Thinking

It is defined as the mental representation of information when we take action, we physically

manipulate environment, when we think, and we mentally manipulate internal representations of
objects, activities, situations. Mental images and concepts are the building blocks of our thought.
Thinking not only includes those that are presently available, but also the past and the future
predictions and planning or strategy making. Thus, thinking is a pattern of behavior in which we
make use of internal representation o the things and events for the solution of some specific
purposed problem.

Thinking can be characterized into some of the points as given below:

1. Thinking is essentially a cognitive activity that refers to planning, strategy making and
everything that involves a higher mental processing
2. Thinking can shift very rapidly which covers the expansion of time and space almost
instantaneously. This means reaching anyplace and doing anything without any time or
physical effort.
3. Thinking is described as a problem solving behavior that means thinking goes around
solving the problem.
4. It is a mental exploration and uses no physical energy. While thinking, one has to omit the
motor activities or physical overt activities while engaging in the mental activity.
5. It is a symbolic activity towards finding a way. It gives us a mental solution that is carries
out through some symbols, mental images or concept.

Mental image

Mental images are the representation in mind that resembles the object or event being
represented. They are not just visual images but it might be that every sensory modality produces
corresponding mental image. Our representations of mental images have many of the properties
of actual perception of objects being represented like it takes long time to scan mental image of
large object than small ones just as the eyes take long to scan an actual large object than a small
one. Similarly we can manipulate and rotate mental images of objects just as we are able to
manipulate and rotate objects in real world. We can use mental image to

 Make a decision or solve a problem

 Change feelings
 Improve skills or prepare for some action
 Aid memory
Symbols/Signs

A symbol or a sign is any stimulus that has become a commonly accepted representation of any
object, event, action, idea, and knowledge, rules that may take any form or meaning unless there
is a general agreement. For example, the signs like +, - denote addition and subtraction in every
culture.

Concepts

Concepts are defined as categorization of objects, events, or people that share common
properties. In other words, concept means mental category that groups objects, relations,
activities, or qualities having common properties. There are two types of concepts:

1. Concrete concepts
Concepts that are clearly visible with our sensory organs and are generally easier to
understand, specify, judge, or prove are the concrete concept. Any object or event either is or
is not member of a given concept category is determined by virtue of whether or not it has the
defining feature or features. For example, the words like computer, ledger, copy, apple which
has specific features to explain.
2. Abstract concepts
Concepts that are not visible, has to be understood on the basis of meanings, uses, etc and
that are usually fuzzy around the edges i.e. they do not have fixed or readily specified set of
defining features are natural concepts. For example, software, our memorization ability, air,
etc.

How do we form concepts?

We form some concepts by definition. Definition of triangle says it as an enclosed figure bounded
by three lines. We thereby classify all three-sided enclosed geometric figures as triangles. We also
form concepts by developing prototypes-a mental image or best example that incorporates all the
features we associate with a category (Rosch, 1978). The more closely something matches our
prototype of a concept, the more readily we reorganize it as example of the concept. The essential
process that comes in the concept formation is abstraction and generalization.

Let us explain the process by understanding how we develop the concept of sports. In the
formation of concept, abstracting is observing the essential feature of an object or an event. The
individual who first formulated the concept sports must have observed that sports regardless of
how much they differ still have some things in common. Likewise, the child in acquiring the
concept sports must make similar observations. The child’s first experience with the sports may be
hearing the word sport associated with football, but later he may hear the same word attached to
Lawn Tennis, a sport in which just two players play rather than a team. Later, he/she hears
swimming being called sports. After a series of such experiences with a variety of sports, the child
may see high jump, which has never been called sports in his presence. If he designates high jump
as a sports, the child must have observed something of what high jump has in common with other
sports. The child must have put aspects of previous experiences together with the present
experiences and reached the conclusion that his activities being like the others in certain respects
is in the same category called sports deriving a principle from varied experience in this way are
generalization.

Factors influencing thinking

1. Functional fixedness
Functional fixedness s defined as the inability to see new uses for familiar objects or for
objects that were used in a particular way. Candle mounting problem, string problem are
famous examples in which we can see the influence of functional fixedness. String problem
was developed by Major in 1931. This problem consists of two strings hanging from ceiling.
There is a plier available. The task is to tie the two strings together. The solution is to attach
the plier to the end of one string, swing the string and bring it close to the other string and tie
it. But her, people experience functional fixedness and cannot think of attaching the plier to
the string to make it swing. They just get stick to the thought that pliers are for cutting
something.
Similarly, candle mounting problem was developed d by Karl dunker in 1945. This problem
consists of a matchbox, candle and thumb pin. The task is to attach candle to the wall so that it
burns properly and also melted wax does not drip on the floor. The solution is to empty the
match box and fix it on the wall with thumb pin and hold the candle on top of it and lit it. Here
also, people tend to think of using matchbox as a means of holding the candle. They just take
it as a box for putting match sticks.
2. Mental set
A tendency to try to solve new problems using the same strategy and rules that worked in the
past on similar problems is mental set. Jar problem is famous example in which we can see the
influence of mental set. Jar problem was developed by Karl Luachin in 1942. This problem
provides the subjects with three jars. Different jars can hold different numbers of liters of
water which needs to be measured with the given three jars.
S.N. Jar A Jar B Jar C Amount of liters to be measured
1 21 127 3 100
2 14 46 5 22
3 18 43 10 5
4 7 42 6 23
5 20 57 4 29
6 23 49 3 20
 For the five cases, we can measure required amount of water by using formula B-A-2C while
solving case 6, we tend to use the same formula but in this case, it does not solve the problem.
Again and again, we try to use the same formula implying mental set. The solution for case 6 is
very simple i.e. B-C.

Types of thinking

Decision making

Decision making is a form of problem solving in which we must select a course of action from
among the available alternatives. Decision making involves choice. Given alternatives sets of
possible responses, the individual must opt for one as opposed to other. Two variables seem
particularly important in decision making. The utility of each possible outcome and the probability
is that each outcome may occur. In addition, the limits of short-term or working memory often
affect the decision making process. Thus decision making is a kind of problem solving in which we
are presented with several alternatives among which we must choose.

Following are the steps in rational decision making

1. Define the problem/Identification of the problem

It is the first step of decision making. A problem can be explained as a question for appropriate
solution. It is a discrepancy between an existing and desired state of affairs. A problem once
isolated must be defined and formulated. A manager may be concerned about an increase in
employee turnover, but it is not a problem unless it interferes with the realization of
organizational objectives. Defining the problem in terms of the organizational objectives that
are being blocked helps to avoid confusing symptoms with problems.
2. Identify the decision criteria
Second we need to identify the criteria on the basis of which we will make a decision. It deals
with the criteria that need to be adopted to solve the identified problem. In problem solving,
when goal is set, the means of reaching that goal must be discovered. It is helpful to describe
and explain the strategy, search for standard procedures and designs that is relevant in making
a decision. Identifying the decision criteria in clear terms enhances good advances towards the
solution. Thus it helps to inventing, developing, and analyzing possible decision criteria.
3. Allocate weights to the criteria
Third is prioritizing the criteria. Not each of the criteria will be equally important for us. So, we
need to see which the most important criteria are and which is the least important. All the
possible criteria are judged and ranked on the basis of importance, priority, and need keeping
in considerations the situation, time, ability and the resources available. All of the alternatives
are not equally important, and draw same consequences. So, one must select the alternative
that best meets the desired needs.
4. Look for the alternatives/Develop the alternatives
 Fourth step is to look for the alternatives to solve the problem. This step includes listing all the
possible alternatives with all the available information which could enhance easy solution of
the problem. This is usually done by searching answers and practices that have worked well on
similar problems. The decision maker may develop a new alternative, modify the existing one,
or try the existing one pointing the consequences of the alternatives.
5. Evaluate the alternatives
Now evaluate each alternative on the basis of our criteria. Each and every alternative is judged
according to the criteria developed. The decision maker will analyze the right or wrong
consequences assigning weights to the alternative and choose the best with highest value and
probability of success. Every resource should be taken care to enhance efficient and right
decision.
6. Select the best alternative
After doing the evaluation, the alternative that closely meets our important criteria or most of
the criteria is selected. This means the choice of the alternative which seems satisfying at the
moment.

Decision making styles

Different people are different and have their own ways of deciding or making the choice based the
two dimensions of tolerance for ambiguity and the way of thinking. Way of thinking represents
how they think that may vary from logical/rational i.e. processing of information in a series basis
to intuitive/creative i.e. perceive things as a whole. Tolerance for ambiguity stands for the need of
the people to structure information in the ways to minimize ambiguity (low) to processing of
several thoughts at a same time (high). On the basis of these two dimensions, there are four types
of decision making styles as shown in the diagram below:

Dimensions Way of Rational Intuitive

thinking 
Tolerance of High Analytic Conceptual
ambiguity

Low Directive Behavioral

People with the analytical type have a greater tolerance for ambiguity leading to desire for more
information and consideration of more alternatives. They come to be careful decision makers with
the ability to adapt to or cope with the novel and unexpected situations.
Those with the Behavioral type tend to have strong concern for people in the organization and
their development. they are concerned about the well being of their subordinates and are
receptive to suggestions from others. They focus on short term and oversee the use of data. They
try to avoid conflict and seek acceptance.

One with the conceptual style is those who use data from multiple sources and consider many
alternatives. They focus on long-term goals and are good in finding creative solutions to a problem.

The last one, Directive styles have the habit of seeking rationality with low tolerance for ambiguity.
They are efficient and logical but at the same time give decisions based on minimal information
and few alternatives. They tend to be fast and focus on short turn.

Problem solving

Problem solving involves searching for some rule, plan, or strategy those results in reaching a
certain goal that is currently out of reach. Generally, problem is any conflict of difference between
one situation and another that we wish to produce. The thinking we do to reduce the discrepancy
between the two states of affairs that is goal directed and motivated. So, problem solving is the
cognitive process through which information is used to reach a goal that is blocked by some kind
of obstacles. Here we make an adjustment like using new responses, new combination of old
responses or reasoning. In such adjustments, we tend to use some of the strategies as follows:

1. Algorithm
The formulas or procedures which if used correctly will leads to the correct solution is called
algorithm. This emphasizes the use of information processing or cognition that includes
detailed, step-by-step sequence of symbolic activities like acquiring information, retaining and
using it. This means algorithm is a set of rules which if followed correctly, will guarantee a
solution to a problem.
2. Heuristic/Rule of thumb
These are the shortcut that suggest a course of action or guides problem solving but does not
guarantee an optimal solution. For example we are given an anagram TERALBAY. It we use
algorithm, in this case it is rearranging the eight letters in all possible combinations, all 40,320
combinations will be found and the correct word will be found. But it will be very time
consuming but if we use heuristic like excluding the letter combinations such as BYT together,
it will save our time.
3. Insight
A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem is insight. It is related with
the insight learning where a sudden connection of the problem and the solution is found in a
subconscious level of mind such that we realize that the solution we gained with the “aha”
experience would yield the correct solution.
4. Trial and error
 We use different options to solve a problem. Those options that do not work are put aside and
we continue using only those that works. This is a continuous process of making attempts and
doing errors without getting de-motivated until the solution of the problem is found. This way
of problem solving takes a lot of time and doesn’t guarantee the solution.

Steps in problem solving

1. Preparation/Formulating the problem

Before we start solving the problem, we have to define it such that we can identify, and
understand the whole situation that he problem has occurred. If the problem is a novel one,
we need to give greater attention in order to find an ultimate solution. But on the other hand,
if the problem is familiar one, we tend to solve it quickly.
2. Production/Generating Potential solutions
If a problem is easy and a familiar one, we tend to just follow the solution in our memory i.e.
algorithm and reach to the solution in no time. But if the problem is a novel one, and we lack
the information necessary to use heuristics, we will have to use trial and error in order to solve
the problem. When using heuristics, we tend to use means-end analysis or sub-categorizing
the steps of solution.
3. Judgment/Examining and Evaluating the solution
Here the adequacy of solution is judged. When there is a clear solution, we immediately know
that it is a success. But when the solution is less concrete and there is no single solution to the
problem, we need to decide which solution strategy is the best i.e. with maximum advantages
with minimum disadvantages.

Reasoning

Reasoning is defined as the purposeful mental activity that involves operating on information in
order to reach conclusion. Two types of reasoning under many of our attempts to make decisions
and solve problems are:

1. Deductive reasoning
We reason from the top down that is from general principles to a conclusion about a specific
case. When people reason deductively, they begin with a set of premises and determine what
the premises imply about a specific situation. If premises are true, conclusion cannot be false.
For example if first premise is if all humans have two eyes, then the second premise will be if
Kamal is a human, then Kamal must have two eyes is the conclusion.
2. Inductive reasoning
In this reasoning, we reason from bottom up starting with specific facts and trying to develop
a general principle. After Ivan Pavlov repeatedly observed that the dog in his experiment
began to salivate when approached by the experimenter who fed it, Pavlov began to think in
terms of a general principle that eventually became the foundation of classical conditioning.
 Deductive reasoning Inductive reasoning
General principle to specific case specific case to general principle

General principle assumed universally true Formulate general principle

Assess fit to specific instances Evaluate facts

Conclusion regarding individual case Collect factual information

Creativity/Creative thinking
Creativity is a combination of flexibility in thinking and reorganization of understanding to produce
innovative ideas and new or novel solutions (R. J. Sternberg, 2001). Four behaviors often
associated with creativity are:
1. Fluency
Ability to generate new ideas
2. Flexibility
To generate broad range of ideas
3. Originality
Unusual or unique responses to situation
4. Elaboration
Other ideas and details are added to the reasoning

Many attempts were made to measure creative thinking. One of such attempts was done by
Guilford in 1967. He focused on two types of thinking-convergent and divergent.

Convergent thinking is beginning with the problem and coming up with a single correct solution.
Divergent thinking is beginning with a problem and coming up with many different solutions

Creative people tend to have following characteristics;

1. Intellectual ability:
They tend to be superior in one particular area like Einstein was superior in logical spatial area
but poor in personal area
2. Certain style of thinking:
They have the ability to change mental directions, consider problem form many angles, and
make use of mental images. They tend to do things differently than do different things.
3. Personality attribute
As the positive side of personality, they are independent, self confident, unconventional, risk-
taking, hard working while on negative side, they are found to have large egos, insensitive to
needs of others, and may pursue goals in expense of others
4. Intrinsic task-focused motivation:
They need to have the ability to drive them to push forward to attainment of the ultimate limit
without considering the external factors.
5. Knowledge
The more the knowledge about the topic of choice, the more it is better for creativity.
6. Environment:
The environment must be supportive of the creative ideas. But that doesn’t mean that in
adverse situation, there cannot be any creativity.

Creativity learned or innate?

Cognitive researchers have found that creativity is more likely the result of a series of cognitive
processes that can be developed in most individuals. The important point is it can’t be learnt in
vacuum. It is a form of interaction between learner and his/her environment. Following are the
key characteristics that encourage creativity:

1. Trust secure trusting relationships are essential in which people are prepared to take risks
and are able to learn from failures
2. Freedom of actioncreative application of knowledge is only possible when people are able
to make real choices over what they do and how they try to do it
3. Variation of contextslearners need to apply their skills in a range of contexts in order to
make connections between them
4. The right balance between skill and challengecreativity emerges in environment where
people are engaged in challenging activities and have the right level of skill to meet them
5. Interactive exchange of knowledge and ideascreativity is fostered in environment where
ideas, feedback, and evaluation are constantly exchanged
6. Creativity ability and motivation are reinforced by the experience of making an impact i.e.
achieving concrete outcomes

Besides above characteristics, it is also found that creative people inevitably confront obstacles
and they must have the determination to surmount them. These people avoid getting stuck with
one idea forever. They look for new ways to expand their idea and adding new ones. They
maintain their belief in themselves even when ideas are poorly received and when other sources
of intellectual and emotional support are gone. They must be willing to take reasonable risks,
recognizing that they will sometimes fail and at times succeed. They often face ambiguity when
trying creative things. A high tolerance of ambiguity is important if creative venture is to succeed.
Concluding, the creative thinking, we can say that it is the ability to produce products such as play,
solutions to social problems, poems that are both novel and socially valued like its usefulness, its
aesthetic beauty, informativeness, tec.

Stages of creative thinking

The stages described below have no hard and fast rule but yet in general, this step is followed.

1. Preparation
This is the first stage of creativity that is not consciously done. Education, training,
knowledge, etc help in formulating the problem, collection of information, survey of
relevant work, preliminary knowledge, etc. For general problems, a person does general
preparation. On the other hand, for specific problems, a person does specific preparation
which helps relate the facts in various ways. A lot of trial and error, change of ideas,
inspiration creates a foundation for creativity.
2. Incubation
In this second phase, the interference tends to fade away. There is complete absence of
overt behavior and near to null covert behaviors. There is only processing in the
unconscious level of mind where no progress is seen. There is no apprehension.
3. Illumination/Inspiration
Here the possible solutions tend to well up into consciousness all of a sudden with an “aha”
experience. Sometimes, the solutions or ideas come into dreams. This stage leads to a
specific direction towards the goal and makes a person think in a different angle.
4. Evaluation
Here, the thinker finds out if the solution is correct or not. Most of the times, the ideas
appear to be wrong where the thinker returns back to the first stage of preparation. But
luckily, if the idea is correct, the thinker goes to the next stage of creative thinking.
5. Verification/Revision
The correct idea is accepted. But not just accepted, it is as pr the necessity of the situation,
modify or revise the idea. The whole set is evaluated and checked and revised.

Convergent thinking

It is the type of thinking that is logical, factual, conventional, and focused on problem solving until
a solution is found. It is concerned with a particular end result. The thinker gathers information
relevant to the problem and proceeds by using problem solving rules to work about the right
solution. The result of convergent thinking is usually a solution that has been previously arrived at
by someone else. Most formal education emphasizes the teaching and assessment of convergent
thinking. Students are encouraged to discover the right solution.
Divergent thinking

It is the ability to generate a range of possible solutions to a given problem that has no single
answer. It is generally used as the basis of creative thinking. It produces answers that need to ve
evaluated as per the situation and the subject matter. It is a major component of creative thinking
with the characters like fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration as explained above in the
creative thinking.

Autistic thinking

It is an extreme preoccupation with one’s own thoughts and fantasies that they seem to cut off
from the social surroundings. These thinking are highly private and use specific symbols, signs,
mental image and concepts that are unique to the individual or the thinker. This type of thinking
includes fantasizing, dreaming, wishful thinking with no end to it. Most of the creative thinkers
have the ability to do autistic thinking.

Common biases and errors in problem solving

People may think that their decisions are sound and rational, but researchers find that people
often rely on biased way of thinking called cognitive biases that can lead them to make poorly
informed decisions. Some of such errors are defined below:

1. Over-confidence
It is the tendency to overestimate one’s correctness in factual knowledge, beliefs, and
decisions. It apparently stems from people’s need to see them as knowledgeable and
competent. But overconfidence also has adaptive values. People, who are overconfident live
more happily, find it easier to make tough decisions, and seem more credible than those who
lack self confidence.
2. Anchoring bias
People use anchoring bias when they estimate the probability of some event by adjusting their
existing estimate rather than starting from scratch. Even if new information suggests that their
first estimate is way off, people may not adjust their estimate enough, it is as if they have
dropped a mental anchor that keeps them from drifting too far from their original judgment.
3. Availability bias
The availability heuristics operates when we base our judgment on how mentally available
information is. For example, if when people are asked following questions like what are the
odds of sustaining a fatal accident travelling by cars is compared with travelling by commercial
airplane? Or which country has a high suicide rate-US or Sri Lanka? People tend to estimate
primarily on the basis of how easily or quickly specific instances of each question come to
mind. In general, the most powerful impressions are created by events that are particularly
vivid, dramatic, important, and personally relevant. We also are prone to more quickly think of
 instances that are simply easy to imagine. This strategy leads us to overestimate the actual
occurrence, frequency of events in the world.
Since airplane crash is more disturbing and is easily accessible and available on memory, most
people say travelling by airplane is more fatal than traveling by car. But the truth is people are
100 times more likely to die in an automobile accident than in a commercial plane accident.
U.S. media pays much attention to the things that happen in their country and also because
there is high stress and lack of emotional support, people say us has high suicide rate than Sri
Lanka but in reality, suicide rate in Sri Lanka is nearly 3 times higher than in us.
4. Confirmation bias
Tendency to look for evidence that will confirm what we currently believe rather than looking
for evidence that could disconfirm our belief is confirmation bias. It is a major obstacle to
problem solving./ many studies have shown that if people have strong belief about
som3ething, they are very selective in kind of information they expose themselves to. They
seek out like-minded people and compatible mass media sources and internet sites.
“The united states launched its war against Iraq on the assumption that Saddam Hussein
possessed weapons of mass destruction (WHD) that posed an immediate threat. When that
assumption turned out to be false, confirmation bias was one of the flaws in the judgment
process identified by the bipartisan U.S. senate select committee on intelligence, 2004.
Administration analyst had a tendency to accept information which supported their
assumptions more readily than information which contradicted them. Sources denying such
weapons were regarded either lying or not knowledgeable about Iraq’s problem, while those
sources who reported ongoing WMD activities were seen as having provided valuable
information” (Psychology, Myers, 2010)
5. Representative bias/Representativeness
To judge the likelihood of things in terms of how well they represent particular prototype is to
use the representative heuristic. In other words, the more closely an item or event, object, or
person resembles the most typical examples of some concept or category the more likely it is
to belong to that concept or category. For example, a stranger tells you about a person who is
short, slim, and likes to read poetry and then asks you to guess whether this person is more
likely to be a professor at university or a truck driver. Which would be the better guess? Many
of the people say professor because the description seems more representative of a professor
than of truck drivers.
6. Escalation of commitment
In many situations, people who have made a bad decision tend to stick to it even as the
evidence for its failure mounts. They may even commit additional time, effort, and resources
to a failing course of action in order to turn the situation around. It is the tendency to become
trapped in bad decision is called escalation of commitment. Why this happens then? People
choose particular course of action because they believe this will yield favorable outcome. As
negative outcome continues to mount, psychological factors come into play. If they back away,
 they will be admitting that they made a mistake. In later phase, external pressure stemming
from other persons or groups affected by bad decision may come into play. Others may block
efforts to reverse it because they too have become committed to actions it implies.
7. Hindsight bias
The tendency to overestimate one’s ability to have predicted an event once the outcome is
known. It is the “I knew it all along” phenomenon. When people learn the outcome of an
event or the answer to a question, they are often sure that they knew it all along. This biased
way of thinking we can see in political judgment like I always knew my candidate would win
when we are sure that we knew something all along, we are less willing to find out what we
need to know in order to make accurate predictions in future.