13 Solutions for Section 6

Exercise 6.2 Draw up the group table for S3 . List, giving each as a product of
disjoint cycles, all the permutations in S4 . Determine the order of each element
of S4 .
Solution The group S3 contains the identity permutation, id, three transposi-
tions (1 2), (1 3), (2 3) and two 3-cycles (1 2 3) and (1 3 2).
· id (1 2) (1 3) (2 3) (1 2 3) (1 3 2)
id id (1 2) (1 3) (2 3) (1 2 3) (1 3 2)
(1 2) (1 2) id (1 3 2) (1 2 3) (2 3) (1 3)
(1 3) (1 3) (1 2 3) id (1 3 2) (1 2) (2 3)
(2 3) (2 3) (1 3 2) (1 2 3) id (1 3) (1 2)
(1 2 3) (1 2 3) (1 3) (2 3) (1 2) (1 3 2) id
(1 3 2) (1 3 2) (2 3) (1 2) (1 3) id (1 2 3)
Exercise 6.3 Give an example of a group G, a subgroup H and an element
a ∈ G such that the right and left cosets aH and Ha are not equal.
Solution (Notice that there is no point looking in abelian groups since if the
“multiplication” is commutative then right and left cosets coincide.) The sim-
plest non-abelian group is S3 so that’s a good place to start looking. It will
follow from what we do later that it’s no good taking a normal subgroup since,
by Lemma 8.2, the right and left cosets would coincide. By Example 8.5 a sub-
group of index 2 must be normal, so that rules out using the subgroup of S3
consisting of the 3-cycles and the identity. All this leads to trying the following
example, which works.)
Let G = S3 , let H = {id, (1 2)} be the (2-element cyclic) subgroup gen-
erated by (1 2). Take a = (1 2 3). Then aH = {(1 2 3)id, (1 2 3)(1 2)} =
{(1 2 3), (1 3)}. On the other hand Ha = {id(1 2 3), (1 2)(1 2 3)} = {(1 2 3), (2 3)} =
6
aH, as required.
Exercise 6.6 Write down the group tables, where the operation is addition, for
Z4 and also for Z5 . Do the same for the field F4 with 4 elements (see Section
6).
Solution I think that computing the tables for Z4 and Z5 should present no
problems. And the table for F4 can be found in Example 1.3 of the notes (the
third example is F4 ).

Exercise 6.8 Find U (R) and draw up the group table for each of the following
rings R: Z; Z5 ; Z8 ; F4 .
Solution The only invertible elements of Z are ±1 so the table is just the
following.
· 1 −1
1 1 −1
−1 −1 1
The invertible elements of Z5 are the classes of 1, 2, 3, 4 so, writing just a
for [a]5 , we have the following.

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 · 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4
2 2 4 1 3
3 3 1 4 2
4 4 3 2 1
The invertible elements of Z8 are the classes of 1, 3, 5, 7 so the table is the
following.
· 1 3 5 7
1 1 3 5 7
3 3 1 7 5
5 5 7 1 3
7 7 5 3 1
The invertible elements of F4 are 1, α, 1 + α where α is a root of X 2 + X + 1,
so the table is the following.
· 1 α 1+α
1 1 α 1+α
α α 1+α 1
1+α 1+α 1 α

Exercise 6.9 Let R be the ring M2 (Z) of 2 × 2 matrices with integer entries.
Find some elements in the group of units of R and  compute  their orders.
a b
Now replace Z by R. What is a criterion for ∈ U (M2 (R)? Given
c d
n can you find an element of order n in U (M2 (R))?
   
−1 0 0 1
Solution A couple of elements of order 2 are and . The
0 1 1 0
   
0 −1 1 1
matrix has order 4. The matrix has infinite order.
−1 0 0 1
When we move to matrices with entries from R then we have the criterion 
a b
from linear algebra (for invertibility of a matrix over a field): is
  c d
a b
invertible iff det 6= 0, that is, iff ad − bc 6= 0.
c d
For the last part, think geometrically: a 2 × 2 matrix with real entries can be
thought of as a linear transformation of the plane and, conversely every linear
transformation of the plane can be represented (with respect to any given basis)
as a 2 × 2 matrix. Rotation about the origin by 2π/n is a linear transformation

cos(2π/n) −sin(2π/n)
of order n, so the corresponding matrix is of order
sin(2π/n) cos(2π/n)
n (you can check this directly if you want, using trigonometric identities, but
that’s a more complicated argument than the one using the link to geometry).

Exercise 6.11 Denote by Dn the group of symmetries of a regular n-gon. Show

that the dihedral group Dn has 2n elements, of which n are rotations and n
are reflections. Draw up the group table for D3 .
Solution The n rotations and n reflections are all, I imagine, fairly obvious.
To argue that there are no more symmetries than this: choose one vertex; there
are n choices of where a symmetry can send it; having made that choice there
are only two further choices - whether to keep its two immediate neighbours in
whatever order they are or to switch them - so n × 2 choices in all.

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 For the table of D3 let ρ denote rotation by 2π/3 and let σ be any reflection.
Then the elements of D3 are: id, ρ, ρ2 , σ, σρ, σρ2 and the table is as follows.
· id ρ ρ2 σ σρ σρ2
2
id id ρ ρ σ σρ σρ2
2 2
ρ ρ ρ id σρ σ σρ
ρ2 ρ2 id ρ σρ σρ2 σ
σ σ σρ σρ2 id ρ ρ2
σρ σρ σρ2 σ ρ2 id ρ
2 2
σρ σρ σ σρ ρ ρ2 id
If you choose to write the elements of D3 in the forms id, ρ, ρ2 , σ, ρσ, ρ2 σ
then you will get a similar table.

Exercise 6.13 Show that the symmetric group S3 and the dihedral group D3
are isomorphic by bringing their group tables to the same form. Define an
isomorphism from S3 to D3 . Now define another isomorphism from S3 to D3 .
Solution The group table for S3 is given in the solution for Exercise 7.2, that
for D3 is given in the solution for Exercise 7.14 above and clearly they’re not “in
the same form”. But we can try re-arranging the order of elements in, say S3 .
It’s clear that an isomorphism will take an element of order 3 to an element of
order 3 so let’s list the elements of S3 in the order id, (1 2 3), (1 3 2) = (1 2 3)2 ,
then we’ll choose one of the transpositions, say (1 2), to go next. So far, we’ve
matched up ρ with (1 2 3), hence ρ2 with (1 3 2), and we’ve matched σ with
(1 2), so, if we follow the order in the table for D3 given above we should match
the next in the list, σρ, with (1 2)(1 2 3) = (2 3), so that leaves (1 3) for the
last on the list. So here’s a re-arranged group table for S3 . Note that it does
have exactly “the same form” as the table for D3 above, which shows that the
groups are isomorphic.
· id (1 2 3) (1 3 2) (1 2) (2 3) (1 3)
id id (1 2 3) (1 3 2) (1 2) (2 3) (1 3)
(1 2 3) (1 2 3) (1 3 2) id (1 3) (1 2) (2 3)
(1 3 2) (1 3 2) id (1 2 3) (2 3) (1 3) (1 2)
(1 2) (1 2) (2 3) (1 3) id (1 2 3) (1 3 2)
(2 3) (2 3) (1 3) (1 2) (1 3 2) id (1 2 3)
(1 3) (1 3) (1 2) (2 3) (1 2 3) (1 3 2) id
The “matching” (or pairing) that we referred to above is the description of
an isomorphism, θ say, namely that defined by θ(ρ) = (1 f rm−e 3), θ(ρ2 ) =
(1 3 2), θ(σ) = (1 2), θ(σρ) = (2 3), θ(σρ2 ) = (1 3).
You could get another isomorphism by either sending ρ to the other element,
(1 3 2), of order 3 and/or sending σ to either of the other elements, (1 3) and
(2 3), of order 2.
Exercise 6.14 Check that G × H is a group. Prove that G × H ≃ H × G (note
that, to do this, you should produce an isomorphism θ).
Proof Identity element of G × H is (e, e) = (eG , eH ) since, given (g, h) ∈
G × H we have (g, h)(e, e) = (ge, he) = (g, h) = (eg, eh) = (e, e)(g, h). Given
(g, h) ∈ G × H we claim that (g −1 , h−1 ) is its inverse: for (g, h)(g −1 , h−1 ) =
(gg −1 , hh−1 ) = (e, e) = (g −1 g, h−1 h) = (g −1 , h−1 )(g, h). Finally we have to
check associativity but this is also very easy and left for you to write out.
An isomorphism between G × H and H × G is given by switching the co-
ordinates: define θ : G × H → H × G by θ(g, h) = (h, g). This is a bijec-

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tion: it is an injective since, if θ(g, h) = θ(g ′ , h′ ) then (h, g) = (h′ , g ′ ) so
h = h′ and g = g ′ so (g, h) = (g ′ , h′ ), and it is a surjection since, given an
element a of H × G this element has the form (h, g) for some h ∈ H and
g ∈ G so a =
θ(g, h). Finally we check that θ is a homomorphism: we have
θ (g, h)(g ′ , h′ ) = θ(gg ′ , hh′ ) = (hh′ , gg ′ ) = (h, g)(h′ , g ′ ) = θ(g, h)θ(g ′ , h′ ), as
required.

Exercise 6.15 Draw up the multiplication table for the group of symmetries of
a rectangle which is not a square. Show that this group is isomorphic to Z2 × Z2
(where addition is the operation).
Solution Let σ denote one reflection in a midline and let τ denote the other
(or, if you prefer, take τ to be the rotation through an angle of π). Then the
table is as follows.
· id σ τ στ
id id σ τ στ
σ σ id στ τ
τ τ στ id σ
στ στ τ σ id
The table for Z2 × Z2 is as follows.
+ (0, 0) (0, 1) (1, 0) (1, 1)
(0, 0) (0, 0) (0, 1) (1, 0) (1, 1)
(0, 1) (0, 1) (0, 0) (1, 1) (1, 0)
(1, 0) (1, 0) (1, 1) (0, 0) (0, 1)
(1, 1) (1, 1) (1, 0) (0, 1) id
Exercise 6.16 Show that the group of rotations of a cube is isomorphic to S4 .
How many symmetries of a cube are there? Show, by considering the relation
between an octahedron and a cube, that an octahedron has the same group of
symmetries.
Solution The simplest way of doing the first is to look at the 4 body-diagonals
of the cube, note that any rotation of the cube is determined by its action on
these diagonals (i.e. can be thought of as a permutation of these four lines) and
then check that, conversely, every permutation of these 4 lines can be induced
by a rotation of the cube.
Notice that if you keep all these diagonals fixed but interchange the two
vertices at the opposite ends of one of them (achievable by a reflection) then
you have a symmetry which is not achievable by a rotation. So there are also
those obtained by composing a rotation with a reflection; these form a single
coset of the subgroup of rotations within the group of symmetries (the fact that
they all belong to the same coset can, for instance be proved by considering
determinants, necessarily ±1, of the linear maps corresponding to symmetries).
This gives 48 symmetries of the cube in total.
Put a vertex at the centre of each face of the cube and join the vertices to
get an octahedron. Put a vertex at the centre of each face of the octahedron
and join the vertices to get a cube (a smaller version of the first one, sitting
inside it). So any symmetry of the cube gives a symmetry of the octahedron
and any symmetry of the octahedron gives a symmetry of the small, hence the
original, cube.

Exercise 6.25 Draw up some of the group table for A4 .

72
Solution Since there are 12 elements in A4 the whole table would be a 12 × 12.
An exercise is useful only so long as you are gaining something from it and I
expect that no-one would gain much from ploughing on after a moderate amount
of the table has been filled in. I will just list the 12 elements of A4 : id, (1 2)(3 4),
(1 3)(2 4), (1 4)(2 3), (1 2 3), (1 3 2), (1 2 4), (1 4 2), (1 3 4), (1 4 3), (2 3 4),
(2 4 3). You should do a few of the multiplications as illustrations of the fact
that this set is closed under multiplication. Check your computations with
someone else if you have any doubts over them.

Exercise 6.26 Show that the group of symmetries of a tetrahedron is S4 .

Show that the subgroup of those symmetries which are realisable as rotations
(i.e. without going into a mirror 3-space) is isomorphic to A4 . (In each case,
use reasoning rather than try to draw up the (rather large) group table.)
Solution The first part will have been done in lectures. One argument for
the second is first to observe that any rotation can be obtained by combining
rotations which fix a vertex and rotate the other three vertices - this corresponds
to a products of 3-cycles, hence is even. All other symmetries can be obtained by
a single reflection in a mirror, say that corresponding to the (odd) transposition
(2 3), followed by a rotation (hence an even permutation) in the “mirror world”.
So the group of all symmetries falls into two cosets of the subgroup consisting
of those which are (combinations of) rotations, so it follows that this subgroup
corresponds to A4 .

Exercise 6.28 Show that, in the above action of G on itself, the orbit of each
element is the whole group and the stabiliser of each element is the trivial
subgroup.
Proof (The action being referred to is the natural action of G on itself: G×G →
G given by (g, h) 7→ gh.) Let h, h′ ∈ G. Then h′ h−1 ·h = h′ , which shows that h′
is in the orbit of h. If g ∈ G stabilises h then gh = h so g = e so Stab(h) = {e}
for every h ∈ H.

Exercise 6.30 Compute some orbits and stabilisers in geometric examples and
also for the action of the symmetric group Sn on {1, . . . , n}. For example,
compute the stabiliser, in the group of symmetries of a cube, of a vertex of the
cube. Also consider the action of this group of symmetries on the set of edges
of the cube and compute the stabiliser of an edge. Compute the orbit, under
the group of symmetries, of each vertex of a square-based regular (as far as it
can be) pyramid. Compute the stabiliser of 4 under the natural action of S4
on {1, 2, 3, 4}. Compute the stabiliser of the set {1, 2} under the action of S5
on two-element subsets of {1, . . . , 5} which is induced by the action of S5 on
{1, . . . , 5}.
Comments re Solution For example, the stabiliser of a vertex of a cube is
S3 (rotate and reflect the 3 neighbours of that vertex). The stabiliser of an
edge is a 2-element group, i.e. generated by an appropriate transposition (all
that can be done is reflect in the mid-point of the edge). In the square-based
pyramid, the top vertex is fixed by all symmetries so is in an orbit with just
that one element; the four base vertices lie in a single 4-element orbit. The
permutations of S4 which fix 4 are the 6 permutations which essentially consist
of a permutation in S3 expanded by fixing 4 to a permutation in S4 . In the
last example the action of S5 on two-element sets {a, b} with a 6= b, is: given

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σ ∈ S5 set σ{a, b} = {σ(a), σ(b)}. Then σ{1, 2} = {1, 2} iff σ either fixes or
interchanges 1 and 2. So permutations of the form τ ρ where ρ is a permutation
of 3, 4, 5 and σ is either the identity permutation or the transposition (1 2) (in
particular there are 12 elements in the stabiliser of {1, 2}.

Exercise 6.32 Check the Orbit-Stabiliser Theorem in the examples you looked
at above (that stabilisers are subgroups and that the index of the stabiliser
equals the number of elements in the orbit).
Solution (partial) For example, the stabiliser of 4 has six elements, they form
a group, and the orbit of 4 is clearly {1, 2, 3, 4} so has 4 = 24/6 elements, as
predicted by the Orbit-Stabiliser Theorem.

Exercise 6.34 Show that being conjugate is an equivalence relation on the set
of subgroups of G.
Proof Let H be a subgroup of G; then e−1 He = H so H is conjugate to itself
(reflexivity). Suppose that H, K are subgroups with K = a−1 Ha; then H =
aKa−1 = (a−1 )−1 K(a−1 ) so we have symmetry. Finally suppose that H, K, L
are subgroups with K = a−1 Ha and L = b−1 Kb; then L = b−1 a−1 Hab =
(ab)−1 H(ab) so L is conjugate to H (transitivity).

Exercise 6.39 Consider the natural action of S3 on K[X1 , X2 , X3 ]. Compute

the orbit and stabiliser of each of the following polynomials: X1 , X1 + X2 ,
X1 + X2 + X3 , X1 X32 + X3 X12 , X1 X32 + X3 X12 , X1 X22 + X2 X32 + X3 X12 ,
X1 + X22 + X33 .
Solution X1 : {X1 , X2 , X3 } (orbit); {id, (2 3)} (stabiliser)
X1 + X2 : {X1 + X2 , X1 + X3 , X2 + X3 } (orbit); {id, (1 2)} (stabiliser)
X1 + X2 + X3 : {X1 + X2 + X3 } (orbit); S3 (stabiliser) (this polynomial is
invariant under the action of S3 - it is symmetric in X1 , X2 and X3 )
X1 X32 +X3 X12 : {X1 X32 +X3 X12 , X1 X22 +X2 X12 , X2 X32 +X3 X22 } (orbit); {id, (1 3)}
(stabiliser)
X1 X22 +X2 X32 +X3 X12 : {X1 X22 +X2 X32 +X3 X12 , X1 X32 +X3 X22 +X2 X12 } (orbit);
{id, (1 2 3), (1 3 2)} (stabiliser)
X1 + X22 + X33 : {X1 + X22 + X33 , X1 + X32 + X23 , X2 + X12 + X33 , X2 + X32 +
X13 , X3 + X12 + X23 , X3 + X22 + X13 } (orbit); {id} (stabiliser)
Note that, in accordance with the Orbit-Stabiliser Theorem, in each case the
number of elements in the orbit times the number of elements in the stabiliser
equals 6, the number of elements in the whole group S3 . (Indeed you might
have found this useful in answering, in the sense that you can stop searching
when the product reaches 6.)

Exercise 6.40 Let R = M2 (Z) be the ring of 2 × 2 matrices with entries from
the ring Z of integers. Determine the condition on a matrix to be in the group
of units of this ring and give some examples of units.
 
a b
Solution The first observation to make is that if is invertible then
c d
  ′ 
a b a b′
it must have determinant ±1: for, if = 1 then, taking
c d c′ d′
determinants, we have (ad − bc)(a′ d′ − b′ c′ ) = 1 which, since we’re dealing with
integers, means that both determinants are ±1 (if we were dealing with M2 (Q)

74
then it would all be much simpler since a matrix over any field is invertible iff
its determinant is non-zero).  
a b
Next, recalling how to write down the inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix, if
c d
 
d −b
has determinant ±1 then it is invertible, with inverse (ad − bc)−1 .
−c a
So the condition for invertibility is having determinant ±1.  
1 0
So this gives immediate examples of invertible elements like ,
0 −1
   
−1 53 0 −1
, but you can find less obvious examples by solving
0 1 −1 −72
the equation ad − bc = 1. Think of fixing d and c to be two coprime integers,
then you know that there will be (lots of) integers a, b such that ad − bc = 1
(or = −1). For instance, choose d = 3, c = 4; then (1)3  − (1)(4)
 = −1 and 
1 1 −5 −4
(−5)3 − (−4)4 = 1 give the invertible matrices and ,
4 3 4 3
   
−3 1 3 4
with inverses and respectively. Obviously, there
4 −1 −4 −5
are lots more.

Exercise 6.41 Let R = M2 (Z4 ) be the ring of 2 × 2 matrices with entries from
the ring Z4 of integers modulo 4. Find some elements of the group of units of
this ring. Is this group U (R) of units of R abelian?
What is a criterion for a matrix in M2 (Z8 ) to be invertible?
 
a b
Solution We can begin as above: assuming that a matrix is invert-
c d
ible it follows that its determinant must be an invertible element of Z4 . And
conversely, if it determinant is invertible then the usual formula for the inverse
of a 2 × 2 matrix shows that its inverse also is in M2 (Z4 ). The only invert-
ible elements of Z4 are ±1 (i.e. 1 and 3) so criterion for invertibility is having
determinant 1 or 3.
Here are two invertible  elementswhichdon’t commute
 (hence which show
0 1 1 2
that U (R) is not abelian): and .
1 0 3 0
In the case of M2 (Z8 ) the criterion for invertibility is that the determinant
should be invertible in Z8 , that is, the determinant should be 1, 3, 5 or 7.

Exercise 6.42 Let R = M2 (F4 ) be the ring of 2 × 2 matrices with entries from
the field F4 with 4 elements. Find some elements of the group of units of this
ring. How many elements are in the group U (R) of units of R? How many of
these have determinant 1?
Solution Since F4 is a field a matrix is invertible iff its determinant is non-
zero. In writing down some invertible matrices you need to give yourself some
notation. Remember that F4 is the extension of Z2 by an element which is a root
of the (only) irreducible quadratic, X 2 + X + 1, so you can take the elements of
F4 to be 0, 1, 
α and 1+α where
 α satisfies α2 +α+1 = 0, that is α2 = α+1. So,
α 1
for instance, is not invertible since its determinant is α + α2 − 1
1 1+α
 
α 0
which equals 0. On the other hand the determinant of is α + α2
1 1+α

75
which equals 1, so this matrix is invertible.
Counting the invertible matrices is more interesting. First note that there
are 44 = 256 matrices in M2 (Z4 ). In constructing an invertible matrix, the first
row can have any entries except 0 0 - that makes 42 − 1 = 15 possibilities for
the first row. The second row can be any 2-vector which is linearly independent
from the first row (think of the rows as vectors in 2-dimensional space over F4 ).
There are 42 = 16 2-vectors altogether and we have to avoid the multiples of the
first row (including the zero vector). That means 4 vectors to be avoided, but
any of the other 12 will do for the second row. Therefore there are 15×12 = 180
invertible matrices (and hence 76 matrices with determinant 0).
To do the last part, use that the determinant map can be regarded as a
map from the group of invertible matrices (under multiplication) to the group
of non-zero elements, {1, α, 1 + α}, of elements of F4 (under multiplication).
The kernel of this map is the set of matrices with determinant 1 and the other
two cosets of the kernel are: the set of matrices with determinant α and the set
of matrices with determinant 1 + α. By basic group theory all these three sets
have the same number of elements, 60 each. Therefore there are 60 matrices
with determinant 1.

Exercise 6.43 Identify the groups of symmetries of the following geometric

figures: (i) a triangle; (ii) a square; (iii) a rectangle which is not a square; (iv)
a hexagon; (v) a tetrahedron; (vi) a cube. Why is the group of symmetries of a
cube the same as that of a regular octahedron? (Or, for that matter, why is the
group of symmetries of a dodecahedron the same as that of an icosahedron?)
Solution (i) D3 ≃ S(3) (all permutations of the vertices can be realised by
symmetries); (ii) D4 (i.e. just 8 symmetries; in particular not all of the 24 per-
mutations of the vertices can be realised); (iii) Z2 × Z2 (the Klein 4-group); (iv)
D6 (six rotations, six reflections); (v) S(4) (fixing one vertex, all six symmetries
of the triangle formed by the other three can be realised by a rotation or a
reflection, but you can also move that vertex to any of the other four positions);
(vi) S(4) (look at the 4 body diagonals: each symmetry of the cube is deter-
mined by how it permutes these line segments and, on the other hand, every
permutation of them is realised by a symmetry of the cube. So the symmetry
group of the cube is isomorphic to the symmetry group of these four objects,
that is, to S(4)). Draw the vertex in the middle of each of the 6 faces of the cube
and join them to make a regular octahedron. Any symmetry acts equally as a
symmetry of the cube or of this octahedron (and note that you can go in the
same way from a regular octahedron to a cube; and similarly the dodecahedron
and icosahedron are paired).

Exercise 6.44 Let X be a square-based pyramid with all sides of equal length.
Find the group G of symmetries of X and compute the stabiliser of each vertex.
Solution The apex is a vertex of valency 4 and the others have valency 3 so the
apex is fixed by every symmetry. So, in effect, the group of symmetries is that of
the square base, that is D4 (the dihedral group with 8 elements). The stabiliser
of the apex is the whole group D4 . If a symmetry fixes a base vertex then it must
either fix both immediate neighbours (so then must be the identity symmetry)
or it switches the two neighbours (and fixes the diagonally opposite vertex). The
second symmetry has order 2 and we see that the stabiliser of a vertex is, up to
isomorphism, the cyclic group of order 2. More precisely, diagonally opposite

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vertices on the base have the same stabilisers (consisting of the identity and
one of the two diagonal reflections). Even more precisely, if we label the base
vertices in order 1 (joined to) 2 (joined to) 3 (joined to) 4 then the stabiliser
of 1 is the identity together with the symmetry given by the permutation (2 4),
and this is also the stabiliser of 3. And the stabiliser of 2 (=the stabiliser of
4) is the identity and the permutation given by (1 3). The symmetry given by
σ = (1 2 3 4) takes vertex 1 to vertex 2, hence conjugation by it induces an
isomorphism between the respective stabilisers - we check explicitly: stab(2) =
σstab(1)σ −1 = (1 2 3 4)(2 4)(4 3 2 1) = (1 3).

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