GeoJournal 26.

3 311-322 311
9 1992 (March) by Kluwer Academic Publishers

Deforestation of the Amazon -

A Brazilian Perspective

Trapasso, L. Michael, Prof. Dr., Western Kentucky University, Department of

Geography and Geology, Bowling Green, KY 42101, USA

ABSTRACT: During the summer of 1989 this author was afforded the opportunity to live and
study in Brazil under the auspices of the Fulbright-Hays Commission. Study included
extensive travel, visits to universities and research institutes, a lecture series, and interviews
with social and physical scientists concerning many aspects of Brazilian life, culture, history
and geography.
The issue of the deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon was investigated by utilizing all
available resources along with Brazilian media presentations, Brazilian publications, and
personal observations. This research represents "a" Brazilian perspective. It is neither a series
of excurses for the destruction, nor a condonation of the actions that have taken place, but a
series of alternative perceptions as seen from within Bazil.
Addressing ths complex multifaceted issue brings about a number of interesting
perspectives. Those addressed here are: Brazilian government actions, Brazilian research
concerning the Amazon, the Amazon as a frontier, the lure of mineral wealth, the "debt for
nature" question and environmental martyrdom. Though they may be difficult for the reader
to accept, good or bad, there are reasons for the destruction.

Introduction reservoirs (Veja, Staff Writers 1989). Of all the types of

The Amazon river with greater than one thousand
tributaries meanders some 6,500 km from the Andes and
uplands of a half dozen countries to the Atlantic Ocean.
With an estimated discharge 644 million m3/h (Linden
1989), it is indisputably the largest, most complex river
system in the world. The rainforest which this river helps to
support contains the most diverse collection of terrestrial
and aquatic fauna and flora on the planet. In recent years,
people all over the world have become aware of the
devastation which has taken place. The deforestation of
this wonderous and essential forest occasionally called the
"earth's lung," continues to this day.
Destruction comes to the Amazon in a variety of ways.
L u m b e r m e n saw down noble wood trees for sale to other
countries, among them the USA and Japan. Huge link
chains connected between two bulldozers are used to push
down and tear out wide swaths of vegetation (Margolis
1989). Hundreds of thousand of square kilometers of
rainforest lie submerged beneath the reservoirs of newly
built hydroelectric plants. Increases in electrical power
usage are considered by Brazilians as a sign of economic
and industrial growth (Holtz 1989). At times, interests
conflict, for example lumbermen using scuba gear and
chain saws will extract submerged noble woods before
they decompose at the bottom of hydroelectric plant
destruction witnessed by this author none was more
dramatic than the burning of the rainforest. The Instituto
Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE) estimates that in
1987 alone 200,000 km 2 were burned (da Cunha 1989).
Between June and October 350,000 individual fires were
counted. The most devastation occurred on September 9,
1988~ a total of 7,603 fires burned in the Amazon (Simons
1988).
That there are at least two sides to every issues is the
basic premise behind this research. A multifaceted issue
such as deforestation of the Amazon yields a variety of
perceptions. An important question is, "Why are the
Brazilians destroying this magnificient and vital work of
nature, and why don't they stop?" As an American and a
geographer I share this view.
During the Summer of 1989, this author was awarded
the opportunity to participate in a Fulbright-Hays summer
program. This program afforded participants a chance to
travel throughout Brazil, visit universities and research
institutes, attend lectures by renown Brazilian social and
physical scientists, and meet and interview experts
concerning many facets of Brazilian culture, history and
geography. Since greater than 60% of the Amazon
rainforest lies within national borders of Brazil (Schubart
1989), this author chose to investigate the Brazilian
attitudes and opinions regarding this complex, and at
312
times, emotional issue, of national deforestation. This
article is by no means a defense of Brazilian destructive
actions, nor is it intended to be a pretentious attempt to
present "The" Brazilian perspective. This work is merely in-
tended to be a compilation of observations gathered from
conversations, interviews, lectures, mass media
presentations, readings and other experiences of Brazil.
Under such circumstances, this author can only offer "a"
Brazilian perspective as seen through the eyes of an
informed observer. This research, hopefully, will reveal
some of the attitudes which must be dealt with if a viable
solution to the problem of deforestation is to be found.
While investigating this multifaceted problem several
issues were highlighted, either because of personal interest
or because the theme was repeated time and again. This
work focuses on the following issues: Brazilian
government environmental legislation, Brazilian research
concerning the Amazon, the Amazon as the last frontier,
the lure of mineral wealth, the "debt for nature" question,
and environmental martyrdom.
Brazilian Government Environmental Legislation
Over the last 25 years the Brazilian government has
passed legislation to protect the environment. The
following pieces of legislation are translated and
summarized in Appendix I. They are listed in chronological
order below:
September 15, 1965 - The Forestry Code
- Act ~: 4771
January 3, 1967 - The Fauna Protection Act
- Act + 5197
February 28, 1967 - The Fishing Code Decree
- Law 9 289
December 5, 1967 - Indian Protection Act
- Act + 5371
October 30, 1973 - National Environmental
Development Program
Decree ~ 73.030
December 19, 1973 - The Statute of the Indians
- Act + 60001
August 31, 1981 The Natural Environmental Policy
Act - Law ~: 6938
April 27, 1981 - Ecological Sites Act
- Act + 6902
May 16, 1988 Natural Coastal Management Plan
- Law & 7,661 (Machado 1988)
In recent years, numerous references have been made
to President Jose Sarney Administration's legislation
entitled "Nossa Naturesa" or "Our Nature". The complete
form of this legislation also appears in Appendix I:
October 12, 1988 - Our Nature
- Decree ~ 96.943 (Sarney 1988)
Though these laws were drafted with the best of in-
tentions, the fact remains that they are virtually impossible
to enforce. At just under 5,000,000 km 2 the Amazon is sub-
ject to attack from almost any direction for almost any
purpose. The Instituto Brasileiro Desenvolvimento
Florestal, IBDF, at present has approximately 600 wardens
GeoJournal 26.3/1992
to patrol the Amazon (Margolis 1989). It has been
estimated that it would require 15,000 to 20,000 wardens to
properly patrol such an area (Simons 1988). As Dr. Paulo
Lopes Viana of the Instituto Brasileiro Do Meio Ambiente
(Brazilian Environmental Institute) explains:
Yes, we have personnel whose job it is to protect the forest
but there is so much area assigned to each man! We have
jeeps and other vehicles which could help if we could only
afford to buy fuel and spare parts (Viana 1989)
Since taking office on 15 March 1990, Fernando Collor
de Mello, Brazil's youngest President, has initiated
significant changes in the nations economic and
environmental actions. He declared that he would work
vigorously to stop the burning of the forest by ranchers and
settlers, and appointed the nation's foremost
environmental activist Jose' Lutzenberger, to enforce the
program (Serrill 1990). Collor has been quoted as saying,
"On the question of ecology, we have made a fundamental
commitment to life ... we have nothing to hide and
nothing to explain."
At his inauguration, Collor described the "ecological
imperative" as perhaps the only legitimate restraint on the
free market forces he is trying to unleash to restore
economic growth. Collor has abandoned the somewhat
hysterical nationalist tone of former President Sarney and
has established a study group which will analyze "debt for
nature" swaps (a system of economic manipulations which
can forgive part of a Third World country's debt in return
for a halt to their rainforest destruction).
In addition, Collor is committed to:
- A ban on all exports of unsawn logs;
- A".Green Army" of forest rangers;
- T h e enforcement of existing legislation on
ecological 'crimes' and pesticide abuse;
- Legislation to control noise pollution and trans-
port of dangerous cargoes;
- A domestic natural resources tax to be paid by
mining and other companies for use of non-
renewable resources, and the review of
government concessions if ecological damage is
suspected;
- A detailed study on the environmental impact of
any big industrial or state sector project, and
- Active dry-season policing of the Amazonia to
prevent burning by farmers.
A recent announcement that farming companies will
have to pay capital gains tax should greatly reduce the area
of the Amazon rainforest cut and burnt (House 1990).
According to Thomas Lovejoy, Assistant Secretary for
External Affairs of the Smithsonian Institution,
I believe there may be a change in sentiment among
Brazilian government officials. The new government may
indeed act in behalf of environmental interests. They may
begin dialog on "debt for nature" swaps. (Personal
Communication 1990).
The enforcement of the aforementioned goals remains
to be seen. This author remains skeptical that such
measures will be taken, for Fernando Collor de Metlo is a
notably affluent man whose family has been among the
GeoJournal 26.3/1992
Brazilian elite for generations. Since many who have
profitted most from the destruction of the Amazon are
among Brazil's wealthy elite, Collor will in essence be
betraying his own-economic class should he move to
enforce these goals. During his first 15 months in office.
Collor has drawn mixed reviews. He was lauded by
environmentalists when he announced a financing
program that would allow $100 million of Brazilian debt
to be exchanged every year for financing enviromental
projects. At the same time he has slashed money for
Amazon preservation projects and failed to fulfill promises
to demarcate Indian lands. The 1991 Amazon burning
season was under way, just as Brazil's environmental
agency (IBAMA) was paralyzed by a work strike over low
pay (New York Times, Staff Writer 1991). In the author's
opinion it is difficult to tell how much is smoke and how
much is reality.
Brazilian Research Concerning the Amazon
Symposia - Since this research began, at least four
symposia have been hosted by Brazilian organizations and
scientists which are indicative of concern and to some
degree a commitment to resolving Amazon basin
problems. This author had the pleasure of attending one
such symposium during the Fulbright-Hays program. It
was entitled Amazonia: Facts Problems and Solutions -
held between 31 July and 2 August 1989 on the campus of
the University of S~o Paulo (USP). USP and the National
Institute of Space Research (INPE) in San Jose Dos
Campos, were the cosponsors of this event. A list of
presentation titles, authors, and authors' affiliations has
been translated and is found in Appendix II. Much of the
data cited in this work was derived from the proceedings of
this symposium.
During the first and second of February 1990, a
symposium entitled "Social and Economic Impacts of
Climate Variability and the Response of the Government
of Brazil" was held in Brasilia and was cosponsored by the
UN Environment Programme. Fourteen case studies of
social and economic impacts of climate variability in Brazil,
as well as governmental responses to it, were presented.
The objectives of the conference were to increase
awareness of the impacts of climate variability,
disseminante the findings of these case studies, and
stimulate further studies in the area of climate impacts.
A seminar entitled "Hydrology and Water Management
of the Amazon Basin" was held in Manaus, Brazil on 5-9
August 1990 and sponsored by the Institute for Superior
Studies of the Amazon and Brazilian Association of
Hydraulic Resources. The purpose of this seminar was to
develop the state-of-the-art knowledge on the hydrologic
processes that impact the atmospheric, surface, and
groundwater resources of the Amazon, and methodologies
for the future management of one of the largest river
systems in the world. Existing methods for hydrologic and
water management analysis were examined with regard to
their applicability in solving problems of tropical
313
waterheds. New methodologies specific to such watersheds
were represented in the area of hydrological management,
monitoring, and design. During the seminar, a specially
invited group of experts met to develop an action program
on the impact changes on the water environment of the
Amazon basin. The first international symposium on
environmental studies on tropical rain forest, entitled
"Forest 90" was held in Manaus, Brazil October 7-13, 1990.
The sponsorship was shared by 14 Brazilian research
institutes, universities, and corporations.
Research Institutes - The tour of Brazil took place
during the first appointed presidential administration
following a 20 year military dictatorship. An essential
question in this author's mind was, "What influence does
the government exert over national research institutes and
scientists?" As in many countries, the national government
may somewhat control funding and thus curtail or halt
various research endeavors. However, besides the
monetary control, no other influence or coersion was
observed. In short, well trained scientists use state-of-the-
art technology to complete legitimate scientific research
which is reported in an accurate and factual manner.
Brazilian scientists are among the first to discuss the
deforestation issue and criticize the government's actions
or in some cases, lack of action concerning this vital issue.
INPE - Instiuto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais
(National Space and Relmote Sensing Institute) is located
in the community of San Jose Dos Campos about 100 km
from Sao Paulo. After clearing through security, this
campus-like complex was quite hospitable. It is through
this institute that much of the data concerning the
numbers and areal extent of the rainforest fires are
released (da Cunha 1989; Simons 1988). An interesting
controversy surfaced in the scientific literature concerning
the total extent of deforestation. This discrepancy
suggested that Brazilian scientists at INPE were
downplaying the amount of deforestation. The highest
estimate of deforestation was made by Mahar (1988) at
11.80/0, dropping to 7.20/0 (Fearnside 1989) and finally down
to the INPE estimates of 5.120/0 (da Cunha 1989). The
lowest value was suspect, until it was realized that this
estimate was based upon a different definition of
Amaz6nia. Fearnside and Mahar are using the Amazon
river basin as the total area from which the percentages are
calculated. However, Brazilian scientists such as da Cunha
and others use the total area of the "Legal Amazon" which
is considerably larger to calculate the percent of
deforestation (Fig 1 a and b). It may appear as though the
area entitled the Legal Amazon was designated as such to
belittle the amount of deforestation. In reality however,
the Legal Amazon was defined by a governmental decree
in 1953. Specifically the Legal Amazon includes the states
of: Acre, Amap~i, Amazonas, Parfi, Rondonia, Roraima
(Northern Region) parts of Tocantins, Goi~is (N of 16~
and Mato Grosso (N of 16~ and Maranh~o (W of 44~
(da Cunha 1989).
Joint research effort between INPE and Universidade
do S~o Paulo (USP) are quite common. This large urban
314
Manaus
AM BR 230 PA
Rto
Branco
MT
Brasilia
Rio de Janeirc
S~,o Paulo9
campus located in an area of the city known as Cidade
Universitaria has a variety of active departments with state-
of-the-art equipment. This author toured both the
Departments of Geography and Meteorology. Several USP
Faculty lectured during the Fulbright program.
Instituto National de Pesquisas Amaz6nias (INPA) in
Manaus is located near the center of the Amazon basin.
This complex of buildings is nestled within the rainforest
on the outkirts of the city. The INPA motto is "A Species a
Day." Here teams of riverine and terrestrial biologists and
ecologists explore the rainforest in search of new
identifiable species. Though these scientists are acutely
aware of the deforestation problem, their research focuses
upon the species and ecosystems that exists in the
rainforest at the present time. During my visit, INPA was
experiencing a "greve" or work strike. The government had
just cut all salaries back 50%.
Instituto Basileiro de Geographia e Estatisticas (IBGE)
is located within several buildings in Rio de Janeiro. This
institute is responsible for collecting and analyzing a
variety of data, and creating and updating all maps,
almanacs, and yearbooks. While touring the I B G E
Department of Natural Resources, updating the maps of
the Legal Amazon was in progress. The Legal Amazon
GeoJournal 26.3/!992
Fig 1 a
Map of Brazil showing selected
major cities, states, and highways
cited in this study
Project engineer displayed the newest maps where the
superposition geology, pedology, geomorphology,
vegetation and climatology were possible - in essence a
GIS strategy without the computer capabilities. The I B G E
bookstore was where these data could be sold to the public.
Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente (IBAMA) was
experiencing the same work strike as INPA during myvisit
to their Brasilia office. Only department heads were
available for consultation. Here literature (pamphlets and
posters) concerning the forest fire regulations originate.
Updated maps and landsat satellite studies of s e l e c t e d
states were also available. This visit made it quite clear that
this government institute may have the legal right and
expertise to control the problems of deforestation, but
without financial support to enforce the environmental
protection laws, IBAMA is essentially powerless.
The "Debt for Nature" Question
In recent years, a major enticement for overseas groups
to give m o n e y for conservation efforts in developing
countries is debt swapping; a financial strategy that sub-
stantially multiplies a contributor's investment (Sun
1988). To describe how this process works, the example of a
GeoJournal 26.3/1992
Fig 1b
The Legal Amazon
AMAZONAS
ACRE
I•FOREST
D SAVANNAH
successful swap is used. The efforts of the Fundacion
Neotropica (FN) in Costa Rica effectively demontrates the
process.
Doubting that the country can repay, banks holding the
loans sell them at a big discount - for Costa Rica, the going
price is 17 cents on the dollar - the buyers then donate
them to the Fundacion Neotropica, a Costa Rican
conservation organization which owns the note. In turn,
the Costa Rican government's Central Bank issues to the
Fundacion and other conservation groups bonds that are
worth 75 cents on the dollar in local currency. This
multiplies the value of the discounted loan about four
times. The FN can use the bonds as collateral and draw 25%
interest on them. In essence, the debt is now free, the
initial investment has a 400% return. This translates to
large quantities of free money to buy land, and equipment,
pay personnel and do whatever is necessary to preserve the
environment. Debt for nature swaps have been called the
most important tool to achieve conservation (Sun 1988).
If the system works effectively in other developing
countries, then why is little or nothing heard about these
efforts in the Brazilian Amazon? This was one of the
questions which initiated my interest in this line of
research. Unfortunately, further investigation led to the
conclusion that, at present, "debt for nature" swaps are not
likely to work in Brazil. At least, not in the foreseeable
future. It appears as though no one supports the concept in
any way. In fact the words "debt for nature" were never
used by any Brazilian. When inquires of my own employed
this concept, Brazilians reacted or pretended as if they had
never heard of it before. Though the words "debt for
nature" were never used, the term "Internationalization of
the Rainforest" was constantly used. Herein lies the
315
PARA
RONDONIA
MATO GROSSC
Brazilian perspective; "debt for nature" by any name is
viewed as a gimmick for outside forces (governments or
multinational business interests) to gain sovereignty over
Brazilian territory and as such, is totally unacceptable to
many facets of Brazilian society.
Brazilian Government Officials viewed this concept as
unjustified foreign meddling and a blatant effort by
industrial nations to preserve their economic supremacy at
the expense of the developing world (Linden 1989). "Debt
for nature" is viewed as a threat to Brazilian sovereignty.
According to former President Jose Sarney, "This is
nothing less than an intervention of foreign powers to
force decisions that are not in Brazil's best interest."
Sarney claimed that industrial countries do not want Brazil
to develop its resources because: 1) this would inflate
world prices of gold, tin, bauxite, uranium and other
minerals, and 2) multinational companies want to gain
control of the Brazilian economy and use environmental
concerns as an excuse to hold off development. Using
Sarney's own words,"Debt for nature is like a Trojan Horse
which hides other interests" (Simons 1989).
According to Miguel Trevisan, political columnist for
the Folha do S~o Paulo (one of Brazil's leading
newspapers), the Brazilian military views
internationalization of the rainforest as a major threat to
national security, and will fight to protect that security
(Trevisan, Personal Communication 1989). Quoting John
Dwyer, Cultural Affairs Officer of the American Embassy
in Brazilia, "Though the Brazilian military is not very
formidable on an international scale, it certainly has the
power to take over the country as it did in 1964" (Dwyer,
Personal Communication 1989). "Needless to say, the
military is now and will always be a driving force in
316
Brazilian political decisions (Trevisan, Personal
Communication 1989).
"Debt for nature" swaps are, also, unpopular with the
Brazilian Public. In an 1989 rally/parade in support of an
Amazon River Hydroelectric Dam Project this author read
several signs on trucks and parade floats stating., "We want
development, not Yankee dollars."
Veja, a popular magazine, displayed a photograph of a
Brazilian armed with a .45 caliber automatic pistol. He was
quoted as saying, "I will not become a zoo keeper for
foreign tourists." The Coordinating Body for the
Indigenous Peoples' Organizations of the Amazon basin
(COICA) has taken particular exception to "debt for
nature" swaps because they allow indigenous land issues to
be decided without the participation of the local rainforest
peoples (Greenpeace, Staff Writer 1990). In essence, the
Brazilian populace is unwilling to be told what to do with
their country.
Finally, and much to this author's surprise, Brazilian
environmental scientists were also against the idea of
trading debt for nature. While visiting the Fundaggo S.O.S.
Mata Atl~ntica (an environmental foundation whose aim
is to protect the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest), their
educational director, Marina S. Ugo Santos stated,
We are a third world country, we know that we are a third
world country.., but we understand our problems and we
can best solve them. We only need financial support.
(Santos, Personal Communication 1989)
While visiting INPA, The Instituto National de
Pesquisas de Amazonas in Manaus, riverine biologist
Augusto Roberto de Pirraro made a similar comment,
We live here in the Amazon and we study it every day. No
one knows this rainforest as well as we do. Believe me, we
know how to correct some of the problems. But we are
underpaid, understaffed and lack the proper support.
(Pirraro, Personal Communication 1989)
As noted previously, the INPA visit was hampered by a
workers strike (a greve), staff wages the Federal
Government had recently cut staff salaries by 50%.
During the question-and-answer period following a
lecture on Ecological and Economical Zoning in the
Amazon by Aziz Ab' Sabar of the Department of
Geography at the University of Sao Paulo, I asked about
the Debt for Nature issues to which he replied in anger
This is an issue to which I take personal offense... I have no
intentions of discussing it! (Ab' Saber, Personal
Communications 1989)
Following the lecture, his temper cooled as quickly as it
flared, and he gracefully accepted my apology as we had
coffee together.
Through these four levels of Brazilian reactions, it
becomes apparent that the "debt for nature" swaps bring
about negative emotions. It threatens Brazilian
sovereingty, destroys Brazilian "patrimony" (a word often
GeoJournal 26.3/1992
used in Brazilian mass media) and casts doubts on the
competence of Brazilian professionals. To reiterate, "debt
for nature" is the "internationalization of the rainforest" in
Brazilian perspective, and as such does not appear to be an
acceptable option at this time.
The Amazon as the Last Frontier
During the Portuguese conquest and early exploration
of the 16th and 17th centuries, fortresses were established
well into the interior of the Amazon rainforest. It was
during this time that alias "Green Hell" was first assigned
to the forest. Hostile Indians, malaria, typhoid and yellow
fever plagued the explorers who at times found life in the
constant heat and humidity close to imbearable (Machado
1988). During those times and until recently, the most
common and easiest mode of transportation into the
interior of Amazonia was up river. In spite of possessing
over 1000 tributaries, even the largest drainage system in
the world, falls short of reaching countless remote areas.
This all changed.
The construction of the Transamazonia Highway which
began in 1970, initally connecting Joao Pessoa in the State
of Paraiba with Porto Velho in Rondonia with BR 230
(Hummerstone 1972). In essence, this road system was the
beginning of the end of the rainforest's protection. The in-
accessability of the interior had been breached. Now
hundreds of thousands could reach areas where previously
only the most intrepid dared to go (Fig la). The most
dramatic destruction highlighted in recent reports by the
sc,ientific community and the mass media has occurred
along BR 364 which connects Porto Velho to Rio Branco
across the State of Rondonia. Having travelled that road,
this author personally witnessed cuttings, burnings and
minig operations. An extension of BR 364 through to Peru
and extending to the Pacific Ocean (primarily to have
direct access to Japanese trade) threatens to repeat in the
State of Acre the destruction of Rondonia. An initial
funding agreement was secured from the World Bank for
the BR 364 extension (Fig 1 a). However, in light of the
massive deforestation documented to have taken place in
Rondonia and with pressure from multinational protests,
the World Bank has refused further funding , finally ad-
opting the philosophy that where road systems lead,
human activity and deforestation soon follow (Bridges
1988 b).
In Brazil as in many other parts of the world, over-
population is a very serious problem. Population is
increasing faster than the resources needed to sustain it.
Serious overcrowding plagues major Brazilian cities. This is
evidenced by the widespread "favelas" or slums which
surround large urban areas. Guided by a local parrish
priest, Father Sedano, a tour of some of the favelas around
the outskirts of S~o Paulo revealed a surprising population
density. Made from scraps of wood, cardboard, plywood,
tin, plastic and any other building materials which may be
found on the streets, tiny shacks measuring approximately
2 to 3 m 2 might house a family of 4 or more.
GeoJournal 26.3/1992
Living in the favelas, human life is cheap as murder rates
rise, but it's still preferable to living on the streets with the
increasing number of homeless (Sedano 1989).
When asked about the population of S~o Paulo, Brazil's
largest city, group leader Caio Cardoso responded:
We really don't know, 13 and a half million at the last census -
but with all the favelas it is impossible to say. The favelas
grow so quickly ... it is also impossible to count for the
homeless on the streets (Cardoso 1989).
The homeless who are essentially uneducated and
unskilled are often referred to as "persoas sim terra" or
people without land. The Amazon has often been referred
to as "terra sim persoas por persoas sim terra,"land without
people for people without land (Margolis 1989). Other
slogans such as "Urn pedicinho de chao para cada
Brasileiro" a small piece of land for every Brazilian
(Muggiati 1989) point to differences in population density
in an effort to defend Amazon settlement. For example,
former President Jos6 Sarney once stated that the
population density of Europe is 140 people/km 2 as opposed
to the Amazon at 2.3 people/km 2 (Schubart 1989). Or, each
Indian born today is the master of 6 km 2 of land, more than
the amount of land area for people in the other 5
continents (Manchete, Staff Writers 1989). Statements like
those above highlight this powerful force behind the
unplanned settlement of the Amazon.
The Amazon has also been described as the ,,World's
Granary" by those who believe that farming in a rainforest
environment is actually feasible (Berbert 1989). Former
President Jose Sarney compared the opening of the
Amazon to the settlement of the American West (Bridges
1988). During the late 1960s and through the 1970s
generous tax credits and subsidies were awarded to
settlers, especially ranchers. Through time $700 million
dollars in subsidies were given to 950 settlements; of these
631 were for ranching projects (Margolis 1989). ,,Colonos"
or colonists (small land holders) were encouraged through
the 1970s and into the early 1980s. Theywere awarded small
farms and very little money with which to start. Subsistance
farming becomes an immediate necessity since perennial
crops (eg coffee) take several years to properly develop. As
a result most farming efforts failed miserably (Bridges
1986). Through the later 1980s, subsidies for many projects
in the Amazon had been cut. The present government
continues to cut these subsidies (Science, Staff Writer
1991). Deforestation will continue because two important
components still remain, first, the highway system is still in
place and second, the population pressure continues to
grow. For many,,persoas sire terra" there is little or nothing
to lose in resettlement.
The Lure of Mineral Wealth
Among such nicknames as "Green Hell", "the Earth's
Lung", and "the Worlds Granary", there exists yet another.
The alias "Eldorado's Wonder" fits best here; at slightly less
than 5 million km 2, the legal Amazon is viewed by many
317
Brazilians as containing vast sources of mineral wealth.
This view has been substantiated through time; gold was
first discovered in the 17th century; the first geologic and
mineral survey designated several successful mining areas
in 1855; oil was first drilled in 1917, along with the
development of early 20th century diamond mines
(Berbert 1989).
At present, the following mineral resources of the Legal
Amazon have been measured, indicated, or inferred: Iron
Ore, 18 billion tons; Cassiterite, 325,000 tons; Manganese
Ore, 91 million tons; Bauxite, 2.6 billion tons; Chromium
Ore, 114,000 tons; Zirconium Ore, 99 million tons; Copper
Ore, 1.2 billion tons; Kaolin, 1 billion tons; Potash, 493
million tons; Limestone, 4.5 million tons; Diamonds, 4
million carats (Berbert 1989). Unspecified amounts of
Titanium, Nickel, Columbite, Tantalite, Lignite and
Uranium in addition to 110 million barrels of Oil (20
million barrels of excellent quality), 30 million m 3 of
Methane are considered among Amazonia's resources
(Schubart 1989). Whether the quantities mentioned above
are accurate or mere estimations is irrelevant to the issue
this author wishes to present here; the importance of such
figures rests in the fact that the Brazilian government and
those with the resources to extract those minerals believe
such quantities exist. Considering the Brazilian debt load
of approximately $112 billion dollars, the largest in the
world (Lazarus 1990), the lure of mineral wealth becomes
all the stronger.
The savage hunt for mineral wealth is best displayed in
the Amazon gold rush. The wildcat gold miners or
,,Garimpeiros", now numbering in excess of 600,000,
constitute the biggest gold rush in history. Beginning in
1980 in an open pit at Serra Pelada, by 1988 140 tons of gold
were produced amounting to 2 billion dollars, (Bridges
1988). It is estimated that, 300 to 400 tons still remain
(Margolis 1989). Getting started as a Garimpeiro is not very
difficult; poor migrants form teams of 4, their initial capital
and equipment is supplied by a boss or a "Dono" who
receives 70% of the profit, while the field team divides the
remaining 30%, (Bridges 1988). Therefore, even the poorest
men can have a stake in this venture. The gold is extracted
by high pressure water hoses (which washes away any
vegetation and top soil), and separated out with the use
of mercury (1.4 kg of mercury for 1 kg of gold) (Petrere
1989). Mercury pollutes the regional streams which
surround the mining operations. These mining camps
contain no settlement infrastructures such as potable water
lines, sewer lines or power cables. There are no schools in
the area or medical facilities to treat mercury poisoning,
malaria or the variety of other rainforest related maladies.
Despite the adverse living conditions, a steady output of
gold causes this highly destructive form of mining to
continue.
Environmental Martyrdom
Long before arriving in Brazil, I had read about Francisco
"Chico" Mendes, the internationally known environmental
318
martyr. From his little-known town in the remote western
Amazon, Zapuri, Chico Mendes gained world renown for
his efforts to save the rainforest. Mendes established the
National Council of Rubber Tappers and bridged the gap
between the rubber tappers (Seringueiros) and their
archrivals, the Yanomami Indians (DuBois 1989). This new
alliance was of particular annoyance to area developers,
ranchers, and lumbermen.
Through time, Mendes used Gandhiesque tactics, such
as human blockades around areas scheduled to be cleared.
Such tactics called "empates" made Mendes unpopular
with landowners and local officials. So much so that threats
on Mendes' life placed him under police protection. In
December 22, 1988 he was struck down with a single
shotgun blast as he stepped out of the back-door of his
home. At first, his death was just one of an estimated 1,600
killings of rural workers in the last decade, but his
martyrdom has since backfired in those who would destroy
the rainforest for a quick profit. Since his death, the Chico
Mendes story has garnered world attention. His wife
Ilzamar Mendes has recently sold the rights to this story to
film producer David Puttnam. In addition, numerous
books, TV documentaries, and magazine articles are in the
works (Maier 1990).
Though people worldwide mourn the loss of this
environmental champion, nowhere is "Chico" more a
martyr than in Brazil. Chico Mendes is everywhere. His
face and story appear in posters billboard, popular
magazines, and in environmental interest and
conservation groups' literature (some of these
environmental groups are not even involved with the
Amazon Rainforest!). During this author's first evening in
Brazil, a S~o Paulo television station aired an hour-long
special about the life and death of Chico Mendes produced
by and for Brazilian television. Brazilians, as well as the rest
of the world, mourn the loss of this environmental hero,
and as a martyr, his memory will haunt those responsible
for his death and the destruction of the rainforest.
Summary and Conclusions
This article is an attempt to outline some reasons for
the massive deforestation which has taken place and
continues to occur in the Brazilian Amazon. Though they
may not be justifiable; there are reasons for the
destruction. The following factors are all relevant to this
multifaceted issue.
When considering the actions for the Brazilian
government, a dichotomy surfaces. For over 25 years, the
Brazilian government has passed legislation to protect the
environment, flora, fauna, and native Indian populations.
Other legislation developed environmental and forest
protection agencies. Noble as the legislation may be, there
is little or no ability to enforce these laws. Thus they are
ignored, the other side of this dichotomy shows that the
government has subsidized farming, mining and especially
ranching operations in the Amazon at the same time
GeoJournal 26.3/1992
cutting resources and salaries at the national research
institutes which help to understand and preserve the
rainforest.
Brazilian research on the Amazon proceeds on many
levels. Despite a lack of monetary support, qualified
scientists at a variety of universities and research institutes
carry on valid scientific research. The research findings are
accurately reported with little fear of retribution. Brazilian
scientists are very openminded and welcome opinions and
cooperative research endeavors from international
colleagues. They simply lack the resources to initiative such
endeavors.
The lure of mineral wealth is great in Brazil whose
international debt of 112 billion dollars constitutes one of
the largest in the world. A variety of valuable mineral
resources including oil, methane, and diamonds continues
to be a strong enticement to destroy the rainforest. The
largest gold rush in recorded history continues in the
Amazon. The highly motivated, heavily armed wildcat
miners will hold their claims until the gold output is no
longer profitable.
In this author's experience the "debt for nature"
question brought about a resounding negative response
from all levels of Brazilian society. Government officials
view it as a loss of sovereignty over the nation. The general
populace sees it as others (foreigners) telling them what to
do with their land. The military views it as an invasion of
national borders. Lastly, the environmental scientists feel
that with the proper resources, they can handle the
problems that exist. Though foreign scientists are free to
work in Brazil, outside control of the rainforest is not
welcome.
For the past two decades, the Amazon has been viewed
as the last frontier. The population pressures that exist in
all major urban areas have driven the poor and the
homeless "persfas sim terra" to seek a new life in the
interior. With little or no agricultural training and even less
financial support, these people immediately begin
subsistence "slash and burn" farming. This represents an
immediate and continuous destruction of the rainforest.
The martyrdom of Francisco "Chico" Mendes was felt
by people world-wide, but nowhere was it felt more
strongly than within Brazil. The Brazilian populace, as well
as foreign influence have used Chico Mendes to bring
pressure upon the Brazilian government to take more
environmental action. In the true spirit of martyrdom,
Chico Mendes exerts more influence dead than when he
was alive.
The Brazilian military remains the wildcard in this
multi-sided issue. By shear force, it can take over the
country and establish a new set of rules. It seems unlikely
at this time that the military will do this. However, it
appears to this author that some forms of military action
may become essential. For example, breaking the gold rush
will require strong and violent action. Will the Brazilian
military turn its forces against its own people to protect the
environment? This is an interesting question with no clear
answer at the present time.
GeoJournal 26.3/1992
I n closing, t h e Brazilian A m a z o n is b e i n g d e s t r o y e d by
a v a r i e t y o f causes. C e r t a i n p r e s s u r e s allow t h e s e causes to
exist. U n b r i d l e d p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h , r u n a w a y inflation, a
References
Ab' Saber, A.: Ecological and Economical Zoning in the Amazon:
Considerations on Scale and Method. Estudos Ava~ados 4-20
(1989)
Berbert, C.O.: Mineral Exploration in the Amazon. In: Berbert, C.
(ed.), Proceedings of the Symposium Amaz6nia: Facts,
Problems and Solutions, 31 July to 2 August 1989. Sao Paulo
1989.
Boots, W.: Monitoring the Fate of the Forests from Space. Science
243:1428-1429 (1989)
Bridges, T.: Trees Fall, Protests Rise in the Amazon. Christian
Science Monitor (22 September 1988 a)
Bridges, T.: Will New Roads in Amazon Pave Way for Wealth or
Devastation? Christian Science Monitor (26 September 1988 b)
Bridges, T.: Finding Ways to Farm the Amazon and Save It. Christian
Science Monitor (26 September 1988 c)
Bridges, T.: Amazon Gold Rush Leaves Behind Dross. Christian
Science Monitor (27 September 1988 d)
Da Cunha, R. P.: Deforestation Estimates through Remote Sensing:
The State-of-the-Art in the Legal Amazon. In: Berbert, C. (ed.),
Proceeding of the Symposium, Amaz6nia: Facts, Problems and
Solutions, 31 July-3 August. S~o Paulo 1989.
Dorfman, A.: Justice Comes to the Amazon. Time (17 December
1990)
Farquharson, M.: Environmental Protection: Rules for Flouting.
South 6:15-16 (1990)
Fearnside, P.M.: Deforestation in the Brasilian Amaz6nia. In:
Woodall, G. (eds.), The Earth in Transition: Patterns and Process
of Impoverishment. Cambridge University Press, New York (in
press)
Greenpeace, Staff Writer: Defenders of the Forest. Greenpeace 15:
8-12 (1990)
Holtz, A.C.T.: An Exploration of the Brazilian Hydoelectric
Potential as a Vehicle of National Integration: The Amazon Case
Study. In: Berbert, C. (ed.), Proceedings of the Symposium,
Amaz6nia: Facts, Problems, and Solutions, 31 July to 2 August
1989. S~o Paulo 1989.
House, R.: A Reign on the Amazon. South 6:12-13 (1990)
Hummerstone, R. G.: Cutting a Road Through Brazil's "Green Hell".
New York Times Magazine 3:16-32 (1972)
Hurtado, M.E.: Growth Up in Smoke? South 6:11-15 (1990)
Kirchoff, V.W.J.: Biomass Burning in Amazonia: Production of CO2,
CO and 03 and Its Global Impact. In: Berbert, C. (ed.),
Proceedings of the Symposium Amaz6nia: Facts, Problems and
Solutions, 31 July-2 August. S~o Paulo 1989.
APPENDIX I
Legal and Institutional Framework
The Forest Code - Act ~ 4771, September 15th 1965 states that the
vegetation covering the national territory is of common interest to
all the country's inhabitants. The property rights over it are limited in
319
series o f c o r r u p t g o v e r n m e n t a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s d r i v e n by
g r e e d , and an i n c r e a s i n g accessability to t h e r a i n f o r e s t all
c o n t r i b u t e to its d e f o r e s t a t i o n .
Lazarus, D.: An Action Plan for Latin America and the Carribbean.
United Nations Environment Programme. Our Planet 2:10-11
(1990)
Linden, E.: Playing with Fire. Time (18 September 1989)
Machado, V.B.: Brazilian Policy on Ecology, Environment and
Energy. Institute 1 December. Ministry of Mines and Energy,
Brasilia 1988.
Mahar, D.: Government Policies and Deforestation in Brazil's
Amazon Region. The World Bank - Policy Planning and Research
Staff. Environment Department Working Paper no. 7, 56, 1989.
Maier, J.: Justice Comes to the Amazon. Time (17 December 1990)
Margolis, M.: Amazon Ablaze. World Monitor 2:20-29 (1989)
Moreira, J. R.: Energy Alternatives. In: Berbert, C. (ed.), Proceedings
of the Symposium, Amaz6nia: Facts, Problems and Solutions, 31
July-2 August, S~o Paulo 1989.
Muggiata, A.: Rond6nia a Tenra Prometida. Manchete 447:58-69
(1989)
New York Times, StaffWriters: Brazil Begins Environment, Indian
Land Reforms. New York Times News Service (26 June 1991)
Padua, M.T.J.: Zoning and Units of Conservation. In: Berbert, C.
(ed.) Proceedings of the Symposium, Amaz6nia: Facts,
Problems and Solutions, 31 July-2 August. Sgo Paulo 1989.
Petrere, Jr. M.: Maneto de Estoquest Pesqueiros na Amaz6nia. In:
Berbert, C. (ed.) Proceedings of the Symposium, Amaz6nia:
Facts, Problems and Solutions, 31 July-2 August. S~o Paulo 1989.
Sarney, J. et al.: Our Nature. Brazilian Government Environment
Policy 32, 1988.
Schubart, H. O. R.: Diagnosis of the Natural Resources of Amaz6nia.
In: Berbert, C. (ed.) Proceedings of the Symposium, Amaz6nia:
Facts, Problems and Solutions, 31 July-2 August. S~o Paulo 1989.
Serrill, M.S.: The Biggest Shake-Up. Time (6 August 1990)
Simons, M.: Man-made Amazon Fires tied to Global Warming. New
York Times (12 August 1988)
Simons, M.: Brazil Smarting from the Outcry over the Amazon,
Charges Foreign Plot. New York Times International (23 March
1989)
Siqueira, J. D. P.: Sustained Forest Management in Amazon Needs
Research. In: Berbert, C. (ed.) Proceedings of the Symposium,
Amaz6nia: Facts, Problems and Solutions, 31 July-2 August. S~o
Paulo 1989.
Staff Writers: Amaz6nia: Onde Esta'a Verdade, Veja 22:60-109
(1989)
Staff Writers: Deforestation Slows. Science 251:1425 (1990)
Sun, M.: Costa Rica's Campaign for Conservation. Science 239:
1366-1369 (1988)
Yokomizo, C.: Financial Incentives in the Amazon: Facts, Problems
and Solutions. In: Berbert, C. (ed.) Proceedings of the
Symposium, Amaz6nia: Facts, Problems and Solutions, 31
July-2 August. S~o Paulo 1989.
special cases. The act considers as vegetation of permanent
preservation that covering the banks of the rivers, the banks of
lagoons, lakes, natural and artificial reservoirs, the water sources, the
top of the mountains and the slopes, the marshes and dunes and
those located over 1900 m. The partial or total suppression of
vegetation in these areas depends upon previous authorization of
Federal Government. Forests included in the Indian's patrimony are
320
also creation of national, state and municipal parks, as well as
biological reservations, for the purpose of integral protection of the
flora and fauna, scientific research and leisure. The exploitation of
these areas is strictly forbidden. The private forests are only allowed
to be cut down till the limit of 50% of the total area of the estate
located in the Amazon. Enterprises which consume great quantities
of forestry resources have to replace the vegetation to the same
amount or their consumption. Penalties are foreseen for those
violating the law.
The Fauna Protection Act - ~ 5197, January 3, 1967 prohibits
exploitation of the flora and fauna in the National, State and
Municipal Biological Reserves, except for research purposes which
are duly authorized. It disciplines fishery and hunting activities.
The Decree- Law ~ 289, February 28, 196Z It creates the Brazilian
Institute of Forestry Development (IBDF), with the aim to
formulate forestry policy, establish guidelines, coordinate and
implement the necessary measure for rational exploitation of
forestry resources, preservation and conservation of the renewable
natural resources.
Act-&- 5371, December5, 1967. It substitutes the Service of Indian
Protection by the Fundacao Nacional do lndio (FUNAI - National
Indian Foundation), subordinated to the Ministry of the Interior,
and provides for a new structuring of the agency.
Decree ~- 73.030, October 30, 1973. It creates the Special
Secretariat for the Environment, subordinated to the Ministry of the
Interior, with the aim to examine the implications of national
development programs and technolgical progress to the ecology.
The Statute of the Indians - A c t ~- 60001, December 19, 1973. It
guarantees the permanent use of the land inhabited by Indians to
their communities; its aim is to aid the preservation of the Indian
cultures, on the one hand, and provide for the progressive
interaction of Indian communities with the ecompassing society, as
well. The agency in charge of implementing the Statute is the
Fundacao Nacional do Indio, in coordination with the Institute of
Agrarian Reform, the IBDF, the Ministry of Education, Health and
National Defense.
FUNAI's activities are concentrated in the following: the land
program, aiming at identifying, delimiting and demarcating the land
occupied by the Indian communities, and to supervise them so as to
prevent the invasion by outsiders; - the cultural preservation
program, aiming at stimulating the research on the communities
culture, disseminating its results, and at fostering the production of
arts and crafts; - the indigenous education program, that provides for
a bilingual education for those who request it, not only with the aim
of preserving the community history, culture and ethnic identity, but
also to give them elements for their insertion in a broader social
context; - health program, aiming at improving health conditions
through systematic immunization of Indian communities, health
care under traditional Indian therapy conciliated with western
medicine, dental assistance, nutritional balance; productivity
program, aiming at the effective occupation of land, the economic
self-sufficiency of Indian communities, and the sustained
exploitation of natural resources; - environmental management
program, involving activities for keeping the integrity of the
ecosystem of Indian lands and at enhancing nonpredatory
techniques used by the Indian communities.
The National Environmental Policy Act - ~- 938, August 3L 1981,
and the Decree ~- 88 35L June 1st, 1983. Their objective is to preserve,
improve and recuperate the environmental balance, and ensure the
conditions of socio-economic development. The decree states that it
is incumbent to the government the permanent supervision of
natural resources, and the conciliation of economic development
with environmental protection. It creates areas of ecological
conservation and preservation. It establishes the means to control
activities with technologies for the rational use of natural resources,
to disseminate information on the existence of degraded areas and
GeoJournal 26.3/1992
on the proposed solutions for their recovery, to stimulate the active
participation of the population in the preservation of ecology.
The law creates the National Environmental System, integrated
by the Conselho Nacional do Meio A m b i e n t e - CONAMA (National
Environmental Council), the Special Secretariat of the
Environment, sectoral agencies related to preservation of the quality
of life, and state and municipal agencies. CONAMA is a collegiate
body, composed by high level officers of the Ministries of Justice,
Navy, External Relations, Transportation, Agriculture, Education,
Labor, Health, Industry and Commerce, Mines and Energy,
including the National Commission of Nuclear Energy, Planning,
Science and Technolgy, Agrarian Reform, Culture, Interior, Treasury,
Armed Forces, representatives of the States and Territories, the
chairpersons of the National Confederation of Workers in
Commerce, Industry and Agriculture, of the Brazilian Foundation
for Nature Conservancy, the chairpersons of two associations for the
defense of natural resources and pollution control, designated by the
President of the Republic, and five representatives of ONGs, one
from each region of the country. The meetings of CONAMA are
public. It is in charge of advising the President of the Republic in
matters concerning the formulation of the Environmental Policy.
The Council creates rules for the implementation of such a policy
and decides upon the penalties for the infraction of the law. It can
determine the loss or restriction of the fiscal benefits accorded by the
government to development projects.
The system would disseminate information on degradation of
the environment and on the actions taken by CONAMA to protect it.
Activities that are effectively or potentially harmful to the
environment would have to be licensed by the State agency
integrating the system. The CONAMA would establish the basic
criteria for studies required for the licensing, including the
environmental diagnosis of the area, the description of the action
proposed and its alternatives, and the identification, analysis and
perspectives of the positive and negative impact of these activities on
the environment. Governmental financing and fiscal incentives
would only be accorded after CONAMA's licensing. Fines would be
imposed upon violators; these fines vary according to the degree of
the violation.
Ecological Sites A c t - ~ 6902,Apri127,198L creates the ecological
sites, to be permanently preserved in 90% of its total extent. The
remainder 10% can be the object of research which would modifiy the
ecology, provided that such a research is duly approved by the
competent authority. The Act also creates the Areas of
Environmental Protection in which activities which would
contaminate water, accelerate erosion or sensibly alter ecology are
forbidden.
As it has been shown from the above, the legislation passed from
the mid sixties onwards already shows signs of change in the critical
way to consider ecology and the Indians. Restrictions of property
rights due to ecological preservation began then to appear, as a
modest sign of introduction of environmental concern in the
development plans. The recognition of adequate means adopted by
the Indians to deal with the environment and some tropical diseases
is established as a premise of FUNAI's activities. In the 80's,
environment issues came to he treated at the governmental level
with the assistance of unions, NGOs and other bodies of civil society,
as a matter of general and public concern. The Amazon basin,
consequently seemed to be no longer only a region to be dealt with
according to the criteria of national security, national integration, or
national development. Other very important elements have been
introduced, such as police power and heavy fines to enforce the law.
The basic premise of the legislation of the 80's is the possibility of
reconciling environmental balance with development projects.
However, the socio-economic dynamics of the country and the
international debt crisis have shown that the intention of the law and
reality are not always the same.
GeoJournal 26.3/1992
Our Nature, Decree :~ 96.943, October 12, 1988
I am establishing the Program called "OUR NATURE" to take
the Government itself, and our people more aware of the grave
problem of the environment,
As an initial step, I have just signed a decree that creates the
Program for the Defense of the Legal Amazon Ecosystems Complex,
with the purpose of establishing conditions for the use and
preservation of the environment and renewable natural resources in
the Amazon region.
The Program that we are launching today, coordinated by the
Advisory Secretariat on National Defense, will have the participation
of all areas of the Federal Government, of the states and
municipalities, the scientific community and NGOs.
Its objectives are:
1. To restrict predatory incursion, against the environment and
renewable natural resources;
2. To structure the environmental protection system;
3. To promote environmental education and public awareness
regarding the necessity of conservation of the environment in the
Legal Amazon region;
4. To regulate rational settlement and exploitation of the Legal
Amazon, based on territorial planning;
5. To reclaim the ecosystems complex affected by the action of man;
and,
6. To protect the indigenous communities and the populations
involved in the sustained exploitation of natural resources;
involved in the extraction process.
Six working groups have been created to study, propose and
implement measures designed to protect vegetation; curb
environmental risks derived from inadequate use of chemical
substances in mining processes; strengthen the governmental
agencies related to environmental protection; promote
environmental education and public awareness; develop appropriate
technologies in the sustained use of natural resources; and regulate
the occupation and exploitation of the Legal Amazon based on
territorial planning.
One of the major advances of the new Brazilian Construction,
from my point of view, is the chapter related to the defense of our
natural and scenic heritage as well as those referred to the
indigenous communities as well.
In this sense, "Our Nature Program" incorporated legal measures
to put these constitutional provisions into operation.
A presidential decree will restrict the granting of fiscal incentives
in the framework of the Amazon Investment Fund - F1NAM to
projects that affect the environment; it will suspend new livestock
projects having official incentives and credit, as a basis; it will
prohibit official incentives and credit for farm and livestock projects
in the Atlantic Forest.
By virtue of a ministerial directive issued today, the Brazilian
Institute for Forestry Development and the Special Secretariat for
the Environment must be heard in processes of acquisition of rural
properties for purpose of agrarian reform, in cases of settlement of
farmers, in public land, and in all private colonization projects
submitted to the Ministry of Agrarian Reform and Development.
I have directed the National Council on External Trade -
CONCEX, to prepare regulations prohibiting the exportation of
timber. This is an indispensable measure for the ecological and
economic protection of the Amazon region thus preventing Brazil
from becoming the exclusive world supplier of raw timber.
There is a growing awareness in Brazilian society, along with
worldwide movements, regarding the environment and its
preservation. I was surprised and indignant to learn of the numerous
fires in the Amazon Forest which destroyed thousands of square
kilometers in a few days.
321
Every day, Brazilians are more and more aware of the fact that it
is fundamental to preserve the ecological systems that are vital to
food production, health, human survival and development such as
farming systems, coastal fresh water systems and native forests, in
particular those which protect river basins or harbor threatened
species.
Burning for clearings, cutting down of forests, extensive
agricultural and livestock projects, large mining operations and
predatory hunting and fishing are causing the decimation of animal
and plant species and the destruction of the forest cover in areas
where they are indispensable to soil protection.
Since the beginning of this century, Brazil has been adopting
farm colonization programs aimed at the settlement of the Humid
Tropical Zones. The construction of access roads to lands in the
Amazon and farming and livestock activities along the Cuiaba-Porto
Velho, Cuiaba-Santarem, Brasilia-Belem and Transamazon
Highways trace the route of this expansion to the North.
The Legal Amazon, which embraces seventy-five percent of all
Brazilian forests and thirty percent of world forests, is beginning to
show the destructive effects of a development policy aimed at
diverting the social pressures of the Northeast and the Center-
Southern Regions.
These overall solutions and palliatives impose a high cost upon
us today and have definitely convinced us that the establishing of
farming and livestock projects must always be conditioned by
rigorous criteria for the preservation of the environment.
Fortunately, the heart of the Amazon has not been touched by
the predatory action of man. However, the stigma of environmental
degradation can be seen over large extents of the states of Tocantins,
Mato Grosso, Para, Maranhao.
Satellites have shown that these senseless blights were caused by
the voracious force of large fires and buy the predatory activities of
gold miners, mostly in the basins of the Madeira, Tapajos, Araguaia-
Tocantins, Jari and Mucajai rivers. Many of these rivers were
formerly full offish, but indiscriminate fishing is now threatening the
natural replenishment of the species.
To revert this damage, planning territorial occupation is essential
to promote economic activities according to the specific aptitudes of
areas they are to be carried out as well as the integration of the
exploitation of natural resources with the imperatives of
environmental protection.
The idea that the natural wealth of our country is limitless
distorts reality. The immediate need for effective actions to protect
the Amazon Forest, an national heritage, led my administration to
create the Program for the Defense of the Legal Amazon Ecosystems
Complex, known simply as the "Our Nature" Program. These actions
are based on the Federal Constitution which imposes upon the
Government the responsibility for ensuring an ecologically balanced
environment as a right for all.
Our nature of so many resources, of so many sites of
extraordinary beauty, our forests, our rivers, our fauna, our flora, all
of our ecological heritage is an intangible legacy which we have
inherited and which we cannot allow to deteriorate, to be destroyed.
We must protect it so that we will not lose it.
Government policy, which is the expression of the national
conscience, demands that the Brazilian Government adopts new
measures right now. These measures will coordinate existing
instruments, create those which are necessary and set in motion
efforts to defend the ecology and the environment.
A different perspective is being adopted towards the effective
protection of the Amazon ecological system through the integration
of all government sectors and the participation of various segments
of Brazilian society.
Having a million and a half young prepared to enter the labor
market each year, Brazil must expand its economy in an equivalent
technology making it possible to enjoy increasing productivity while
322
safeguarding conditions which preserve the life of species in their
environment.
Multisectorial intervention on the part of the state together with
other government action in the economic, social, cultural and
political areas can stop predatory activities before ecological
imbalance becomes irreversible.
The protection of our natural heritage will not only ensure the
welfare of Brazilians now, but will also guarentee the survival of
future generations.
The human adventure has moved on. It has arrived at our times
with technological development in the splendor of the industrial age.
Never have so many seen the world change so much in so little time.
We have reached the era of a planetary civilization. The whole world
comes into our homes; science and technology together know no
frontiers as they continue along a fascinating road of expansion of
our knowledge on the Universe. But as we move along this road, we
realize that we are all prisoners of a small planet which is rocketing
through unknown space at an incredible velocity.
Man, who considered himself to be the center of creation and
outside the realm of nature, is beginning to doubt his primacy and to
think of the rescue of our planet as the basic condition for his
survival. What are development, the immortal soul, or life itself for if
there is no more room for existence?
This is the root of all consideration that makes people about
Nature, no longer in terms of its beauty, or the sum of its gifts, or its
exploitation, but rather in the sense that it could lead to an
unthinkable rebellion against man, or an antiexistence process.
It is regarding this fundamental point that the new nations
cannot wash their hand while witnessing the conflagration. In the
contrary, they have an extraordinary authority to stress that if the
earth is ailing and beginning to show signs of weakness, it is not the
developing countries' fault, but that of the super-rich who, in their
rush to exploit, act in a predatory way.
The fact is that we are continually reminded that we do not reign
over nature as the absolute monarchs of the past ruled over the
nations they conquered. In the contrary, our flesh, our blood and our
brains are a part of nature. However, man, as the great biologist
Konrad Lorenz wrote, "is destroying nature little by little and
devastating the biosphere in which he lives and by which he lives".
The emergence of a critical strain which marked the appearance
of our species, and which distinguishes it from the other species,
does not mean that humanity is separated itself from nature: this
break has never taken place.
APPENDIX II
Proceedings of the Symposium held in S~o Paulo between 31
July and 2 August entitled, Amazonia: Facts, Problems and Solutions
cosponsored by the University of S~o Paulo (USP), Presentation
Titles, Authors and Author's Affiliation and the Brazilian Insitute of
Space Research (INPE).
Mineral Exploration in the Amazon. Carlos Oiti Berbert,
Director, Geology and Mineralogy Division, National Department of
Mine Production (ONPM).
Financiers and Fiscal Incentives in Amazonia. Facts, Problems
and Solutions. Clando, Yokomizo, IPEA/SEPLAN-PR.
Animal and Vegetal "Extractivism" (Extractive Exploitation of
Animal and Vegetal Natural Resources in the Amazon).
Jean C,L, Duhois, Brazilian Foundation for Nature
Conservation (FBCN).
Biomass Burning in Amazonia: Production of C Q , CO and 02
and Its Global Impact.
Volker W.J.H. Kirchoff, National Institute of Space Studies
(INPE). Energy Alternatives,
GeoJournal 26.3/1992
My administration has demonstrated that it has not spared any
effort in the field of protecting the environment and the indigenous
communities:
In the period from 1910 to 1983, slightly more than 12 million
hectares of Indian lands were marked off;
During the present administration more than 37 million
hectares are in the final phase being delimited;
In the Amazon region, Indian lands are being surrounded by
national forests, thus affording these communities the
protection of a belt of green forests around them;
The Yanomami reservation alone, together with the
surrounding forest, has a million 200 thousand hectars,
which is four times the area of the state of Sergipe;
While the United States average about 20 hectars for each
Indian, Brazil has set apart more than 200 hectars for each
Indian;
We have 29 national parks and 15 biological reserves which
total up 11.5 million hectares or 2 percent of our nation's
territory;
Within the past three years we have created the Fernando do
Noronha Park, The Gurupi Biological Reserve in Maranhao
Forests in Acre, Rondonia and Amazonas, doubling the area
which existed at the beginning of my administration.
The majestic Amazon forest, with its cycles of life, death and
resurrection, inhabited by countless species of flora and fauna and
ancestral myths, leads us to conclude that the meaning of the
universe is in the harmony between man and nature itself where we
had our origin and where we continue to thrive.
I believe the great anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss, who says
that we shall only"learn to love and have more respect for natrue and
the living beings which inhabit it, as we understand that plants and
animals, even the most humble, besides providing man with
substance, have been for him, ever since the beginning, the source of
his most intense austhetic emotions and (...) his first profound
speculations".
This is an undeniable duty of our generations: to use our
resources in a manner that is not predatory and to ensure the rights
of our nature, Brazil's nature, the heritage of the Bazilian people.
Thank you very much.
Jose Sarney
President of Brasil
(the former President introduced th& particular legislation)
Jose Roberto Moreira, Institute of Electrotechnology and Energy
and Institute of Physics, University of S~o Paulo (USP)
Sustained Forest Management in Amazonia: Research Versus
Necessity. Joesio D. E Siqueira, Federal University ofParana' (UFP).
Zoning and Units of Conservation. Maria Teresa Jorgie P~dua,
President of Pro-Nature Foundation (FUNATURA).
Diagnosis of the Natural Resources of Amazonia. Herbert O. R.
Schubart, National Insititute for Amazonia Research (INDA).
Deforestation Estimates Through Remote Sensing: The State of
the Art in the Legal Amazon. Roberto Pereira da Cunha, National
Institute of Space Research (INPE).
Fish Stock Management in Amazonia. Miguel Petrere Jr.,
Department of Ecology, University of S~o Paulo (USP).
Soils, Water and Climate of Amazonia. Eneas Salati et al.,
University of S~o Paulo (USP).
An Exploration of the Brazilian Hydroelectric Potential as a
Vehicle of National Integration: The Amazon, a Case Study.
Antonio Carlos Tatit Holtz, General Secretary of the Ministry of
Mines and Energy.