Intelligence

According to Kanazawa, 2004; Sternberg, 1997; Wolman, 1989, Intelligence is defined as the
mental ability that enable us to adapt to shape or select one's environment; ability to deal with
novel situations, ability to judge, comprehend and reason'; ability to act purposefully, think
rationally and deal effectively with the environment.

Neisser et al. in 1996 have defined intelligence as the ability to understand complex ideas, to
adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experiences, to engage in various forms of
reasoning, to overcome obstacles by careful thought.

In the book “Psychology an Introduction” by Benjamin B Lahey, 1995, has defined Intelligence as
cognitive abilities of an individual to learn from experience, to reason well, and to cope effectively
with the demands of daily living.

These and many other definitions of intelligence from different psychologists can be summarized
into three points as below:

1. Adjustment of the individual to his total environment

This point out the views of adaptation to new situations and new problems that is,
Intelligence is the ability to reorganize one’s own behavior to act in a purposeful manner
which is usually goal directed with drives and incentives. Use of such adaptation leads an
individual to the effective solution of the problem.
2. Ability to learn
The more intelligent a person is, the more educable he/she is. This explains that
intelligence decides the extent of learning.
3. Ability to carry on abstract thinking
This explains about the use of symbols/signs, concepts, and/or mental images to deal with
the new situations and problems to think rationally.

One of the best used and applicable definition of intelligence given by David Wechsler in 1958
explains that intelligence is the aggregate or global capability of the individual to act purposefully,
think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.

Major approaches of Intelligence/Theories of intelligence

1. Two factor theory proposed by Charles Spearman in 1927

Charles Spearman was an English psychologist who proposed that intelligence is

comprised of a single general ability or general mental capacity as well as specific mental
abilities. According to Spearman, all intellectual functioning is supported by an overall
mental ability which is accompanied by specific abilities for differing mental tasks.
Spearman administered a range of tests to children including tests designed to assess
verbal reasoning, general knowledge, and ability to arithmetic. Once he obtained the
results, he used a statistical technique known as factor analysis to do the analysis.
Spearman found that there were significant correlations between children’s scores on one
test and their performance on other tests. That is, if a child did well on the verbal
comprehension test, they also performed well on arithmetic test. From this, Spearman
concluded that this relationship must be due to a general underlying factor that he called
general mental ability which is denoted by “g-factor” i.e. general factor. G-factor is
possessed by every individual in varying amount which describes the individual and plays a
vital role in intelligence tests. This remains constant throughout lifetime and I present by
birth. It is changeable by 10 points. It is positively correlated with the performance of an
individual.
Spearman also noticed that individuals did not perform at the same level on every test
suggesting an additional underlying factor which is denoted by “s-factor” i.e. specific
factor, that is related to the particular task being tested. This represents the specific skill
pertaining to specific field. This skill is learned and is variable throughout lifetime.
For example, on a verbal reasoning task, performance would depend on a combination of
general ability and an individual’s specific abilities related to verbal reasoning.
Thus intelligence consists of general ability plus an unknown number of specific abilities
 Possible explanations:
a. It is found that an athlete who excels at running a 100 meter race also does well at the
high jump and long jump. The reason for this high correlation is that all three events
depend on the same leg muscles. Similarly, people might perform well on a variety of
intellectual tasks because all the tests depend on one underlying skill. One possibility
is that ‘g’ depends mainly on short term memory or some aspect of it. For almost any
intellectual task, holding information in memory is important as is the ability to shift
attention from one part of task to another.
b. Most people with long left leg also have a long right arm and a long left index finger.
This correlation is because the factors that increase the growth of one also help the
others to grow like the factors genes, health, and nutrition. Similarly, all forms of
intelligence depend on genes, health, nutrition and education. This implies that most
people, who have good support for developing any one intellectual ability, also have
good support for developing others.

2. Group factor theory proposed by Louis Thurstone in 1938

Other psychologists argued that intelligence is not about general factors but it does
comprise of many factors. Among such psychologists, work of Thurstone and Guilford is
most prominent.
Thurstone in 1938 argued that there are multiple components of intelligence. He
proposed that intelligence comprises of seven factors which he called primary mental
abilities and he developed a test battery called primary mental abilities test for measuring
it. Following are the seven primary mental abilities:
i. Verbal comprehension Ability to understand meaning of words i.e.
vocabulary
ii. Word fluency Ability to think of words rapidly as in solving anagrams or
thinking of words that rhyme eg. Giving speech, speaking without any fact,
rhyming words swiftly
iii. Number Ability to work with numbers and perform mathematical
computation eg. Mental computation of difficult mathematical problems
iv. Space  Ability to visualize space-form relationships as in recognizing the
same figure presented in different orientations
v. Memory  Ability to recall verbal stimuli such as word pairs or sentences
vi. Perceptual  Ability to group visual details quickly and to see similarities and
differences between pictured objects
vii. Reasoning  Ability to find a general rule on the basis of presented instances
as in determining how a number series is constructed after being presented
with only a portion of that series eg. What comes after 1 2 5 6 9 __
3. Theory of multiple intelligence proposed by Howard Gardner in 1993
 Howard Gardner, 1993, states that standard IQ tests measure primary verbal and logical
mathematical intelligence and reflect other but generally important kinds of intelligence.
He identifies numerous intelligences that cover a range of human experience. He focuses
on the fact how a person is smart than how smart a person is. The value of any ability
differs across human societies according to what is needed by useful to and prized by a
given society.
It is seen that western society promotes logical-mathematical and linguistic intelligence
while in Caroline Island of Micronesia, spatial intelligence and bodily kinesthetic
intelligence are promoted where sailors have to navigate long distances without maps.
Similarly in Bali where artistic performance is a part of everyday life, musical intelligence
and talents involved in coordinating intricate dance steps are highly valued.
Following are the eight different types of intelligence the Gardner had proposed
a. Logical-mathematical intelligence  It is the capacity to analyze problems logically,
carry out mathematical operations and investigate issues scientifically.
Mathematicians, statisticians tend to do well in logical-mathematical intelligence tests.
b. Linguistic intelligence  Sensitivity to spoken and written language, the ability to
learn languages and capacity to use language with their zest. Great poets and writers,
singers, lyricists comprises of high linguistic intelligence.
c. Bodily kinesthetic intelligence  Ability to control one’s bodily movements and to
handle objects skillfully in space, to comprehend the position of one’s body. Great
dancers and athletes are good at this intelligence.
d. Visuo-spatial intelligence  Potential to recognize and manipulate patterns in wide
space as well as patterns of more confined areas, spatial configuration used by artists,
pilots, astronauts, etc. lie under visuo-spatial intelligence.
e. Interpersonal intelligence  Capacity to understand intentions, motivations, and
desires of other people and using it to interact, motivate, work, lead, and follow
appropriately.
f. Intrapersonal intelligence  Capacity to understand oneself, qualities, inabilities,
weaknesses, emotions and use this information effectively in guiding one’s own
behavior and reputating ones life
g. Musical intelligence  Skills in performance, compositions, sensitivity to pitch and
tone, reproduction on listening, and appreciations of musical patterns.
h. Naturalistic intelligence  Ability to see patterns and relationships in nature,
sensitivity to differences among diverse species of living things, abilities to interact
with the living creatures.

4. Triarchic theory proposed by Robert Sternberg in 1988

This theory was proposed by Robert Sternberg in 1988. He has distinguished three aspects
of intelligence.
 a. Componential/Analytic intelligence  Some people are better than others at
perceiving information, good at representing problems in right way and generate
effective strategies for solutions. Analytic intelligence refers to information processing
strategies we draw on when we are thinking intelligently about a problem. These
mental components include recognizing and defining the problem, selecting strategy
for solving it, mastering and carrying out the strategy and evaluating the result. Here,
a person is able to breakdown the problem and solutions to its component parts to
think critically in order to correctly recognize the problem, define the problem and
evaluate the results.
b. Creative/Experiential intelligence  It refers to our ability to create, invent, and
discover. People with creative intelligence can cope well with novelty while those who
lack this ability perform well only on a narrow set of circumstances. This intelligence
also gives a person the ability to gain insight and formulate new ideas.
c. Contextual/Practical intelligence It deals with the ability to relate to overall success
in living and makes a person more practical and adaptive. It refers to practical
applications of intelligence. For this we need to take into account different contexts in
which we find ourselves. In other words, it refers to how well people can take ideas
and put them into everyday practice. This includes public understandings, common
sense, street smartness, tactic knowledge, practical know-how, use ideas in everyday
practice.

5. Cattel and Horn’s Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence

Raymond Cattell, 1971, and John Horn, 1985, proposed a new model of intelligence in
1967. They broke down Spearman’s general intelligence into two distinct but related sub
types
a. Fluid intelligence Gf is the ability of an individual to deal with novel problem solving
situation for which personal experience doesn’t provide any solution. It requires ability
to reason abstractly, think logically and manage information in short term memory.
This deals with the spped and accuracy of analyzing information that peaks at early
adulthood i.e. arouns age 25. This intelligence makes a person intuitive and creative.
This determines the information processing capability like learn new skills and use new
ideas. It is maximum at birth and decrease as the age declines from young adulthood.
All the abilities laike reasongg, concept formation, identifying similarities, differences,
solving analogy etc comes under this type of intelligence.

b. Crystallized intelligence Gc. It is the ability to apply previously acquired knowledge

to current problems. It depends on ability to retrieve previously learned information
and problem solving techniques from long term memory. These can be also called as
 the accumulated knowledge and information stored over lifetime experiences and
learning. It is zero at birth and goes on increasing with increase in age.

Cattel and Horn concluded that over our life span, we progress from using fluid
intelligence to depending more in crystallized intelligence. Early in life, we encounter
many problems for the first time so we need fluid intelligence to figure out solutions. As
experience makes us more knowledgeable, we have less need to approach each situation
as a new problem. Instead we simply call up appropriate information and techniques from
long term memory thereby utilizing our crystallized intelligence.
Intelligence Quotient
Intelligence quotient or I.Q is the numerical or quantified form of the intelligence. In earlier times,
I.Q was calculated with a simple formula of Mental Age, M.A. divided by Chronological Age C.A
multiplied by 100. Here Mental age stands for the cognitive maturity of an individual regardless of
their chronological age whereas chronological age stands for the age defined by the birth date. At
this time, the people who scored 100 were taken as having an average I.Q. While anyone who
scored less than 100 as mentally retarded and more than 100 as mentally gifted.

Later on, through several tests and surveys and experiments, Intelligence quotient (I.Q.) scores
were distributed in the population in such a way that scores of most people tend to fall in the
middle range of distribution. Only a few people have either very high or very low scores. The
frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate a bell shaped curve called the
normal distribution curve. The distribution of IQ scores in the form of a normal distribution.

The average IQ score is 100 and 95.44 % have IQ scores between 70 and 130. About 68.26% have
IQ scores between 85 and 115.

About 2.3 % have IQ scores below 70. Likewise, just 2.3 % have IQ scores just above 130.

Extremes of intelligence may be divided into two groups:

1. Mental retardation (MR)

2. Mentally gifted
1. Mental retardation  Mental retardation refers to a substantial limitation in present
functioning that is characterized by significantly sub average intellectual functioning, along
with related limitations in two of eleven areas including communication, self care, home
living, social skills, academic skills, leisure and safety. (American Psychological Association,
2000). In addition to that condition must be diagnosed before age 18.

Whether a person is mentally retarded or not to find it out, we look at two main things.

a. Ability of a person’s brain to learn, think, solve problems, and make sense of the world
called intellectual functioning
b. And whether the person has skills he or she needs to live independently called adaptive
functioning.

Intellectual functioning is usually measured by a test called on IQ test. The average score is
100. People scoring below 70 are thought to have mental retardation. To measure adaptive
functioning, professionals look at what a child can do in comparison to other children of his or
her age.
On the basis of IQ scores and adaptive skills four levels of retardation have been identified.

i. Mild mental retardation

IQ ranges from 54/55 to 69/70 come under mild mental retardation. Their mental age
ranges from 8.5 to 11-12 years. They can achieve maximum grade level of 6th standard.
They can learn to support themselves and earn a living with proper help. They can
feed and dress themselves and take care of their own toilet needs. Their receptive and
expressive language are adequate, they understand communication. If given
opportunity to learn, they can learn up to sixth grade. They have friends, can make
friends, and can learn to adjust quickly. They can hold a job primarily unskilled work.
They usually marry, get children but they need help during stress. If diagnosed early,
they can live an independent life.

ii. Moderate mental retardation

IQ score ranges from 39/40 to 54/55. Their mental age ranges from 6 to 8.5years. They
have difficulty and require training but they can learn adequate self help skills. Their
receptive and expressive language is adequate but they have speech problems. They
have very few academic skills and first or second grade is maximum achievable. They
are capable of making friends but have difficulty in many social situations. They can
work in sheltered work environment but they usually need consistent supervision.
They usually do not marry nor have children. Their motor coordination is poor.

iii. Severe mental retardation

IQ score ranges from 24/25 to 39/40. Their motor, sensory and speech skills are
retarded. They depend on others for self care. Some of the severely retarded people
can be able to care for personal needs in a limited basis. Their receptive language is
good but expressive language is poor. They do not attain academic skills and are
unable to make friends or interact in social situations. This led them for constant need
for care.

iv. Profound mental retardation

IQ range is below 25 and their mental age is below 3 and three quarters. They are
totally dependent on others for self care. There might be physical deformity, brain
anomalies, and convulsive seizures. Deafness and dumbness is a common problem.
They have short life span for their immunity power or disease resistance is low. They
need constant full care.

2. Mentally gifted
At the right hand end of the bell shaped curve of intelligence lie the mentally gifted people.
These individual have IQ scores more than 120.

A moderately gifted are usually defined as those whose IQ scores lies between 130 and
150 and a profoundly gifted has an IQ above 180.

According to another categorization, very superior are defined as people with IQ 120-130
while near genius are defined as those with IQ above 130.

The study of gifted individuals began in 192 when Lewis Terman selected a sample of over
1500 gifted children with IQs ranging from 135 to 200. Over next 65 years, researchers
repeatedly tested these individuals to determine what they had achieved and how they
had adjusted.

Although 10-30% of the gifted men obtained advanced degrees compared with men in
general population, 30% never finished college and 2% actually flunked out or failed to
finish college due to academic shortcomings.

During their childhood, they were taller than other children of same age, their birth
weight were above normal, they also showed early signs of intellectual superiority like
they showed larger attention span, good recognition memory, early signs of language skills,
etc.

Although gifted individual generally showed better health, adjustment, life satisfaction,
and achievement than people with average IQs, about 9% had serious emotional problems
and 7% committed suicide (Chegarty, 2007; Holahan & Sears, 1995; Terman & Oden, 1959).
Research shows that only gifted children who have demanding and critical parents are
more likely to have social and emotional problems than children with normal intelligence
(Elias, 2005)

When placed in regular classroom, gifted children face a number of problems. They are
bored of lack of stimulation and they may feel lonely or develop social problems because
they are labeled as geeks. Researchers recommend that gifted children be placed in
special academic programs that challenge and help them develop their potentials (Goode,
2002, Winner, 2000)

Role of heredity and environment

In the early 1900’s, intelligence was believed to be primarily inherited or due to nature
(Terman, 1916).

In 1950’s, psychology was heavily influenced by behaviorism which emphasized nurture or

environmental factors in the development of intelligence (B.F. Skinner, 1953).
Today researchers find nature and nurture interacts and contributes out equally to the
development of intelligence (O.S.P. Davis et. al., 2008; Pinker, 2003).

Role of heredity

To see the role of heredity, we look at Twin studies.

Identical twins have nearly 100% of their genes in common whereas fraternal twins have
just 50% of their genes in common

Identical twins reared together have 0.85 correlations

Identical twins reared apart has 0.72 correlation

Fraternal twins reared together has 0.60 correlation

Siblings reared together have 0.45 correlations

Siblings reared apart have 0.25 correlations

The above data shows that the correlation of IQ scores between identical twins who share
nearly 100% of their genes is 0.85. This value is higher than the correlation coefficient
between fraternal twins who share 50% of their genes and also that of siblings.

This shows that there is role of heredity in intelligence.

Role of nurture/ environmental factors

What would happen if children with limited socio-educational opportunities and low IQs
were adopted by parents who could provide better social and educational opportunities?
Researchers reasoned that if environmental factors influence development of intelligence,
then providing more environmental opportunities should increase IOQ scores.

To determine whether environment can increase IQ scores, are research study examined
the IQs of African American children from impoverished environments who were adopted
by middle class families, some white and some African Americans; all the families provided
many social educational opportunities for the adapted children. Researchers found that
the IQs of the adopted children were as much as 10 points higher than those of African
American children raised in disadvantaged homes (Scarr & Weinberg, 1976).

A similar study, this time focusing on children living in Romania, examined the intellectual
functioning of children abandoned at birth and placed in state-run-institutions (well
known for not providing children with appropriate cognitive stimulation). Those children
who remained in institutions during the first several years of life demonstrated
significantly poorer intellectual functioning when compared with children who soon
moved into foster care. Children living in foster care are much more likely to have good
educational opportunities than children remaining in state-run-institutions (C.A. Nelson, et.
al., 2007).

These kinds of studies show that children with poor educational opportunities and low IQ
scores can show an increase in IQ scores when they are provided better educational
opportunities rich nutrition, good social environment. Performance on IQ tests has
increased substantially around the world at all age levels in recent decades. This
phenomenon is now as Flynn Effect (Flynn, 1987, 1996).

The average IQ scores for many populations have been rising at an average rate of three
points per decade since the early 20th century. This phenomenon has been named after
Richard Lynn and James R Flynn. Attempted explanations have included improved
nutrition, a trend towards smaller families, better education, etc. such increases have
averaged around about 3 IQ points per decade worldwide but in some countries they have
been even larger change
 1952 1962 1972

Britain 87 93 95

Netherlands 79 85 92

Norway 77 83 88

The following variables or factors have been suggested as possible contributors to the
continuing rising IQ (Flynn, 1999; Williams, 1998);

1. Better nutrition
2. Increased urbanization
3. The advent of television
4. More and better education
5. More cognitively demanding jobs
6. Exposure to computer games

Proper childhood nutrition appears critical for cognitive development while malnutrition can lower
IQ.

A recent study found that the FADS2 gene, along with breast feeding adds about 7IQ points to
those with the “C” version of genes. Those with the “G” version of FADS2 gene see no advantage
(Capsi, Williams, Kim-Cohen et. al., 2007; Turkheimer Haley, Waldron, Onofrio, Gottesman II,
2003).

In sum, many forms of evidence support the view that intelligence is determined at least in part by
environmental factors.

Interaction: Nature vs. Nurture

Many study the nature-nurture issue with respect to intelligence, now believe that our genes
endow supply us with a reaction range- that is a range of possible intellectual levels that we may
attain, depending in part on the nature and quality of environment into which we are born and
within which we mature.

To understand reaction range, we may refer to Curt Stein’s “Rubber Band” analogy. The amount
of stretch a particular rubber band actually shows will depend upon both its native endowment-
its basic “stretchability”- and the amount of pressure or “pull” exerted by people in its
environment. Similarly, the amount of any particular characteristic that a person will show
depends upon that person’s inborn potential or “stretch” for the characteristics and the degree to
which person’s environment “pulls for” the development of that characteristics.
Researchers estimate that the reaction range may vary up or down by as much as 10 points in
one’s IQ scores.

For example, a person’s IQ may vary from 80 to 100 depending on whether he/she has an
impoverished or enriched environment (Zigler & Seitz, 1982).

Emotional intelligence
The concept of emotional intelligence was first formulated by Peter Salovey and John Mayer in
1990. Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions
(Peter Salovey and John Mayer, 1994; Salovey and others, 2002). Peter Salovey and John Mayer
defined emotional intelligence in terms of being able to monitor and regulate one’s own and
other’s feelings and to show feeling to guide thought and actions.

Emotional intelligence may also be defined as the capacity for recognizing our own feeling and
those others for motivation ourselves and for managing emotions well in us and in our
relationships.’

Being emotionally skilled can make us more flexible, adaptable, and emotionally mature (Bonanno
et. al., 2004). People who excel in life tend to be emotionally intelligent (Mehrabian, 200).

People with high emotional skills are more agreeable than people with low emotional skills (Haas
et. A., 2007)

People who are low in emotional intelligence are often unable to identify their own emotions. The
costs of poor emotional skills range from problems in marriage and parenting to poor physical
health as well as problems in workplace. A lack of emotional intelligence can ruin careers.

The greatest effects of poor emotional skills fall on children and teenagers. For them, having poor
emotional intelligence can contribute to depression, eating disorders, unwanted pregnancy,
aggression, violent crime, and poor academic performance (Parker, 2005).

Daniel Goleman (1995) suggests that emotional intelligence consist of five major parts:

1. Knowing our own emotion/Self-awareness

This is the ability to understand one’s own emotions, feeding, and needs. Emotionally
intelligent people are able to recognize quickly if they are angry or envious, r feeling guilty
or depressed. And when they know how they are feeling deep inside, they can make
intelligent choices. If people do not themselves know or are not aware of their own
emotions, they wouldn’t be able to express how they are feeling at a moment through
facial expressions, body language, etc. because of such lack of expression; other people
 find it hard to know how a particular person is feeling as a result inter-personal
relationships get affected.

2. Managing one’s emotions/Self management

A person who knows his emotions well can control and manage them better. Managing
emotions refers to regulating their nature, intensity and expression of emotions. People
who are emotionally intelligent have an ability to amplify or restrain emotions depending
on the situation (Bonanno et. Al., 2004)

3. Self motivation
It refers to our ability to move on irrespective of our failures, setbacks, hurdles etc.
according to Shoda, Mischel, Peake, 1990), self motivation refers to being able to motivate
oneself to work along and work hard on a task, remaining optimistic about the factors,
outcome, working with enthusiasm and being able to put off receiving small rewards now
in order to get larger ones later on.

4. Empathy
The ability to accurately perceive emotions in others and sense what others are feeling.
They are good at “reading” facial expressions, tone of voice, and other signs of emotion.
This sign is valuable in many practical settings. For example, if you can accurately know
another person’s current mood, you can tell whether it is the right time to ask her or him
for a favor.

5. Handling relationships/Social skills

It refers to the ability to handle and form positive relationships. Forming relationships is
not a big deal but what is important is those relationships must be stable, long lasting,
meaningful, positive relationships act and support system in our life.
People with emotional skills have skills to get along with others. It is because they
understand their emotions well and manage them at the right way at the right time; and
also they understand emotions of other people as well and act accordingly.
Because of their intrapersonal and interpersonal abilities, they cannot only form
relationships, more precisely positive relationship, but also can handle these relationships.

Application of emotional intelligence in workplace

We know emotions play a crucial role in job performance. Emotions play role in making decisions;
while we are in position, emotions we tend to have clear picture of information. They are before
us and we can make better decisions. Likewise, positive emotions are found to play important role
in creativity s well as in negotiation. Apart from that, leaders of a company are required to have
emotional intelligence not only intellectual abilities, for smooth functioning of their company. In
addition to all these, emotion is found to play an important role in deviant work place behaviors,
the behaviors produced that violate organizational rules and make organization as well as staff
suffer.

Therefore, we can say that if people who work in an organization or company are aware about
their emotions and manage them accordingly, the workplace will be a better place to work, place
where there is cooperation among employees; understanding is there; ether is peace and
harmony; feelings of helping and supporting others are there.

Deviant workplace behaviors will be reduced. Through the better regulation of emotions of its
staffs, organization can make better decisions; can come up with new ideas, new vision which help
the organization form a separate niche in the business world.

Emotionally intelligent people work with great effort, enthusiasm and has optimistic outlook in life
which can even help the fulfilling company. Emotional intelligence is not only beneficial for the
organization as a whole but for individual staff as well. Those who are emotionally intelligent are
liked y their colleagues and boss. So, they are more likely to get new opportunities, help and
benefits. Because of their emotional skills, they are more likely to be selected over the people who
are equally intellectual, capable as them but lack skills to control their emotions and form positive
relationships/ healthy relationships with others.