEARINGS TO FAIL?..............................................................25
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT ENGINE IMMOBILIZERS...............................26
HOW THEY WORK....................................................................................................26
THE PURPOSE OF IMMOBILIZERS.............................................................................27
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT EUTECTIC, HYPOEUTECTIC, AND
HYPEREUTECTIC PISTONS..............................................................................................28
FORGED VS CAST PISTONS......................................................................................28
HOW MUCH SILICON DO YOU NEED?........................................................................29
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT FUEL INJECTION..........................................30
WHAT MAKES FUEL INJECTION SO SPECIAL?............................................................30
HOW FUEL INJECTION WORKS.................................................................................31
DIRECT INJECTION PROMISES EVEN GREATER GAINS................................................31
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT HYBRID SYNERGY DRIVE............................32
THE HYBRID SYNERGY DRIVE DIFFERENCE................................................................33
DRIVING BETTER......................................................................................................33
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT KINETIC DYNAMIC SUSPENSION.................34
WHAT IS A KINETIC DYNAMIC SUSPENSION SYSTEM?...............................................34
HOW THIS HELPS.....................................................................................................35
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT SEQUENTIAL MANUAL TRANSMISSIONS....36
HOW A SEQUENTIAL MANUAL TRANSMISSION WORKS..............................................36
HOW TO USE A SEQUENTIAL MANUAL TRANSMISSION..............................................37
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT OHV, SOHC, AND DOHC................................37
OHV OR PUSHROD...................................................................................................38
SOHC......................................................................................................................38
DOHC......................................................................................................................38
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT OIL AND FUEL FILTERS................................39
HOW AN OIL FILTER WORKS.....................................................................................39
OIL FILTER DESIGN...................................................................................................39
HOW A FUEL FILTER WORKS.....................................................................................40
MAINTENANCE INTERVALS.......................................................................................40
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT OXYGEN SENSORS......................................40
HOW AN OXYGEN SENSOR WORKS...........................................................................41
BAD O2 SENSORS...................................................................................................42
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT PISTONS......................................................42
BASIC PISTON FUNCTION.........................................................................................42
PISTON ANATOMY...................................................................................................43
PISTON DESIGN.......................................................................................................44
FORGED VS CAST PISTONS......................................................................................44
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT PISTON RINGS.............................................45
PRIMARY FUNCTIONS OF A PISTON RING..................................................................45
PISTON RING DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION..............................................................46
FAILURE POINTS......................................................................................................46
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT POWER STEERING.......................................46
HOW HYDRAULIC POWER STEERING WORKS............................................................47
HOW ELECTRIC POWER STEERING WORKS...............................................................48
THE POWER STEERING RACK...................................................................................48
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT RADIATORS.................................................48
HOW THE COOLING SYSTEM WORKS........................................................................49
HOW THE RADIATOR WORKS....................................................................................49
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT SPARK PLUGS..............................................50
MODERN SPARK PLUGS...........................................................................................50
SPARK PLUGS OVER TIME........................................................................................51
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT VEHICLE STABILITY CONTROL....................52

HOW VSC WORKS....................................................................................................52
THE VSC “OFF SWITCH”...........................................................................................53
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTER MOTORS......................................54
HOW STARTERS WORK............................................................................................54
PROBLEMS WITH STARTERS....................................................................................55
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT TIMING BELTS AND CHAINS........................55
HOW THE TIMING BELT OR CHAIN WORKS................................................................56
WHY A CHAIN? WHY A BELT?....................................................................................56
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT TOYOTA VVT-I..............................................56
WHY VARY THE LIFT AND TIMING?............................................................................57
HOW VVT WORKS....................................................................................................58
HOW VVT-I WORKS..................................................................................................58
DUAL VVT-I..............................................................................................................58
VVTL-I.....................................................................................................................59
VVT-IE.....................................................................................................................59
VALVEMATIC............................................................................................................59
ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT WHEEL SPEED SENSORS.............................59
THE FUNCTION OF THE WHEEL SPEED SENSOR........................................................60
WHEN SOMETHING IS WRONG.................................................................................60
All You Ever Wanted To Know About

Air Conditioning
There you are stuck in traffic and your air conditioning goes out. This can be a frustrating and
uncomfortable scenario, but the good news is that you can fix this and get back to driving in comfort as
soon as possible.
Let’s start with a rundown of everything you need to know about your vehicle’s A/C system. The three
main components of the system are:
1. Compressor
2. Condenser
3. Evaporator
Automotive air conditioning has been around for decades, but the system being used in most vehicles
today is only about thirty years old. It consists of five basic parts:
1. A compressor
2. An expansion valve
3. An evaporator/blower
4. A drier
5. A condenser
This system circulates a refrigerant, which is a highly thermally-active substance that is pressurized and
quickly expanded to make it cold. All automotive air conditioning works on the principles of compression
and induction.
Front of Toyota Vehicle
The compressor resides on the engine as an accessory powered by the accessory/serpentine belt. When
active, it pressurizes the refrigerant in the vehicle’s A/C lines. There are two of those lines, the low and the
high pressure. The side going into the compressor is the low-pressure line and the side coming out of it
is the high pressure side, for obvious reasons. The high-pressure side will flow from the compressor to
the condenser. The condenser is a type of radiator that takes the highly-pressurized refrigerant through
a series of switchbacks around which air flows, blowing off excess heat. This cooling action liquefies the
refrigerant, which then goes to a drier.
The drier acts as an evaporator, separating water vapor from the refrigerant, reducing its freeze potential
as a liquid that can enter the system through condensation, even though the system is closed. The drier
acts as a failsafe for that. From the drier, the refrigerant heads to the expansion valve. This valve opens
and closes in a controlled way, causing the refrigerant to suddenly expand, or depressurize. Because the
sudden expansion causes the refrigerant to get very cold, it goes through the evaporator. As the refrigerant
passes through, air is also passed over the evaporator (which is another type of radiator).
The depressurized refrigerant then goes through the expansion valve again on the opposite side of the
valve, and then comes back to the compressor to complete the loop. The controls within the vehicle that
turn the air conditioning on and off will open and close the expansion valve accordingly.
Take Note About Refrigerant Rules

It should be noted that the refrigerant used in automotive air conditioning is considered a hazardous
substance by governing authorities. It is illegal for anyone but qualified technicians to remove the
refrigerant.

Air Fuel Ratio Sensors
The air/fuel ratio sensor performs an important job as a part of your car’s emissions system. Here is the
411 on air/fuel ratio sensors.
Understanding Air/Fuel Ratio Sensors

An air/fuel ratio sensor is much like an oxygen sensor, or O2 sensor, and is slowly replacing it on many
vehicles, especially those with today’s more sensitive, turbocharged, and efficient engines. Unlike the
vulnerable O2 sensor, an air/fuel ratio sensor is a wide range sensor rather than narrow range, and it
operates by conduction rather than generation and is therefore slightly more accurate. Like oxygen
sensors, though, air/fuel ratio sensors will be positioned before and after the catalytic converter on OBDII-
compliant engines (Sensor 1 is always on the exhaust manifold, while Sensor 2 is always after the catalytic
converter.) and will be referred to as O2 sensors in most of the OBDII literature, despite being air/fuel ratio
sensors.
The benefits of air/fuel ratio sensors include:
• Compatibility with today’s sensitive engines
• Wide range sensors
• Increased efficiency with turbocharged and more efficient engines
Air/Fuel Ratio Sensor Vs O2 Sensor

The two main differences between the functionality of an air/fuel ratio sensor and that of the older
O2 sensor affect the way they help the electronic control module (ECM or ECU) tune the engine’s
performance.
The older O2 sensors have a central core made of zirconium (or, in rare cases, titanium), which creates
voltage when oxygen molecules pass through them. The new air/fuel ratio sensor uses a dual core and
dedicated electronic circuitry to control current flow. The dual core acts as a conductor into which the
air/fuel ratio sensor’s circuitry sends current. The first of the dual cells, called the pump cell or diffusion
chamber, receives air from the exhaust stream. Oxygen in that stream determines the conductivity of the
cell, creating current differences from that which is being sent by the air/fuel ratio sensor’s circuitry and
being received back in the circuit. The second cell, the reference cell, houses outside air for reference in
the calculations made by the ECM (engine control module).
This allows a broader band of measurement as well as a more precise measure of what’s happening in
the exhaust stream in real time. It also allows for faster adjustment. The ECM can change the pulsation
reduction to bring the mixture back to lean, or to add fuel when the output is rich in oxygen. The air/fuel
ratio itself can also have its current adjusted and even reversed in polarity in order to suck in or expel
excess oxygen from the pump cell to clear it for new measurements.
All of these operations can be done several times per second, allowing for very precise control over
the engine’s output and emissions. The changes in the voltage the air/fuel ratio sensor measures are
minuscule, on the order of milliamps. That gives them high precision for measurement, but also makes it
difficult to test the air/fuel ratio sensor for diagnostics.
Testing must be done by using one of the following scanners:
• A scanner made for the purpose
• A newer OBD scanner that has this functionality
In-line scanning via a meter is not possible with an air/fuel ratio sensor due to the low changes being
measured and the requirement that lines be cut and spliced to make the measurements (which could
affect the input/output with added interference).
It is necessary to know the normal operating voltage for the vehicle’s air/fuel ratio sensor, usually in
the 2.6.3.3 volt range, and how your scanner will interpret the results — which could be in actual amp
changes or in lambda ratios (starting at 1.0 as ideal). Higher numbers are lean. Lower numbers are rich
corresponding to the conduction difference in the pump cell.
The Bottom Line on Air/Fuel Ratio Sensors

Manufacturers are moving toward air/fuel ratio sensors because they give a faster emissions control option
that’s easier to manage, allowing a more continual optimal air:fuel ratio (usually held at 14.7:1 in a gasoline
engine). Where an older O2 sensor may require more than a second to cause adjustments and calibration
for air:fuel, an air/fuel ratio sensor allows it to be done in fractions of a second instead. That, in turn,
drastically boosts a vehicle’s fuel economy.
This chart of the air/fuel ratio sensor response rate for the
Toyota 2ZR-FXE engine shows the accuracy of measurements.

Alternators
The alternator is part of a car’s central core of electrical components and is essential to the operation of
a vehicle. It is the device that converts engine power to electricity for use in your car’s various electrical
systems, including spark for ignition, your audio system, the headlights, and many others. On its face, an
alternator is a fairly simple device, but it’s far more complex than many might believe.
Modernizing Cars with Alternators

In the 1960s, the simple generators under the hood of most cars began to be replaced by more
sophisticated alternators, which paved the way towards more complex electronics throughout the
vehicle’s makeup. They first appeared in the 1960 Chrysler Valiant, though a type of alternator with simpler
electronics was fitted to the early Ford Model T for a few years. The electrical system on those vehicles
was used only to power the trembler coil for spark. When electric lighting was added to the Model T, its
alternator was too underpowered and was replaced with a standard dynamo that was used on every other
car of the period.
The alternator itself gets its name from its power production, which is alternating current (AC) that is then
converted to direct current (DC) through a diode bridge of rectifiers. Alternators have several advantages
over direct-current generators, not the least of which is that they are lighter, cheaper, and more rugged
due to the higher power output they can provide from a smaller package. Brushes last longer than in DC
generators, since they only carry the excitation current.
Most alternators are mounted to the engine as an accessory off of the serpentine (accessory) belt. This
belt turns the pulley at a ratio from the crankshaft pulley of about 2-3:1. Since the AC is rectified to DC, the
variance in production from varied RPM rates does not matter.
The alternator works using a Lundell field construction. This is often referred to as “claw pole” and is
comprised of a shaped iron core on the rotor with a single coil winding. Each pole is configured in a shape
that looks like two hands with interlocking fingers, which shapes the magnetic field generated. The coil fits
within the field and slip rings and carbon brushes supply current as it rotates. Alternators in cars are usually
air-cooled by a fan attached to the pulley from the drive belt.
Evolving Designs
Improvements over time have allowed alternators to become smaller and more compact. Because a
power generator of this general type is just an electric motor in reverse, most hybrids like the Prius use
their motors as alternators during braking to provide power back to the batteries in regenerative braking.
Hybrid Synergy Drive, in fact, often uses one of its two motors as an alternator to power the other during
normal operations.
All in all, alternators still have two major functions:
• Charge the battery while the car is running
• Keep the draw of voltage from draining the battery
The latest OEM Toyota alternators are compact as ever.

Brake Calipers
Brake calipers are part of the disc braking system used on most modern cars. The entire system consists
of the rotor, caliper, and pads. The caliper itself is the actuator that presses the pads to the rotor to stop
the vehicle. The caliper is controlled by hydraulic pressure through brake lines attached to the vehicle’s
brake master cylinder.
Understanding The Braking System

The braking system itself works in this sequence:
• The brake pedal is compressed
• The master cylinder pressurizes hydraulic fluid (“brake fluid”) through the lines to each of the vehicle’s
wheels
• The brake calipers push their pistons towards the brake rotor
• The brake pads, which are attached to the caliper, are pressed into the rotor
• Friction slows and stops the car because the rotor is attached to the wheel itself
In other words, the brake calipers are the muscles that make the braking happen.
Caliper Types
There are two main types of brake calipers: floating and fixed.
Fixed brakes are more common on today’s vehicles, though they are more expensive. Still, floating calipers
are not unusual. Fixed calipers work by compressing the pads towards the disc from both sides at the
same time, with the caliper itself remaining fixed. Floating calipers work by pressing one side into the
caliper and then pulling the other side to match once the primary side has stopped against the rotor. These
are prone to failure, but are cheaper and simpler to produce and install.
Either caliper type will have one or more pistons doing the actual work. These pistons are activated by
brake fluid (hydraulic fluid) being sent into the chamber behind the piston, pressing it outwards. When the
pressure is relieved, the pistons naturally pull back to their original position, pulling the brake pads away
from the rotor disc.
The Bottom Line

Brake calipers are simple machines that require little maintenance beyond changing the pads and the
occasional lubrication of the pistons. It is not uncommon for floating calipers to have a maintenance
interval that requires they be removed, disassembled and cleaned, and re-assembled with new seals
and lubrication. Fixed calipers rarely require anything that costly or time consuming, but they are far less
tolerant of rotor imperfections because they cannot move alignment to match the rotor itself.
The brake system on a 2014 Toyota Yaris
What Are Brake Pads Made Of?

While the exact composition of any given brake pad is a closely guarded secret, the information below is
generally applicable to brake pads produced within the last decade.
First, The Best Brake Pad Advice You’ll Ever Get

Here is a very important point every brake pad buyer should remember: The best brake pads you could
ever get are the pads designed specifically for your system.
Whether you’re driving a 1977 AMC Pacer or a brand new race car, brake pads, calipers, and drums/
rotors are a balanced system. Changing one component in the system – even if that change is an upgrade
– can sometimes have the opposite effect. Likewise, saving a few dollars with a cheap replacement part
can downgrade the performance of the entire system.
Now, onto the specifics.
Which Materials Are Used To Make Brake Pads
A rough breakdown of brake pad composition by material type.
Brake pads are a mix of five types of materials:

1. Binding materials (binders)
2. Abrasive materials
3. Performance materials that are included in precise amounts to enhance certain braking
characteristics, including temperature specific lubricants
4. Filler materials
5. Structural materials, which help the pad maintain proper shape during use
These five types of materials encompass more than 2,000 substances, and only each brake pad
manufacturer knows a specific pad’s exact composition.
For our purposes, we can narrow the list of 2,000 down to the following compounds and elements and
cover most of the bases.
The Most Common Brake Pad Materials

MATERIAL MAIN OTHER % FOUND NOTES
NAME FUNCTION FUNCTIONS IN PADS
Works both as a binder and as a
Fiberglass Binder 5-25%
structural material
Phenolic Resin, which
may or may not be Works as a binder but also as a
Binder 10-20%
derived from Cashew performance additive
Nut Shells
A special type of phenolic resin
Cashew Resin which that improves brake performance, Yes, this really is derived from
may or may not be Performance 0-20%
resists fade, and can help make cashew nut shells.
used in “friction dust” brakes operate more quietly
These fibers typically reinforce the
structure of the pad, but they can
also help manage temperatures Mineral fibers are unlikely to be
Mineral wool fibers Structure and reduce fade. Fibers can be 10-20% found in a metallic pad.
spun from silica, alumina, calcia,
or magnesia. Vermiculite is also a
mineral fiber.
Mineral fillers, typically Unlike mineral fibers, fillers are Mineral fillers are unlikely to be
quartz or synthetic Abrasive used as an abrasive to boost 5-35% found in metallic pads.
silicates friction.
Metal Oxides, typically An abrasive that boosts friction, but It’s likely that all brake pads have a
aluminum oxide and Abrasive also a filler/binder in a metallic or 0-70% small percentage of metal oxides,
iron oxide semi-metallic pad. even “organic” pads.
Carbon comes in many forms. It
may be used to increase friction, Very common because it’s very
Carbon (graphite) Performance 0-35%
but could also be used as a cheap.
lubricant.
A cheap abrasive that boosts pad
Brass filings or chips Abrasive 0-5%
performance in wet weather.
A proprietary mix of compounds Check out the link to Cardolite’s
Friction Dust or that have a wide variety of uses –
Performance 0-25% friction particle page to see just how
Friction Powder everything from reducing noise to mysterious the descriptions can be.
acting as a flame retardant.
Metal sulfides,
including copper Works to stabilize friction
sulfide, antimony Performance 0-5%
coefficients at various temperatures
sulfide, and lead
sulfide
Stabilizes and modifies friction
Petroleum coke Performance ??%
performance – very cheap material.
Believe it or not, it’s perfectly legal
Filler, structural reinforcement, and
Asbestos Structure 0-35% for brake pads to contain asbestos.
heat resistance See our notes about asbestos below.
Barium Sulfate, a.k.a. Filler Very common filler material. 0-35%
Barytes
Lime (Calcium Performance Inhibits corrosion in metallic pads 0-5%

Hydroxide)
Potassium Titanate Filler Common filler material 0-30%
Another common filler
Steel Wool Filler 0-30%
material
Rubber or Rubber Filler material can increase wear
Scrap from recycled Filler 0-10% Mostly used because it’s cheap.
resistance.
tires
Works as a filler, friction modifier,
Ceramic Microspheres Performance 0-20%
and brake dust inhibitor
Finely ground
bituminous coal, Filler Cheap filler material ??%
known as Sea Coal
Kevlar™ and Kevlar™ Friction enhancer – see Dupont
Performance 0-3%
Pulp website for more info.
Copper provides heat resistance,
improves cold weather
performance, and acts as a Legislation passed in Washington
lubricant to prevent squeaking. State and California will effectively
Copper Performance 0-25%
Frequently found in ceramic outlaw copper in brake pads in the
brake pads. May be replaced with next few years.
hexagonal boron nitride (pending
legislation).
The main benefit to ceramic pads
is reduced noise, reduced weight,
and solid performance. Over the last
10 years, ceramic materials have
become increasingly common in
Ceramic compounds come in an brake pads. HOWEVER, “ceramics”
incredible number of varieties
Ceramics Structure 0-100% are very loosely defined. Some pads
and are capable of performing all are marketed as ceramic when
functions. they are in fact more like a semi-
metallic pad or even an organic pad.
Some brake pad manufacturers
think adding clay to an organic pad
automatically makes them ceramic.
PURE carbon fiber brake pads
are only used in racing, but some
Carbon fiber is an up-and-coming aftermarket performance pads boast
pad material that acts as a binder
Carbon Fiber Binder 0-100% that they contain carbon fiber. This
and abrasive. However, it’s very is likely only a very small amount of
expensive and relatively exotic. carbon fiber, as the material is very
expensive.
As you’ve undoubtedly noticed, the percentages don’t add up to 100%. This is because the exact
percentage of each material in any given brake pad is a trade secret – no brake pad manufacturer will
disclose exactly how much of each material they’re using.
As a matter of fact, the exact mix of materials is determined as much by design as it is by trial and error.
Creating the best brake pad mix is still very much an art form.
Organic Vs Semi-Organic Vs Metallic Vs Ceramic Brake Pads

First, let’s dismiss the notion that a typical brake pad is completely organic, completely metallic, or
completely ceramic – there are too many materials available, and mixing and matching organics with
metallics (or vice versa) is common. In fact, brake pads should be called “mostly organic,” “mostly
metallic,” or “mostly ceramic.”
Next, here are the key features of organic, semi-metallic, and metallic pads.
Metallic Pads
• Increased wear resistance (this is their biggest benefit)
• Better performance at high temperatures
• Very likely to make noise
Organic Pads
• Wear out more quickly, especially in a racing application
• Quiet operation (this is their biggest benefit)
• Better performance at lower temperatures
• Depending on their composition, organic pads can “outgas” at high temperatures (aka decompose
due to high heat – it smells really bad) and essentially lose their braking ability
Semi-Metallic Pads
• Decent compromise between wear resistance, noise, and performance
• Somewhat expensive compared to metallic or organic pads
• Semi-metallic pads are the 2nd most common type of pad found on new vehicles
• Most quality aftermarket brake pads are semi-metallic
• While semi-metallic pads don’t shine in any one particular area, their well-rounded attributes make
them a great option
Ceramic Pads
• Excellent performance characteristics in all areas – they’re quiet, they last a long time, and they’re
very effective at most temperatures
• Ceramic semi-metallic pads are the new industry standard – more than half of all new passenger
vehicles come equipped with these pads (as of 2012)
• Unfortunately, ceramic pads are often the priciest option available
Which Brake Pad Material(s) Are Best?

Generally speaking, the very best brake pad you can buy in terms of normal driving performance
is an OEM brake pad. The OEM pad compound was designed and tested specifically for your vehicle.
While OEM pads are not ideal for racing situations, they perform well when they’re cold, they don’t wear
too quickly, and they’re tuned for your vehicle so they’re quiet.
If you don’t want to go with an OEM pad, the next best option would be to invest in a premium aftermarket
brake pad – preferably a semi-metallic or ceramic aftermarket pad. Also, keep in mind that a brake pad
designed for racing or high performance isn’t going to perform that well on your daily driver if not warmed
up.
High-performance brake pads designed for racing may sound like a good idea, but unless you get them up to
operating temperature (like the red-hot system above), they’re not going to stop your vehicle any better than OEM
brake pads. Image © Paul Crumlish.
Some Notes About High Performance Aftermarket Brake Pads

1) A true racing brake pad is designed for sustained operation at higher temperatures. As you can see
in the image above, brake rotors and pads can get red hot during a race. Unless the rotors and pads
on your car are getting just as hot (and staying that hot) for extended periods, racing brake pads
probably aren’t for you.
2) Some brake pad materials – such as metallic pads with a high percentage of sintered metal – can
damage factory spec brake rotors.
3) Cheap aftermarket pads should not be used if you value performance, durability, and/or quiet
operation, not to mention minimizing your exposure to asbestos (see below).
Aftermarket Brake Pads May Contain Asbestos!

While it’s rumored that a certain European auto manufacturer may still use asbestos in their brake pads,
it’s a safe bet that any OEM brake pads you buy (including genuine Toyota brake pads) do not contain
asbestos. However, some aftermarket brake pad manufacturers still use asbestos as a brake pad filler
material because:
• Asbestos is a pretty decent pad material, at least if you ignore the glaring health risks
• Asbestos is really inexpensive
This information may run contrary to what you’ve heard about brake pads. Many people believe that
asbestos was banned as a brake pad material back in the 1980s. While it is true that the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) proposed a ban on asbestos in 1986, the ban never took effect. In 1991, the Fifth
Circuit Court of Appeals in New Orleans ruled that asbestos could not be banned from use in brake pads.
The EPA tried to ban asbestos brake pads, but they still exist. However, no Toyota OEM pads contain asbestos.
What’s more, there are no regulations requiring that brake pad manufacturers disclose the presence of
asbestos. This is more than a bit disconcerting, as inhaling asbestos brake dust can have serious health
repercussions. Therefore, it’s a good idea to buy pads that are labeled “NAO”, which stands for “non
asbestos organic.” Again, all Toyota OEM brake pads are asbestos free. The risk of asbestos exposure is
limited to aftermarket pads (at least as far as Toyota is concerned).
Finally, it’s a very good idea to wear a mask and/or use a wet brake cleaner of some kind whenever you
change your brake pads. It’s likely that all brake dust is bad for you, even if it doesn’t contain asbestos.
Brake Pad Performance Requirements

If you think about the engineering requirements of a modern brake pad, it’s a small wonder that brake
pads work as well as they do. Consider that a brake pad must perform all of the following tasks:
• Have a consistent amount of “bite” at a wide range of temperatures
• Keep the rotor/drum clean of debris, but not so clean that the rotor/drum becomes polished
• Resist fade as temperatures rise
• Be minimally impacted by water, both in terms of maintaining structure but also in terms of
performance, because brake pads get wet
• Minimize the amount of dust/particulate matter they generate so the vehicle wheels don’t always look
dirty
• Operate as quietly as possible
• Maintain structural integrity despite being used to stop a fast rotating drum or rotor…they can’t
fracture or break apart at any point
• Be as non-toxic as possible – some chemicals, such as lead oxide, asbestos, and antimony trisulfide
– have positive attributes that have to be balanced against health risks
• Last as long as possible
This is no small list of requirements. Think about this the next time you buy a set of brake pads.
What Are Transfer Film Brake Pads?

“Transfer film” brake pads function by leaving a semi-permanent residue on the brake rotor surface once
they reach operating temperature. This residue – or film – then works in concert with the pad material to
provide solid and consistent resistance. The disadvantages of transfer film pads are:
• They require the vehicle owner to follow a very precise “bedding” procedure after the pads are
installed, otherwise they won’t work correctly.
• They require the vehicle owner to regularly get the pads nice and hot…something that’s difficult to do
unless you’re racing or towing on a daily basis.
As a result, we don’t recommend aftermarket transfer film brake pads for most vehicle owners. If you’re a
normal driver, OEM brake pads are best.

Continuously Variable Transmissions
Many vehicles today utilize a continuously variable transmission (CVT) rather than a geared, automated
transmission. Some companies, including Toyota, build entire drivetrains on some vehicles around the idea
of a CVT.
With improvements in technology and materials, the CVT has become:

• Highly efficient
• Robust
• A low-cost way to convert engine torque into wheel speed
The Story Of CVT

The CVT is believed to have been invented by none other than Leonardo Da Vinci, but today’s technology
is a far cry from what the Master designed back then. The most common CVT used in automotive
applications is called a variable-diameter pulley (VDP) or Reeves Drive system. This deceptively simple
system is a sort of combination of the gear shifting on your bicycle and the spinning top you played with as
a kid. It consists of three basic components, all of which are engineered with precision: two V-belt pulleys
and a belt that runs between them.
The term “belt” is loosely used here, as it describes not a rubber belt as we would expect, but an
extremely pliable type of chain instead. This chain is made of two short-linked chain belts, meaning their
links are very close together for maximum flexibility, but there are strong “grips” made of durable and
flexible alloys.
The V-shaped pulleys are similar to the child’s top you used to spin as a kid. Imagine one on a mirror so
you have two of them, with their points always touching. Two sets of those with a belt between makes the
CVT. The hourglass-shaped pulleys push together and pull apart to change the diameter of the interior
where the chain rides. Since both sides can change diameter at varying ratios, sort of like how your bicycle
changes sprocket diameter at front and rear, the belt causes the drive pulley to move at a speed ratio that
is faster or slower than the crankshaft of the engine.
The Modern CVT

Like a conventional transmission, a CVT requires a lot of lubrication to operate properly and is usually
operating in a sealed environment. The chain itself is the most innovative part of a modern VDP, being
made to create not only maximum friction, but also to change its shape continually. Metal is used for both
durability and because the chain both pushes and pulls when moving along the pulleys whereas a rubber
belt can only pull.
The chain actually bends to shape itself to the pulley as the pulley’s diameter and angles change with
“shifting” (lateral movement). The bands at the center of the belt are stacked in various sizes, allowing the
belt to morph its contact area’s shape to maximize friction.
This CVT design allows the engine to run at optimum RPM for the speed and torque output required,
putting the onus of the vehicle’s movement control on the transmission. In a conventional vehicle, the
engine will rev higher and lower to achieve better torque in order to accommodate for the limited gear
ratios the transmission it’s attached to may offer. With a CVT, the ratios are nearly infinite, so this revving
is not required. For many drivers, this can be disconcerting, as the engine makes fewer sounds and
sometimes even makes sounds that some may interpret as transmission problems. For this reason, Toyota
has opted to program the CVTs in many of its vehicles to somewhat mimic traditional transmission-related
rev sounds and “shifting jerks” to make their product more familiar to drivers.
A diagram of the CVT in the 2014 Toyota Corolla
The CVT has many advantages over a traditional automatic transmission. Gear ratios that are nearly infinite
and adjustable to the millimeter means far more efficiency out of the vehicle. This also means maximizing
engine output for both fuel efficiency and torque/power is possible. Many racing vehicles use this capability
to give them better control of power output and for this reason, Formula One racing has banned CVTs
from use on the competitive F1 track as it would give unfair advantage to the more well-funded racing
teams. In a street car, however, this variability can mean better acceleration as well as better stability and
traction control. It can also mean better sport performance and better efficiency, all dependent on what the
driver asks of the car.
It should be noted that the CVT used in hybrid vehicles in the Toyota line is called a Power Sharing
Transmission (PST). These work in the same basic way a Reeves Drive CVT does, but have two power
inputs (engine and motor), each of which can be varied along with the gear ratio going out to the drive
shaft/axle.

Crank Bearings
Considering all that they do, crank bearings simply do not get the attention they deserve. Even the majority
of performance enthusiasts do not fully understand the importance of crank bearings or what causes
them to fail. To bring about a greater appreciation for this engine component, an explanation of what crank
bearings do, how they are built, and what causes them to fail is needed.
What Crank Bearings Do

Crank bearings support the spinning crankshaft while simultaneously providing a near-frictionless surface
that does not wear out. Located in the crankcase, the crank bearings have two separate portions, an
upper and lower part. The inner surface of the upper part generally has an oil groove, and the bearing
generally has a hole in it that allows oil to pass through it to the crankshaft feed holes.
How Crank Bearings Are Built

Crank bearings fall into one of three types: Light, Intermediate, or Heavy Duty. They are designed as either
a BiMetal bearing or a TriMetal bearing. BiMetals are composed of a steel backing attached to a single
alloy layer. TriMetal bearings also have a steel backing, but they have a strong center layer with an outer
layer of electroplated babbitt metal.
Babbitt is an aluminum-lead or copper-lead alloy. Originally used for the lining of light-duty bearings, a
thin coating of babbitt is combined with a strong copper-lead alloy to create a heavy-duty bearing. These
bearings combine a low-friction surface with a strong core, and provide the best surface property with the
highest load carrying capacity currently available.
What Causes Crank Bearings To Fail?

Normally, a thin protective film of engine oil separates the surfaces of the crankshaft and crank bearings.
This film is created by the rotation of the crankshaft. Oil is pulled from passages on the high clearance side
of the bearing to the low clearance side, creating a thin oil barrier between the upper and lower bearings
and the shaft.
Under normal engine operation, the oil film is approximately .0001 to .0002 inches thick. This thickness
can be cut by up to 50% by heavy loads and extreme temperatures. Because a strong protective oil film
is always necessary to keep your crank bearings functioning properly, anything that disrupts the oil film will
cause your crank bearings to fail prematurely.
While crank bearings are a wear component, is their deterioration inevitable?
Their lifetime can be maximized by:
• Regular lube
• Oil
• Filter
By using the correct lubricating oil and following the manufacturer’s recommended maintenance schedule,
bearing life will be maximized.
Hopefully, this description of crank bearings increases your understanding of crank bearings and gives you
a greater appreciation for them. They truly are the unsung hero of your engine.

Engine Immobilizers
The engine immobilizer system, or immobilizer for short, is now common in nearly every vehicle sold.
These systems have been mandatory in all vehicles sold in Germany, the United Kingdom, Canada and
other nations for years and, as such, have also become common in the U.S. They consist of three basic
parts:
• An RFID key
• An RFID activator or reader
• Coding in the ECU
How They Work
Immobilizers are relatively simple electronic parts many people call their keyfob. Keys for a vehicle usually
have a plastic attachment, either as a keychain or on the key itself, which houses a radio frequency
identification (RFID) circuit. The car itself, usually at the ignition switch or nearby, will have an RFID reader
that sends a signal to the key and reads its response. This response is sent to the engine control unit
(ECU), which ensures that it’s the correct one. If it is, the car starts normally. If not, the car will not start,
either because the ECU refuses to send fuel to the engine or interrupts the starting circuit to prevent power
from reaching the starter motor. Sometimes both.
The Purpose Of Immobilizers

Thanks to these immobilizer systems, the majority of vehicle thefts of newer cars are either done by towing
away the car or by stealing the key in order to gain access to the car. New cars with immobilizers are rarely
stolen by ‘hotwire’ methods.
Early immobilizer systems used simple, fixed RFID tags within the keyfob that were fairly easy to hack by
car thieves. Today’s systems are more complex, as they use cryptography and rolling codes so that the
key’s code cannot be easily hijacked.
Keys with RFID in them must be activated to the car, meaning they must be ‘mated’ to the car’s ECU
through a programming process. It is not uncommon for vehicles to fail to start due to problems with
their immobilizer, even when the owner of the car is in the seat and the key is the right one for the vehicle.
These problems are usually either the key failing to return correct codes or, more often, the code reader
or ECU failing to interpret them. Quite often, it’s as simple as the keyfob being too close to other metal
objects or keys from other vehicles that use a similar immobilizer code sequence. Only properly-trained,
factory-authorized Toyota techs can work on an immobilizer system for a reset and repair.
All You Ever Wanted To Know

About Eutectic, Hypoeutectic, And
Hypereutectic Pistons
Piston basics can be quite difficult to understand, even for the biggest automotive performance
enthusiasts. While it’s not really necessary to understand the different piston alloys used in modern
engines, it can be both beneficial and interesting.
Here’s what you need to know about:
• Eutectic pistons
• Hypoeutectic pistons
• Hypereutectic pistons
First, let’s knock some background information out the way. Modern engines almost always use pistons
made from aluminum alloy because it offers a great compromise between strength and being lightweight.
These pistons can be cast or forged (more on that below), and the specific alloy used can have varying
amounts of silicon.
Forged Vs Cast Pistons

Cast pistons are by far the most common. Engine manufacturers use a complicated and precise casting
process to create these pistons. The process involves pouring molten aluminum into detailed molds, and
then allowing these molds to cool. When the cooled aluminum piston is removed, it’s “cleaned up” a bit
with some light machining, and then it’s ready for your engine.
If casting has a downside (and, truth be told, modern cast pistons are quite excellent), it’s that cooling can
sometimes be uneven. Uneven cooling leads to inconsistent strength in the finished product, and this, in
turn, may cause breakage under very heavy loads (typically only seen in racing).
Forged pistons, on the other hand, are formed by taking heated aluminum ingot and forcing it into a die.
The forging process ensures that the aluminum is uniform, which means the final piston is stronger than a
cast piston of similar thickness. Therefore, forged pistons can be manufactured with less aluminum, and/or
they can be used in applications where extreme loads require every bit of strength (such as racing).
The downside to forged pistons is cost. Forging is more time-and resource-intensive, as it requires more
processing, and the forged ingot (called a blank) must be machined much more heavily than a cast piston.
How Much Silicon Do You Need?

As stated above, modern vehicle pistons are made from aluminum alloy, which means that the piston
contains aluminum along with small amounts of nickel, copper, magnesium, and/or manganese.
Additionally, most modern pistons contain a large amount of silicon. Silicon is added to the aluminum
because the resulting alloy is more resistant to wear and expansion than an alloy composition that doesn’t
contain silicon.
Resistance to expansion is key, as modern engines are designed with very tight piston and cylinder wall
tolerances. If the expansion and contraction of a piston can be minimized by adding silicon, tolerances can
be very high. High tolerances improve performance and efficiency, which increases fuel economy (a very
big concern for modern engine designers).
The specific amount of silicon added to the aluminum ranges from 9-18%. At percentages below 12%,
whatever silicon that is added to the aluminum dissolves into the solution. Once you reach 12% (or
thereabouts), the aluminum alloy becomes saturated with silicon. This specific point is called the saturation
point, and any silicon added after the saturation point will not dissolve in the aluminum alloy. Instead, this
excess silicon will form a hard precipitate that remains separate from the aluminum.
An aluminum alloy saturated with silicon is known as “eutectic.” When the alloy contains silicon at a
percentage that is less than saturated, it’s called “hypoeutectic.” When the alloy contains more silicon than
the saturation limit, it’s called “hypereutectic.”
The characteristics of pistons in each of these categories are very distinct. Hypereutectic alloys are
stronger, resist scuffing and seizure, and reduce groove wear and cracking of the crown at extremely high
temperatures. They’re also very resistant to expansion, because the high percentage of silicon essentially
“insulates” the piston from the effects of heat.
Hypereutectic designs also allow for decreased distance between ring grooves, which improves the “seal”
between the rings and the cylinder wall and improves efficiency. Finally, because hypereutectic pistons
don’t expand or contract, they’re ideal for modern engines with tight clearance requirements. Generally
speaking, modern engines use pistons made from a hypereutectic aluminum alloy.
If there is a downside to hypereutectic pistons, it’s that they’re brittle compared to forged pistons.
Therefore, forged pistons are more forgiving of extreme conditions (like those found in a race car), and they
give you a greater margin of error when dealing with timing problems, as detonation is less likely to destroy
a forged piston than a hypereutectic cast piston.
Still, when it comes right down to it, the operational differences between forged pistons and quality
hypereutectic cast pistons are smaller than ever. Unless you’re running an engine in a race, or under
extreme loads caused by high boost turbocharging, a hypereutectic cast piston is likely going to perform
just fine for your specific use.

Fuel Injection
Fuel injection systems deliver fuel to the internal combustion engine. Fuel injection replaced carburetors
in the early to mid-80s on most vehicles, becoming the primary fuel delivery system for the entire auto
industry by the 90s.
While fuel injection is often thought of as a modern invention, there have actually been numerous fuel
injection systems designed and produced since the very first use of the internal combustion engine. It was
the advent of the affordable engine control module (aka on-board computer) that made mass adoption of
fuel injection technically feasible.
What Makes Fuel Injection So Special?
Internal combustion engines need at least three things to function:

• Fuel
• Oxygen
• Spark
When these things are combined, we get the explosion that all engines need to generate power. However,
if we carefully mix the fuel with the air, and if we trigger the spark and just the right moment, we get
maximum power and efficiency. This, in a nutshell, is what makes fuel injection so special. It allows for very
high levels of precision that lead to great efficiencies.
How Fuel Injection Works

The modern combustion process begins by pulling in large amounts of air. The amount being pulled into
the engine is measured precisely by a mass airflow (MAF) sensor. The air then enters the intake manifold
and is split into runners that carry a portion of air to a specific cylinder. Air from the intake runner mixes
with fuel in a cylindrical combustion chamber.
Just outside the combustion chamber, the fuel injection system sprays streams of fuel into the swirling air
entering the cylinder. The air and fuel are mixed, and then the cylinder’s intake valve closes so the air/fuel
mixture can be compressed and ignited by a precisely timed spark.
As you can imagine, the process described relies heavily upon computer control and precision operation.
Fuel injectors are a key component in a modern engine, as they have to open and close at precise
intervals. What’s more, they must do so while operating at very high pressures (some new fuel systems
operate at pressures near 30,000 psi), and are often called upon to open and close multiple times within
the span of a few milliseconds.
Now, let’s compare this process to carburetion (the de-facto fuel delivery system before the shift to fuel
injection).
1. Most carburetors (carbs) mixed fuel and air before the intake manifold, meaning that there was far
less precision in the air/fuel mix. Fuel mixed in the intake would ‘fall out’ of the air before it entered the
cylinder, so extra fuel had to be injected to prevent the engine from running lean.
2. Because carbs injected fuel into the air before the intake, the distribution of the air and fuel mix
between cylinders was very often unequal, causing some cylinders to run rich and waste fuel, while
others would run lean and risk damage.
3. Carbs used an incredibly complex system of mechanical components to deliver fuel. With so many
moving parts, it wasn’t uncommon for carbs to stop functioning correctly for no apparent reason.
Indeed, many folks who worked on their own vehicles in the 60s and 70s can speak at length about
the time they spent trying to tune and diagnose carburetors.
While carburetors could be reliable in the right hands and still generate considerable power, they’re simply
not as efficient as fuel injection systems. Computer control allows for incredible precision, especially when
combined with multi-point injection systems that are commonly found on new vehicles.
Direct Injection Promises Even Greater Gains

While multi-point fuel injection systems are amazing, the next great advance in fuel injection systems is
direct injection (DI). Direct injection places the fuel injector inside the combustion chamber, allowing air
and fuel to mix just prior to combustion directly inside the cylinder. Fuel can be added to the air inside the
cylinder multiple times during the compression stroke. This is considerably more efficient than injecting fuel
in the air stream just outside the cylinder, as it allows for the air and fuel to mix more completely.
Toyota’s 8NR-FTZ 1.2L direct-injection turbo engine
Despite its increase in performance, gasoline direct injection is not found in every new car. This is partially
because automakers have been able to achieve very good efficiencies with multi-point injection systems
(Toyota is a great example because their fuel efficient Prius uses a multi-point system to achieve industry-
leading efficiency levels). It’s also because direct injection is somewhat costly.
However, with federal regulations requiring greater fuel efficiency and reduced emissions, direct injection
systems are expected to become commonplace in the near future.

Hybrid Synergy Drive
Hybrid Synergy Drive is Toyota’s proprietary gasoline-electric hybrid system for cars. It is a combination
of a gasoline engine and electric motor, along with other peripheral components, to power a car. It differs
from other hybrid systems in that it is a fully hybridized system, meaning it allows either the electric motor
or the combustion engine to power the vehicle, but also allows both to be engaged simultaneously.
The Hybrid Synergy Drive Difference

Most hybrid vehicles allow either one or the other motor to operate the car (as in the Chevrolet Volt) but not
both at the same time. Thus, Toyota’s HSD allows the car to drive in electric-only mode (EV), combustion-
only mode (gasoline), or both (hybrid). An engine management system unique to the HSD controls which
propulsion source is moving the vehicle in a given driving scenario.
The secret to the control of the propulsion source in Toyota’s hybrid system is in its electromechanical
transmission, called an e-CVT or electronic continuously variable transmission. This system is not really
a standard CVT as most would think, and it has little in common with the simple and elegant design
of a Reeves Drive. Instead, this system uses two power input sources that can be synchronized in the
transmission through a planetary gear set that blends the input from the engine and motor before giving it
to the CVT’s output shaft through more gearing. What makes this geared transmission operate like a CVT,
however, is the use of electric motors in the mix, which gives a different speed control dimension to the
process.
Driving Better
The transaxle’s planetary gear set adjusts torque from the engine and motor as needed by the front
wheels. One motor is mounted on the drive shaft itself (referred to as the Primary or MG2), providing a
torque boost to the wheels and also acting as a brake regeneration generator when the wheels slow
during braking. The drive shaft from the engine has a second differential with two legs, one to the engine
and one to another electric motor (referred to as the Secondary or MG1). The MG2 also acts as the
vehicle’s starter motor. The differential relates engine speed with wheel speed, absorbing the differential
from one or the other through an epicyclic gear set (‘power split device’). All of this is contained in a single
housing situated to create front wheel drive on the vehicle, usually bolted to the engine as any other
transmission would be.
When the engine is engaged in driving, the secondary motor uses the turning power of the engine, through
their shared differential, to generate electricity to recharge the battery pack and add power to the boosting
effect of the primary motor.
The hybrid synergy drive system works through computer controls, which dictate the amount of power
being sent to each motor from the vehicle’s batteries. These are controlled in such a way as to augment
the operation of the combustion engine, though they can sometimes be used to supplant it in all-electric
operations usually at low speeds. These tools make the combustion engine more efficient and also allows
for its downsizing.
In most Toyota vehicles with HSD, Toyota uses simpler, cheaper, and smaller Atkinson cycle engines rather
than more expensive, turbocharged gasoline cycles for higher efficiency.

Kinetic Dynamic Suspension
Toyota introduced the innovative Kinetic Dynamic Suspension System (KDSS) in the American market
Lexus GX 470 in 2004, and subsequently added it to the Land Cruiser Prado, which is sold in Australia.
It has since been a mainstay in the Toyota 4Runner Trail Edition and, interestingly enough, in the McLaren
MP4 12C supercar.
What Is A Kinetic Dynamic Suspension System?
The KDSS system is a fully mechanical stabilization system that allows jointed stabilizer bars to move
independently from one another and be locked or adjusted through hydraulic pressure from a closed
system. This gives greater stability in maneuvering and a longer, independent reach for each wheel when
on rough terrain offroad. Electronic components were added to some KDSS-equipped vehicles, such as
the 2008 Lexus LX 570.
The kinetic suspension technology used in KDSS was developed by Kinetic Pty Limited, a company in
Western Australia, with rights purchased by Toyota.
The kinetic dynamic suspension system works through hydraulics. The stabilizer bars for the vehicle are
jointed near the center, effectively separating the right and left sides. Normally, this would lead to complete
destabilization of the vehicle and imminent rollover at speed, but in KDSS, the bars are controlled through
hydraulic pressure from pressure cylinders and accumulators.
How This Helps

Under normal operating conditions on the road, the pressure is kept static, holding the bars in place
and providing complete stability. This prevents heavy body roll and actually reduces overall body roll in
maneuvering by holding the vehicle more stable than if it were equipped with standard stabilizers.
Off the road, the accumulators activate and allow the flow of hydraulic fluid and pressure from one wheel
to another, front-to-rear, with the split stabilizers allowing far more articulation than would be possible
with standard stabilizers. This gives better wheel grip and longer reach, with the pressure on one wheel
providing the kinetic energy (via the hydraulic cylinders) to pressurize the fluid, which can then be stored or
used to press another wheel down to find grip.
In the 4Runner, for example, two hydraulic cylinders and two accumulators make up the system. One
cylinder at each end of the vehicle, front and rear, will provide pressure for each stabilizer. These cylinders
and accumulators are connected in a loop, working front to rear with the accumulators positioned
between each of the cylinders. An upstroke of the cylinder provides pressure for one accumulator while
a downstroke provides it for the other, with the same motion also providing the pressure change to force
fluid out of the accumulators as well. This keeps the whole system in balance.

Sequential Manual Transmissions
Sequential manual transmissions are most well known for their use in Formula One racing, but they appear
in sports cars like the Toyota MR2, some Ferrari models, and other supercars. They are also common on
sporting vehicles like motorcycles and ATVs. They differ from the standard manual transmission (usually
called an H-pattern transmission) in several ways, the most important one being the fact that specific
gears cannot be chosen out of order. So in a sequential manual transmission (SMT), shifting is from first to
second, second to third, third to fourth, etc. They also nearly always feature an even number of gears (5
plus reverse, 7 plus reverse, etc).
The SMT has many advantages over a standard H-pattern gearbox. First, they are more compact.
Second, they require the clutch only to engage from a standstill. Third, they are more reliable and faster to
shift. Fourth, they can usually handle higher torque and RPM than most standard transmissions. Finally,
they are easier to build, maintain, and disassemble for repair or overhaul.
The reasons for all of these advantages are obvious once the operation of the sequential transmission is
understood.
How A Sequential Manual Transmission Works

The differences from a standard H-pattern transmission start at the shifting itself. It is usually done via
a small lever, paddle, or button -- one that will be far smaller in travel space than a hand lever for an
H-pattern shift. This works through a gear selector ratchet or shaft. This is a small shaft (usually called a
drum or barrel) that is grooved to receive pins in a pattern. These pin grooves receive the pins from the
connecting portion of the selector forks. These forks are moved by the pins in the tracks each time the
shaft rotates. They may stay in position, move right, or move left.
The other end of these forks connects to the output shaft of the transmission. That connection is
‘always on,’ meaning it is always engaged. When the fork is moved right or left (it can engage two gears,
one to either side), it meshes with a corresponding gear, engaging that gear with the output shaft. It
transfers torque from the input shaft (turned by the engine) to the output shaft in the gears ratio to the
corresponding gear on the input shaft. As with any transmission, the gears on either shaft will conversely
get larger and smaller in sequence, with the largest appearing at either end and the smaller at the opposite
ends to match large with small from one shaft to the other. Unlike an H-pattern shift, however, the
sequential gearbox will have all of the gears engaged with one another all of the time. There is no clutching
or moving gears away from and towards one another on this transmission. They are always touching and
always rotating in tandem.
The difference is that the gears on the output shaft of the SMT will be on bearings rather than fixed to the
shaft. They only turn the shaft when they are engaged by their corresponding selector fork. Thus, the faster
shifting possible with the SMT comes thanks to there being no need for a clutch and the impossibility
of meshing more than one gear at one time. An SMT also requires the driver to pass through each gear
(engage every gear) in sequence – to up- or down-shift, regardless of speed – which keeps gears from
interfering with one another.
How To Use A Sequential Manual Transmission

For the driver, using an SMT is relatively simple once its operation is understood. Drivers will begin in
neutral, from which they can shift to reverse or first gear. Once in first gear, they can shift to second, then
third, and so on. Downshifting is the same, which is why you’ll hear Formula One cars making pfft, pfft,
vroom sounds as the driver downshifts through gears to the one he or she wishes to use.
The driver will know which gear is selected by the road speed and engine RPM, though most vehicles with
SMT will include a gear readout as well. In F1, it’s often on a digital display. While the driver can more easily
and quickly shift through gears, the driver must also always be aware of the gear selected and road/engine
speed of the vehicle, taking care to shift appropriately. Those unfamiliar with SMT use can stall if they are in
the habit of clutching to a stop (rather than downshifting).
A sequential manual transmission is robust, simple, and can greatly enhance the take-off from standstill
and overall track speed of any vehicle it is used in. Thus, they remain popular in motorsports.

OHV, SOHC, And DOHC
Engine technology is continually evolving and improving, which means that several options exist for engine
designers and automakers to use when developing a new engine. Three common types of camshaft
engines are in popular use today and many are confused about what the differences are between them:
• OHV
• SOHC
• DOHC
All camshaft-type engines have three basic components in their heads that actuate the intake and exhaust
for each cylinder: camshafts, rocker arms, and valves. The camshaft rotates in time with the engine’s
central crankshaft and has egg-shaped lobes on it that push against rocker arms (or pushrods in the OHV
case) when the taller portion comes around. That rocks against their spring, pressing the valve down to
open it at its head, allowing air, fuel, or exhaust to enter or exit the combustion chamber or cylinder. Most
engines utilize at least two valves per cylinder (one intake, one exhaust) while some have many more,
depending on design.
OHV Or Pushrod
Overhead valve (OHV) or pushrod cams are common on simplified V-style engines. The camshaft resides
at the center of the V, usually at its base, and as it rotates, it pushes rods (hence the “pushrod” name) that
in turn push against rocker arms that open and close valves in the engine head to either side of the V.
This design is less complex, more compact, and less finicky about oil. These engines are common in some
forms of racing and in very small applications.
SOHC
Single overhead camshaft (SOHC) engines are very common. They work with both inline and V
configurations and operate exactly as their name implies. A single camshaft, located over the heads,
rotates in time with the crankshaft to actuate rocker arms on one or both sides (depending on valve
configuration).
SOHC engines are relatively simple to produce, have fewer moving parts than DOHC, and are robust for
the most part. They are commonly configured with three or more valves per cylinder for greater efficiency
and control.
DOHC
Dual overhead camshaft (DOHC) engines are also common. These work with either inline or V-shaped
engines, but are more common on Vs. They also operate as their name implies. Two (dual) camshafts
reside over the heads, rotating in time with the crankshaft. These will have four valves per cylinder, two
controlled by each overhead camshaft. The camshafts are situated as mated pairs next to one another.
DOHC allows more efficiency and better control over the intake/exhaust process since each camshaft can
be tuned separately from its mate.
DOHC engines are more complex than SOHC, but are very efficient. Because of that, DOHC engines are
gaining popularity in automotive design geared towards better fuel economy and lower exhaust emissions.

Oil And Fuel Filters
On your vehicle, be it gasoline, diesel, or any other combustion fuel type, the oil and fuel filters are of
critical importance to a long engine life. The most common type of oil filter is the full-flow type, while the
most common fuel filter type is the cartridge type. Both operate on the same basic principle, though the oil
filter is usually more complex (by design) than the fuel filter.
How An Oil Filter Works

Full-flow oil filters work by taking in engine oil from the sump (oil pan), filtering it, and sending it to the
engine for lubrication, where it returns to the sump to repeat the process. As oil runs through the engine’s
parts, which are mainly metal rubbing against metal, it acts as a lubricant between the contacts, minimizing
wear. Some wear does happen, however, and in such a case, engine particles and contaminants end up in
the oil. The filter is there to capture as many of those as possible.
Oil Filter Design

The most common full-flow filter is the spin-on type, which consists of a metal container shaped as a
cylinder. Inside that cylinder is another cylinder made of paper creases in a continuous “tube” shape. Oil
enters at one side of the filter, passes through the paper in a spinning, centrifugal motion, and out the
other side of the filter. When the filter becomes clogged, the centrifugal motion causes the oil to bypass
the filtration by hugging the edge of the outer cylinder and passing through unfiltered. This is to prevent the
filter from clogging the oil’s circulation and depriving the engine of oil, since dirty oil is better than no oil at
all.
Another type of oil filter is the bypass filter. These are common on diesel engines, but are gaining
popularity, usually as an aftermarket addition, on gasoline engines. These work as a supplemental oil
filtration system alongside the full-flow type. A portion of the engine’s oil is diverted from the lubrication
circuit into the bypass filter, which filters at a much smaller level than does a full-flow filter. This removes
more particles than would otherwise be caught. The oil is returned to the sump after filtration. Over time,
the bypass will have diverted all of the engine’s oil through the extra filter, so over the longer term, the oil is
kept cleaner.
How A Fuel Filter Works

Fuel filters are simpler than oil filters, but again come in two types. Some fuel filters are also water filters or
can be dedicated to water filtration only. This is common on diesel engines and third-world applications
where fuel contamination is common. The filters sit in-line with the fuel delivery system, stuffed with filter
paper similar to that used in oil filters, though generally less compact. These filter large-particle impurities
from the fuel before it is burned, making it more efficient and lowering the chances of fuel delivery
malfunctions such as clogged injectors and engine deposits.
Water filters work on a centrifuge theory, with a canonical shape, oriented vertically. Since water is heavier
than most fuels, it will separate to the bottom of the filter while the fuel passes through the top on the
opposite side of the inlet.
Maintenance Intervals
All vehicles with filters will have maintenance intervals for them.
Note that:
• Full-flow oil filters are changed at every oil change interval while bypass filters will be changed
according to their manufacturer recommendations (generally every second or third full-flow change).
• Fuel filters will have an interval in accordance to their engine manufacturer’s specs, usually at every or
every other oil change.
• Filter changes will depend on application.

Oxygen Sensors
Oxygen sensors (also called lambda sensors or O2 sensors) measure the amount of oxygen in gas
mixtures in the vehicle. Without these sensors, electronic fuel injection and emissions control would not
be possible. Oxygen sensors help determine the fuel/air mixture in the engine and control it in order to
improve emissions and performance. Most modern vehicles utilizing fuel injection will have at least one
oxygen sensor in the exhaust stream.
The determination of oxygen rich or lean variations tells the engine’s computer to increase or decrease the
amount of fuel being injected into the chambers for combustion. High amounts of oxygen in the exhaust
will cause higher emissions at the tailpipe and usually means the engine is not running efficiently and has
lower fuel economy than usual. Conversely, low amounts of oxygen means that fuel is likely not being
completely burnt, resulting in a loss of efficiency as well.
How An Oxygen Sensor Works

O2 sensors work by reacting to O2 molecules in the exhaust compared with the amount of O2 in the
ambient air. A rich (over-oxygenated) mixture will result in an ionic buildup inside the sensor as the internal
richness creates more friction than the outside oxygen concentration. This creates a voltage that is read by
the engine computer. The opposite happens when a lean mixture is in the exhaust gases being measured,
and the computer reads a draw (drain) from the sensor.
Oxygen sensors are relatively simple constructs with no moving parts and are reliant on the transference of
ions through a Zirconia membrane. Most often, when they fail, it is the connections to this membrane that
have broken or corroded with time and use.
Bad O2 Sensors
When an oxygen sensor fails, it will be noted by the driver in two ways:
• First, the vehicle’s computer will trip an engine code, lighting the dashboard’s engine light.
• Second, the vehicle’s fuel economy will suffer and the vehicle will perform poorly on emissions testing.
At least one oxygen sensor will be located on the engine’s exhaust manifold. On V-type engines (V6, V8,
etc), there will be a primary and secondary, one on each side’s exhaust manifold. The primary will be on
the cylinder-1 side of the engine while the secondary will be on the opposing side. Another sensor may
be located just before or just after the catalytic converter in the exhaust stream, depending on vehicle
makeup.
On most Toyota vehicles, they are easy to locate and replace, requiring only an appropriately-sized wrench
and a plug to remove and replace.

Pistons
Generally speaking, engines have pistons. The piston moves up and down inside a cylinder, where a ring
(or group of rings) around the piston guides the movement inside the cylinder. Connected to a rod, which
is in turn connected to a crankshaft, a piston’s job is to translate the force of combustion into rotation.
Pistons can be found in everything from a 1800s steam locomotive to a modern air compressor, but we’re
going to focus on pistons found in the modern Internal Combustion Engine (ICE).
Basic Piston Function

To harness the energy inside gasoline or diesel fuel, a small amount of this fuel is mixed with air and
detonated inside an engine cylinder. This explosion occurs in the small space between the top of the
piston (the crown) and the top of the cylinder (the cylinder head). This small space is known as the
combustion chamber.
Intake and exhaust valves control the amount of air and fuel that enter the chamber, as well as the exhaust
gases to exit the chamber once combustion is completed. As the piston goes up and down in the cylinder,
it works in concert with the valves to either a) draw in air and fuel or b) expel exhaust. We refer to the
modern engine as a four stroke engine, as it takes four strokes of the piston (two up and two down) to
expel exhaust, draw in air and fuel, compress the air and fuel mixture, and then harness the explosive
power.
Piston Anatomy
In order to make sure that engines are as efficient as possible, many engine designs have the valves going
far into the combustion chamber – so far that the top of the piston must have special indentations to make
sure the piston doesn’t hit the valves when it reaches the very top of the cylinder. These indentations are
called valve reliefs, and they can vary from small indentations to large pockets. There are also flat-top
pistons that have no reliefs or special shape, but these are not very common in modern vehicles.
NOTE: Some engine designs have the valves coming so far into the combustion chamber that the piston
will definitely hit a valve unless the timing between the valves and the piston is perfect. This is known as a
‘zero clearance’ or ‘interference’ engine design. If you have an interference engine, you likely have a very
specific maintenance requirement in your owner’s manual regarding replacing your vehicle’s timing belt.
This strict maintenance requirement is due to the fact that a timing problem in your engine will result in
valve and/or piston damage.
All pistons also have grooves around the barrel of the piston that hold rings, and the rings serve to seal the
combustion chamber, help guide the piston in the cylinder, and also lubricate the piston as it moves up
and down. The exact position of these ring grooves impacts performance. For example, if the grooves are
closer to the piston crown, the engine will have a higher compression ratio. Of course, placing rings closer
to the crown also means they’ll be subjected to more heat, which means that the ring grooves must be
larger to allow for greater thermal expansion, which in turn can affect ring durability.
The position of the ring grooves relative to one another is important too. Most pistons have three separate
grooves, and the specific spacing of these grooves can determine how the piston holds up to wear and
tear, how well it is lubricated, and more.
The shape of the piston crown can also affect compression. If the crown is shaped to provide as little
clearance as possible, compression will increase. However, too much compression is a bad thing, as it can
lead to detonation (pre-ignition of the air-fuel mixture), and detonation can lead to damage to the piston,
rings, valves, and more.
Additionally, many engines benefit when the piston crown is dish-shaped, which increases the size of
the combustion chamber. While this will drop compression ratio (and therefore reduce thermodynamic
efficiency), the reduction in compression ratio can be compensated for by improved efficiency in
combustion. Too much dish hurts just as much as too little dish.
Piston skirt length affects performance too. Deeper skirts provide better cooling and quiet operation,
but also can increase weight and friction. Shorter skirts, on the other hand, are generally louder at cold
start and also increase operating temperatures, which can increase ring wear and increase the risk of
detonation.
Finally, the wristpin, an important component that connects the piston to the rod, bears the brunt of
the load that’s placed upon the piston during the power stroke. If the piston is allowed to float on the
wristpin, performance is generally improved. However, the cost of this type of piston is typically higher than
interference-fit wristpins, which don’t allow the piston to move as freely.
Piston Design
As you can see, the design of a piston can be changed in a variety of ways that all affect performance.
1. The piston weight helps determine how quickly an engine can accelerate. Lightweight pistons boost
acceleration rates and generally generate less friction, but they also can reduce low-end torque.
Heavier pistons don’t accelerate as rapidly, but they can provide more power at lower RPMs, so
piston weight is at least partially determined by intended vehicle use.
2. Piston materials can vary wildly. While a piston can be made from any strong metal, most modern
pistons are made from aluminum. However, some pistons use aluminum that is mixed with a high
percentage of silicon, while others use pistons that have almost no silicon.
3. The silicon content in the metal affects expansion and contraction, as well as durability. Pistons with
a high percentage of silicon don’t expand or contract nearly as much as pistons that don’t contain
silicon, which means they operate quietly at start up and don’t need to warm-up to reach peak
efficiency. However, pistons that contain almost no silicon are stronger and perform better at higher
temperatures, so racing engine designers almost always go with pistons that contain almost no silicon
and live with the loud clicking noise (sometimes called piston slap) which is heard at start-up because
the pistons haven’t expanded enough to completely fill the cylinder.
Speaking of heating and cooling, pistons are not technically round. They are very slightly elliptical. This
slightly out of round shape is intentional, as a piston is expected to expand at least a little bit during
operation. By using an elliptical shape, the natural expansion of the piston can be harnessed to put the
piston into round.
A Note About Piston Slap: ‘Piston slap’ refers to the sound of a piston slapping into the side of a
cylinder wall. Generally speaking, piston slap is bad because it can lead to cylinder wall scuffing, ring wear,
increased oil use, etc.
Many brand-new vehicles use short-skirt piston designs in concert with very high engine tolerances, and
the designers are trying to minimize friction losses while maximizing efficiency. However, a consequence of
these design choices is that some new engines make quite a bit of noise during cold start-up. This noise is
caused by a very small discrepancy between cylinder bore diameter and piston-ring diameter. Commonly
(and incorrectly) referred to as piston slap, this noise at cold start is in fact just a normal consequence of
using a short-skirt piston in a cylinder with a very small margin for error.
Forged Vs Cast Pistons

Finally, no discussion of piston design would be complete without covering the difference between cast
and forged pistons.
Cast pistons are manufactured using a standard casting process, where molten aluminum alloy is poured
into a mold and allowed to cool. Because this cooling process can sometimes be uneven, and because
uneven cooling can lead to weakness in the aluminum, cast pistons must be poured a little thicker than
necessary to ensure strength.
Forged pistons, on the other hand, are manufactured by stamping heated aluminum in a die to create a
blank, and then machining that blank to create a complete piston. Since forged pistons are stamped, they
tend to be stronger and more uniform than cast aluminum. This means that a forged piston can be made a
little thinner than a cast piston without compromising strength.
This being said, the operational difference between a quality cast aluminum piston (which is the standard
for almost all new vehicles) and a quality forged aluminum piston isn’t dramatic. Forged pistons are
advantageous in racing applications where weight is more important, but generally don’t offer a huge
improvement over cast pistons in most typical applications. In fact, cast pistons tend to be more carefully
engineered and manufactured than forged pistons, as the casting process requires a very high level of
precision.

Piston Rings
While you probably don’t spend much time thinking about your car’s piston rings, this relatively small part
is a crucial engine component. Without piston rings, it’s likely that the internal combustion engine would
never have come to fruition.
What follows is a comprehensive explanation of piston rings, how they work, what they’re made from, and
more.
Primary Functions Of A Piston Ring

For just about as long as the internal combustion engine has been in existence, the average piston ring
has always served three essential functions within the confines of the average engine:
1. Piston rings help prevent blow-by, where small amounts of unburned fuel and exhaust gases escape
and blow right by the piston, entering the crankcase instead. Blow-by kills engine power, as it’s the
expansion of these gases that drives the crankshaft and powers the vehicle.
2. Piston rings also help dissipate heat from the combustion chamber. The rings transfer heat to the
cylinder walls, where the excess heat is transferred once more into motor oil flowing through coolant
passages inside the engine block.
3. The piston rings hold a thin film of lubricant along the cylinder wall, allowing the piston to move inside
the cylinder freely. Additionally, the rings prevent lubricant from entering the combustion chamber.
As the typical piston moves up and down inside the cylinder, three rings work in concert to hold lubricant
between the cylinder and the piston, seal off the combustion chamber, and ensure that any excess oil in
the cylinder is kept out of the combustion chamber.
• A thin top ring that easily conforms to irregularities in the cylinder wall
• A secondary ring creates a seal against the cylinder wall
• A third large oil ring with a special two-rail design collects and sends excess motor oil back to the
source
Piston Ring Design And Construction

In the early days of automotive engine design, piston rings were often made out of cast iron. Despite
a penchant for becoming brittle under certain circumstances, cast-iron piston rings worked well with
iron cylinder walls, and they could be coated to prevent corrosion. They were also heavy and prone to
breakage because the casting process results in a somewhat inconsistent composition.
Today, steel alloys and ductile iron have replaced cast-iron piston rings. These new materials allow for
tighter clearances between the piston and the cylinder wall, a better seal on the combustion chamber,
improved lubrication and reduced wear, and greater resistance to heat. Modern piston rings are even
designed to flex a bit as the piston moves up and down without weakening.
Failure Points
Like just about any other automotive part, piston rings can fail if they’re subjected to severe conditions.
Excess heat can cause the rings to become warped, thus rendering them ineffective. High combustion
chamber pressures or an improperly installed cylinder head can cause the cylinder to lose its natural shape
and also cause the rings to fail. Piston rings can also suffer damage from scuffing, where small amounts of
metal come into contact with one another (usually due to a lack of lubrication). Oil contaminants can have
an abrasive effect, reducing cylinder ring performance over time. Finally, unexpected pressures resulting
from detonation can cause piston rings to break suddenly.
However, it must be noted that piston rings are a wear item. Even the best maintenance and most gentle
use will not prevent gradual wear, as the rings are in constant contact with the cylinder wall. As rings begin
to wear, the most common symptom is oil use and a slight reduction in engine power. If you find that your
vehicle is losing oil between regular scheduled maintenance intervals, that’s a sure sign that your vehicle
is burning oil due to ring wear. Black smoke emanating for the tail pipe under wide open throttle (WOT) is
another sure sign of ring wear.

Power Steering
Power steering has been around for a very long time. Since the early days of automotive design, finding
ways to augment the driver’s ability to turn the wheels of the car has been a concern. The first production
power steering units on an automobile were for a Columbia five-ton truck in 1903. Because of the expense
and maintenance requirements early power steering systems had, however, they did not become common
until they were added to many military vehicles in World War II. In 1951, Chrysler offered power steering
on the Imperial and General Motors followed suit the next year. Within a decade, power steering was
considered standard for most passenger vehicles on the market.
Today’s cars have two types of power steering, both of which operate on the same basic principle. The
common hydraulic-assist power steering is a mechanical option that dates back to the first power-assist
options on the market. The newer option is electric-assist power steering, which is becoming more and
more common due to its relative simplicity, cheaper implementation, and fuel economy improvement
potential.
A power steering system in today’s car will consist of a steering wheel shaft that connects to an assist
mechanism on a rack and pinion wheel turning system. Hydraulic-assist systems will have a hydraulic
pump, usually operated by the vehicle’s engine, that sends pressurized fluid to a hydraulic motor that
assists the turning of the steering wheel actuator for the rack. An electric-assist system will have an electric
motor to assist the actuator on the rack instead.
How Hydraulic Power Steering Works

A rotary vane or gerotor pump, commonly referred to as simply a “power steering pump”, provides the
hydraulic pressure needed to operate the actuator. This pump will usually reside in the engine’s accessory
lineup and be powered by a belt off the engine’s crankshaft pulley. Most hydraulic power steering pumps
use about 3-5 horsepower from the engine’s output and are one of the larger drags on engine force in a
vehicle.
The hydraulic pump pushes hydraulic fluid through hoses that connect to the actuator, which will be a
double-acting hydraulic cylinder. This applies force to the steering gear as the driver turns the wheel, which
moves the steering rack. The pump’s pressure output is dictated by engine speed and the amount of fluid
pressure applied is controlled by a valve, which is opened at varied intervals by the twist of the vehicle’s
torsion bar. The torsion bar is controlled by the driver’s force on the steering wheel. The harder the turn
on the wheel, the more torque that is applied to the torsion bar and the farther the valve opens to allow
pressurized hydraulic fluid into the actuator. A pressure relief valve diverts some fluid away from the system
and back into the fluid reservoir to control pressures at high engine speeds. This valve can be controlled by
system pressure or, in many modern vehicles, by an electronic control valve and sensor that is controlled
by the vehicle’s engine control unit (ECU or computer).
How Electric Power Steering Works

In electric-assist systems, the power steering pump is eliminated, as are all of the hydraulic system
components and controls. Most e-assist steering is “fly by wire,” which means that the steering wheel
turns and sends electronic signals to the system, thus eliminating the steering column’s output shaft. This
reduces vehicle weight, and the removal of the power steering pump means more horsepower output from
the engine, allowing for higher engine efficiency.
The electric motor is positioned where the actuator would be and works to turn the wheels for the driver.
Control is entirely electronic, though the physical steering is still handled by a rack and pinion. The system
can be tuned to various driving conditions and even to driver preference for “feel.”
A hybrid of a full electric assist and hydraulic power steering system was developed and has been used by
Ford, Subaru and Toyota, most famously in the early 1990s MR2.
The Power Steering Rack

The power steering rack is simply the rack and pinion. A round gear from the steering shaft (usually coming
off of the actuator) rolls over matching teeth on a long, straight rack. That rack is attached to the wheels,
one at each end, turning them back and forth as it moves under the rolling gear. The fixed-gear setup is
most common in vehicles today but is quickly being replaced by more dynamic, variable gear systems.
The variable gear system allows for adjustment of the gears ratio with the rack, giving tuning possibilities
on the fly. This also gives more stability control and better handling in varied driving conditions. Honda first
launched a variable system called the Variable Gear Ratio Steering system and Toyota quickly followed
with their Variable Gear Ratio Steering system, which first appeared in the Lexus line. These systems vary
the steering gear ratio electronically, on demand. Mechanical variable gear ratios have also been developed
but don’t work in the same way.

Radiators
In automotive systems, a radiator is the heat exchanger used to transfer heat from the engine to the
atmosphere. A typical automobile actually has several radiators, though most of them aren’t called that.
The heater core in your passenger cabin for heating the interior of your car is a small radiator, as is the
radiator often used to cool engine oil as it passes through toward the oil pan (sump).
Specifically, though, the term “radiator” in automotive jargon describes the large unit that cools the engine’s
coolant.
Radiators themselves are simple devices in that have no moving parts and work on basic physical
principles. They are an integral part of the engine’s overall cooling system.
How The Cooling System Works

The cooling system in a typical combustion engine, including gasoline-and diesel-powered engines, is
a simple circuit of water flow through the engine’s block (central core). Coolant is constantly inside the
engine, circulating around by means of a water pump that moves it through the engine, top to bottom,
forward to back. When the engine is cool, the water (an excellent and cheap liquid thermal conductor)
flows in a circle without leaving the engine core. When the engine heats up, the water is diverted by valves
made to detect heat (thermostats) into the radiator for cooling, then returned to the engine to continue
circulation. Another valve allows the hot coolant to be sent through the heater core in the passenger cabin
before returning it to the engine.
This circuit continues every time the engine runs, so long as the water pump functions. It’s for this reason
that even on today’s sophisticated, modern engines with all of their electronics, the water pump is nearly
always powered mechanically rather than electronically. It is integral to the continued operation of the
engine.
How The Radiator Works

The radiator in this circuit is the most visible and important part of the engine’s cooling system. When the
coolant in the engine becomes hot, it causes the thermostat to open its valve, letting the coolant out and
into the top of the radiator. From there, it circulates down in a serpentine fashion, right to left, to the bottom
of the radiator, where it returns to the engine via the water pump inlet.
As the water moves down through the radiator, it passes through small-diameter pipes (usually made of
copper) that are surrounded by and connected to thin aluminum fins. Aluminum is a high-efficiency thermal
conductor, so the heat from the water is quickly pulled off as ambient, cooler air passes over the fins and
“pulls” it away. This cools the coolant, which is then sent back into the engine to pick up more heat and
repeat the process.
Although radiators are simple, they can leak or become clogged. The thermostats that control the water
flow into and out of them can also malfunction. When a vehicle is scrapped for parts, the radiator is often
pulled for its high recycle value in copper and aluminum.
Signs of radiator issues include:

• Low coolant
• High engine temperature
• Leaking water/fluid

Spark Plugs
Spark plugs deliver electrical current to the engine’s combustion chamber to ignite the fuel, which burns
and mixes with air to create pressure in the cylinder and push the piston to create movement and force.
For the gasoline engine, the lowly and simple spark plug is at the core of the entire combustion process.
Modern Spark Plugs

Today’s spark plugs are a part of the ever more sophisticated ignition and timing systems used to control
the engine’s operation. While the lowly spark plug has seen little change for decades, the components
around it and controlling it have been revolutionized several times.
A spark plug is comprised of five basic parts, none of which move and few of which will fail over time.
Many spark plugs can have a lifespan nearing half or more of the car’s expected lifespan. The only thing
affecting a plug outside of physical damage is erosion of the electrode through exposure to carbon buildup
or misapplied power input.
A spark plug consists of:
• A central electrode
• A resistor
• A porcelain shell surround
The shell insulates it from its metallic base through which an electrode and ground from the base nearly
meet. The space between them is called the plug’s ‘gap’ and will vary according to the needs of the
specific engine the plug is made for. It’s in this gap that the high-intensity spark the plug creates will
appear.
A wire from the ignition system, usually a coil or distributor, will pulse electricity to the top of the plug’s
central electrode. This will fire down the electrode, possibly meeting resistance depending on the plug’s
design characteristics, and coming out the end that is inside the combustion chamber to arc to the ground
hook. This spark ignites the fuel, which burns inside the air injected into the cylinder.
Spark Plugs Over Time

Over time, spark plugs will lose efficiency and must be replaced because of:
• Carbon buildup from the fuel and air burning
• Erosion of the electrode and/or ground from the effects of high-temperature spark burn
• Fluctuation of power input due to worn or loose spark plug cables
Most vehicles have a tune up interval for this, ranging from 10,000 miles to over 50,000, depending on the
application.
Spark plugs can be purchased with premium features such as multiple grounding prongs, coated metal
grounds for improved conductivity, and lower or higher resistance than recommended by the manufacturer
to tune the ignition timing. Whether or not these improve performance is often a matter of debate.

Vehicle Stability Control
Electronic Stability Control (ESC) is also called an Electronic Stability Program (ESP), Dynamic Stability
Control (DSC), or Vehicle Stability Control (VSC), depending on the automaker and the market it is being
offered in. To summarize, VSC uses the vehicle’s brakes to help steer the vehicle during times of slipping
or possible spinout. Braking is applied to wheels individually to counter over or understeer. Most VSC
systems also reduce engine power automatically during these operations to further improve traction.
Toyota calls its systems VSC or Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management (VDIM).
About one-third of fatal traffic accidents could have been avoided if a VSC system were employed,
according to both the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) and the National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration (NHTSA). As of 2009, ESC is mandated in vehicles of 10,000 pounds gross vehicle weight
or lower sold in the United States.
ESC and VSC first appeared in production vehicles in 1995. It was introduced simultaneously that year by
Mercedes-Benz, BMW, Volvo, and Toyota. Suppliers included Bosch and ITT Automotive (now owned by
Continental Automotive). By the end of 2009, both Ford (which gained their ESC from Volvo) and Toyota
had made ESC/VSC standard in all vehicles sold in North America, with Toyota rolling it into all of their
brands (including Scion) by 2011.
How VSC Works

In the background, as the vehicle is driven, VSC continually monitors the driver’s intended direction (steer)
with the vehicle’s actual direction (lateral acceleration, yaw, and wheel speeds). When these become
disjointed, with the driver’s intended direction not being the same as the vehicle’s actual direction, VSC
intervenes appropriately.
Most commonly, VSC will engage during misjudged cornering (understeering or oversteering due to
excessive speed), evasive swerves, and hydroplaning. It operates on all driving surfaces and has proven
effective as a means of maintaining vehicle control and reducing accidents.
The system works through a combination of vehicle sensors, control of the anti-lock braking system (ABS),
and traction control systems (TSC/ASR) for drive wheels. Unlike these individual systems, VSC considers
input from the driver to add stability or correct for steering loss.
The VSC computer, usually located in the vehicle’s main fuse box or as part of the ABS system computer,
continuously measures yaw (rotation around vertical axis, or left-right spin), individual wheel spin rates, and
traction. On most Toyotas with VSC, four sensors are incorporated in this system:
• Steering wheel angle sensor
• Yaw rate sensor
• Lateral acceleration sensor
• Wheel speed sensor
Some larger vehicles will also include a roll rate sensor for rollover prevention. Input from these sensors
determines what the VSC is to do, if anything, based on the computer’s comparison of data with a total
vehicle “state space” (equations used to model vehicle dynamics in real-time). Commands are issued
appropriately to vehicle components such as the ABS. A hydraulic modulator in each wheel measures
and dynamically adjusts brake pressure individually to the wheel according to instructions from the VSC
computer. The driver’s steering wheel angle as well as traction sensing is used to determine the amount of
correction required.
The VSC “Off Switch”

Most sport models of vehicles and some off-road capable vehicles will have switches to allow the driver
to disable VSC. In many sport driving conditions, such as on the track, in rally driving, and some hard
off-road applications, VSC can interfere with advanced driving techniques. Corner drifting, for example,
common in both track and dirt GT driving, is countered by VSC and thus counterproductive to the sport
driver’s wishes. Lateral sliding is also sometimes used as a maneuvering tool in off-road driving as a means
of avoiding obstacles or gaining traction.
Photo credit: https://www.flickr.com/photos/xavier33300/15052604330
In addition, on some vehicles, the VSC may interfere with the use of a smaller spare tire, which will often
give a different wheel spin rate than the other wheels on the car. Some newer Toyotas will compensate
for a small spare automatically, however, if the sensed difference is constant (as it should be under normal
driving). VSC is also automatically disabled when any of the four wheel speed sensors is disabled, so many
shop and tow truck service persons will unplug the wheel speed sensor on the wheel onto which the spare
has been temporarily mounted.

Starter Motors
The starter motor is an electric motor that rotates your engine in order to allow the spark and fuel injection
systems to begin the engine’s operation under its own power. Typically, the starter is a large electric motor
and stator coil mounted to the bottom (generally to one side) of the vehicle’s transmission bell housing
where it connects to the engine itself. The starter has gears that mesh with a large flywheel gear on the
back side of the engine, which turns the central crank shaft. Because this is a lot of physical weight and
friction to overcome, starter motors are generally powerful, high-speed motors and use an ignition coil to
ramp up their power before engaging.
How Starters Work

Starter motors of various types have been in use almost since the combustion engine was invented.
Starting a typical automotive or aircraft engine by conventional, physical means (turning a crank or
propeller, in most cases) was an inconvenient, dangerous, and physically demanding job. The first electric
starter to appear on an automobile was on an Arnold in 1896, and it became standard on Cadillac models
in 1912. They were standard on nearly all automobiles sold by 1920. Chrysler added the key switch we’re
familiar with today in 1949. Beforehand, starters were usually button-activated.
The starter operates as part of the engine’s starter circuit or ignition circuit. It is supplied power from its
ignition coil (starter solenoid), which receives power from the vehicle’s battery and amps it up to give a
sudden burst to the starter. The starter itself is a powerful electric motor, either of permanent-magnet or
series-parallel wound type. The amount of power fed to it would easily burn it out after a few minutes of
operation but allows it to safely crank very hard for a few seconds at a time.
In most vehicles, current from the solenoid that powers the starter also simultaneously engages a lever
that releases the drive pinion, meshing the pinion with the starter ring gear on the flywheel of the engine.
When the engine is running, this pinion is disconnected, allowing the gear to turn freely without affecting
the engine’s operation or the starter itself. In some engine configurations, specifically various forms of
hybrid systems, the starter motor is used as a power generator when the engine is running, converting the
spinning flywheel energy into electricity to feed electrical systems or batteries on the car. The Toyota Hybrid
Synergy Drive system operates this way.
Problems With Starters

Typically, the problems associated with starter motors and starting the vehicle are not the motor itself
failing but one of the electrical components or physical gears having failure. Often, the solenoid will
become resistant or lose a connection and become incapable of powering the starter with sufficient force.
Sometimes, the pinion gear fails, and the starter cannot connect to the flywheel to turn over the engine.
Rarely does the starter itself physically fail before the vehicle’s lifespan is up.

Timing Belts And Chains
The timing belt (or cam belt) and timing chain are a part of your car’s engine’s timing and is what
synchronizes all of the engine’s operations, creating the timing intervals the engine runs from. Nearly all
gasoline-powered and many diesel-powered combustion engines use a timing belt or a timing chain to
accomplish this, depending on construction.
Whether a belt or a chain, the timing of the engine will be determined by its rotation. The main difference
between a belt and a chain is construction, with a belt being made of rubber and other components,
while a timing chain will be a metal chain running around gears. Each has its own advantages and
disadvantages, but most of today’s passenger vehicles now use a timing belt (or cam belt) rather than a
chain.
How The Timing Belt Or Chain Works

Whatever the choice, the timing belt or chain will be powered by the crankshaft, which will have a pulley or
gear at the front of the engine, at the bottom. Remember that engine directions are relative to the engine
itself, not the configuration of the engine’s mounting in the vehicle.
From the bottom of the engine, the belt or chain will stretch upwards to the camshaft pulley(s) at the top
of the engine, on the engine head(s). There will be one pulley if it is a single overhead, inline camshaft
configuration or more than one if it is a V-style or multiple overhead camshaft configuration. In between
the crank and camshafts, the belt or chain will often power other critical engine components like the water
pump (for engine cooling) and sometimes the oil and/or fuel pump, depending on engine configuration.
Often, the tightness of the chain or belt will be regulated by a tensioner pulley as well. It’s a small pulley
that pushes or pulls on the chain/belt with a tension spring to provide the leverage.
The timing belt or chain creates a specific time interval for each turn of the crankshaft versus the time
interval for the turning of the camshaft(s). This, in turn, dictates when the valves open and close to inject or
exhaust air and fuel into the combustion chambers (cylinders). It is critical for the belt’s or chain’s turn to be
in perfect time for the engine to run at optimum.
Why A Chain? Why A Belt?

Why a chain (and why not):
• The timing chain has one distinct advantage over a timing belt: durability.
• The timing chain rarely goes out of service, so it remains in perfect time, with no replacement interval
or wear and tear under normal operations.
• In most engines, the timing chain will last the lifetime of the engine itself.
• Its chief drawbacks are noise, weight, and expense.
• Timing chains are relatively noisy as they clank around the gears they turn, are made of heavy metal,
and are expensive to build and install.
Why a belt (and why not):

• Timing belts, on the other hand, are lightweight, fairly cheap to construct, and quiet.
• They require regular replacement, however, and can fail if not properly cared for or installed correctly.
• Most vehicles require a timing belt change every 60,000 to 100,000 miles.

Toyota VVT-i
Toyota’s Variable Valve Timing with Intelligence (VVT-i) is the company’s latest-generation variable valve
timing (VVT) for engine modulation and control. VVT itself was introduced in 1991 in the 4AGE engine,
which features 5 valves per cylinder and a two-stage, hydraulically-controlled cam phasing system. It
quickly proliferated to most of Toyota’s engine lineup. VVT-i came soon after, entering the market in 1996
by adding intake valve timing to the VVT’s cam phasing, becoming the norm in most of Toyota’s engine
lineup today.
Variations of VVT-i include:
• VVTL-i
• VVT-iE
• Valvematic
• Dual VVT-i
Why Vary The Lift And Timing?

Introducing VVT to a combustion engine allows for more precise control of engine output and can greatly
increase fuel economy. Most VVT is measured in early and late valve opening and closing. Closing intakes
later, for example, can result in reduced pumping losses in partial load conditions, which reduces nitric
oxide (NOx) emissions while only marginally affecting torque output. By contrast, early intake valve closing
has the same effect at higher vacuum but also improves fuel economy by up to seven percent.
Similarly, early intake valve opening reduces most emissions and improves fuel economy due to the
improvement in volumetric efficiency the process includes. When opening early, the valve will send hot
exhaust through the intake valve where it is momentarily cooled in the manifold before returning to the
cylinder in the next stroke. This process is also called valve overlap.
Early/late exhaust valve closing can combine several of these bonuses into one system. As engine
technologies improve and become less expensive, VVT continues to improve performance and economy.
Toyota’s VVT-i is the latest-generation of this technology in their engines and combines several facets of
valve control.
How VVT Works

To understand how VVT-i works, we first need to look at its underlying technology. In a nutshell, VVT
alters the timing of valve lifting to improve performance and economy in specific driving situations, usually
dictated by RPM ranges. The idea behind VVT has been around for nearly two centuries, being first
introduced in crude form in steam engines and later becoming common in aircrafts and then automobiles.
In automobiles, several methods of varying the valves’ lift and timing have been employed. Toyota’s VVT is
a cam phasing system, which is one of the most common in use. It uses a variator, which is hydraulically-
controlled, to change the size of the inlet and exhaust valve openings, which also affects the duration
of those openings. In dual overhead camshaft engines, this allows the timing of each opening (inlet and
exhaust) to be controlled through simple manipulation of the size of the cam lobe being used against the
valve lifters.
The cam lobe size in Toyota’s system is in pairs, with the shorter one being immediately next to a taller
lobe. A dual system of lifter arms is used with one for each lobe. When the shorter lobe is in use, the larger
lobe’s lifter is “free” (unlocked) thus creating no lift as the lobe passes under it. When activated, this second
lifter is hydraulically locked and the larger lobe becomes the dictation for cam lift. Hydraulics are controlled
through engine rotation speed, with higher speeds activating the higher lift.
This basic technology is combined with what Toyota calls “intelligence” to improve its performance further.
How VVT-i Works

Adding the “intelligent” part to VVT, VVT-i improves the timing control further by not only varying the intake
valve opening and closing height and duration through the camshaft and lifters but also further controlling
the duration through change in the camshaft’s rotation itself. On a dual overhead camshaft system
(DOHC), this allows control of the overlap time between intake and exhaust valve closing and opening.
The system works by using a variable-speed head for the camshaft. This head, or camshaft gear, is where
the timing system (consisting of the belt, scissor-gear, or chain) gives the rotational force to the camshaft
itself. The gearhead is a hollow structure in which oil pressure can be raised or lowered to allow a two-
piece floating system to speed up or slow down the head’s rotation in relation to the actuator.
Visualize this as a hollow, enclosed gear inside which two star-shaped gears are placed, one inside the
other. The outer gear is the camshaft gear’s connection to the belt or chain that drives it. The inner gear
connects to the camshaft itself. Normally, the two are meshed together, cog against cog, and turn at the
same rate. When oil pressure is introduced, however, the gears can be separated, changing their speeds
relative to one another momentarily. This increases or decreases the speed of the camshaft in relation
to the engine’s drive timing. That, in turn, changes the duration of the valve lifting to control intake and
exhaust.
The system has been well received by engineers and mechanics and has shown marked improvement
in engine performance output under varied driving conditions and has improved fuel economy in many of
Toyota’s vehicles by double digit percentages.
Dual VVT-i
Similar to VVT-i, Dual VVT-i adds control of the exhaust camshaft to the VVT-i’s control of intake valves.
This is found in the latest-generation V6 engines, starting with the 2GRFE in the 2005 Avalon in the U.S. It
is now the most common VVT system in use by Toyota, appearing in most of the LR, UR, GR, AR and ZR
engine families. Several advantages are had with this system, including faster catalytic converter heating
through exhaust control, minimized compression to improve idle economy, and improved timing to include
more variation thanks to the added control of exhaust timing.
VVTL-i
Variable Valve Timing and Lift with intelligence is an enhanced version of VVT-i that allows control of valve
lift to go with the timing control. In a DOHC engine, this is used with two lobes per cylinder that are tuned
for low-RPM and high-RPM use, respectively. Matching lobes appear on the exhaust side, giving eight
lobes per cylinder (four valves). Unlike a conventional VVT system, however, there is only one rocker arm
lifter for each lobe pair, rather than two. The rocker arm has a slipper follower mounted with a spring,
which it moves up and down the high lobe without affecting the arm. Toyota’s tuning usually means that
the lower lobe operates the rocker arm at sub-7000 RPM and the larger lobe at RPM above that. The
slipper follower is controlled by oil pressure, which engages a sliding pin to lock the follower and cause it
to lift the arm on rotation. It works very similarly to Honda’s VTEC system. VVTL-i is no longer being used
in most markets due to its inability to meet European emissions requirements. It is still in use on the Lotus
Elise in the 2ZZGE and 1ZZFE engines.
VVT-iE
Variable Valve Timing, intelligent by Electric motor is exactly the same as Dual VVT-i with the exception that
an electronically-operated actuator adjusts the camshaft timing on the intake rather than using hydraulic
pressure to do so. The intake is still controlled hydraulically. This process is used in the Lexus line of 1UR
engines. The actuator motor runs at the same speed as the camshaft and adjusts up or down to change
the timing of lift. This allows more precise and more immediate control of the timing of lift and duration but
is more expensive to implement.
Valvematic
The Valvematic system is an oscillating camshaft design that gives a rocking motion to a partial camshaft
lobe. The idea comes from steam engines and allows for continuous lift and duration adjustment, though
they are not separated as in VVT-i, and remain proportional as they do in standard VVT systems. BMW and
Nissan have similar systems (Valvetronic and VVEL respectively). This system is mainly used in Toyota’s
non-DOHC engines.

Wheel Speed Sensors
Wheel speed sensors, also called speed sensors or vehicle speed sensors, are used in nearly every car
manufactured today. They replaced the old, mechanical tachometer as a more accurate and cheaper
option that also allows the engine’s computer (engine control unit or ECU) to monitor each wheel on the
car separately. This allows the ECU to use the individual wheel speed data in other systems such as
vehicle stability control (VSC) and anti-lock braking (ABS).
That latter system, in fact, is where wheel speed sensors became the norm, as the advent of ABS and its
safety enhancement pushed speed sensors into standardization.
Vehicle Speed Sensor
The Function Of The Wheel Speed Sensor

Wheel speed sensors can be located in the wheels themselves, usually where the axle rotates with the
wheel, or in the differential, where power is converted laterally from the drive shaft to the axles. Wheel
sensors are a simple toothed ring and pickup module that sends current to the ABS or ECU computers for
analysis. These sensors rarely fail on their own and usually fail as part of a larger problem, such as physical
damage or corrosive leaks onto the sensor.
When Something Is Wrong

In the ABS, wheel speed sensors tell the system which wheels are moving faster or slower than the others
and also tell the system if one or more wheels are locking up during braking. In the VSC, the wheel speed
sensors inform the stability control unit when one or more wheels are slowing or speeding up due to
traction issues, allowing the system to compensate and keep the vehicle stable and in control.
Finally, in normal operation, wheel speed sensors give readings to the ECU which become the speed
readout (tachometer) on most modern dashboards.

All You Ever Wanted To Know About Toyota Parts: A Guide For Toyota Owners

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All You Ever Wanted To Know About Toyota Parts: A Guide For Toyota Owners

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ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO

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ALL YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT CRANK BEARINGS.......................................24

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