ANNEX Al. Physical Quantities and Units ‘QUANTITY [USUAL SYMBOL UNIT ‘Capacitance, C Farad (F) Charge Q Coulomb (C) Conductance, G Siemens (S)= Qt ‘Conductivity o Sem! =O en! Current 7 ‘Ampere (A Current J Acm? densit Centimeter (em) Distance dlwxy,z 1 micrometer (tm) = 10-4 em 1 nanometer (nm) = 10-7 em 1 angstrom (A) = 10-8 em Electric field C= -VO Vem™ A Dla (1 dimension Energy E Toule () Electron-volt (IV = 1.6x10-19 J) Frequency f st Potential Vo Volt (Vy Resistance Rr ‘Ohm (Q) Resistivity PB Qem Temperature T Kelvin (Ky O°C = 273.15 K Time Z Second (8)410 Annex ‘A2. Physical Constants SIMBOL MEANING VALUE ONT Ey (Gals), Gas bende eae 1a wv Ee (Ge) Te bandsap emery O67 av Ei) Sindy ena 124 wv to Femi of acm aascie’ | cent 7 Flank constant ari Ts 7 Tetheed Fine conan We Ts T Boliane ons Tats | a KT zien) Dilecre constant of HAS 13] Senne Ree Dice cotant of Ge 16 Gnesi a Delis constant Th | neon coy Diceane constant of S03 33 rnc Ti “Terns volage Ga TSE Tose z Gay Tate parameter (Gasp Tassaa107 em T1Ge Taio pater) seasiax0" | am Ta Tatice parma Sasoosxio® | em Fata Eien moby Gorse GARY 3800 ‘iin (Ge) Tleseoa maby Gata Gey 300 fentvtet in (SD Tearon TY TEST THT 0 Fre econ mae oniaoa! te Gok) Tae aby ra THAT Ca me) Tae abi trast Ga) 1900 fone ip (Si Tite mobi Gist) a Ke (Gada) | PRSve dena of saves n cond tard TGEAT | apg = Tie Ge)_| Bev denny of sats tvcond band Ge) | 1 oat] em Ne S| Eeive demiy at wae cond Band S| 2.1077 aa Ti (Gay | Eve Gay of water vanes and (GANDY 0 cm Te (Ger_| Elesve deny of aera valenee bn) | oc 0 me Ti | Eee doy of wate valence and | 1.06107 a Ti Gadsy | Tae caer soneeration (TRAST Lo? co? Ge Tari camer concentration (Gey 2sao | en 7 (Si) Tats 145x107 em fe leon carge (asa vale) Lenton c ‘All values are given for T = 300K.17, Annex ail A3. Concepts of Quantum Mechanics In this Annex the Reader is reminded of some concepts from quantum mechanics that will be used in this book. 1) A particle can be fully described by a function, called wave function. The wave function is noted ¥(x,y,z,f) and it contains all measurable information about the particle. 2) To cach dynamic variable corresponds a quantum-mechanic operator: © To the position x corresponds the operator % © To momentum py corresponds the operator py = j © To the potential energy V/s.y;z) corresponds the operstor Y = Vosyz) (A3.4) V-T and where # = h/2n,h being Planck's constant. where j 3) The wave function also gives the probability of finding the particle in a given region of space. If the wave function is real (i.e, not complex) the probability of finding the particle between positions a and b in one dimension (x) is given by 6 6 probability = [YY dx é Jv? ax if Ys a real function) é For all space in one dimension the particle must be somewhere between x = -00 and x = +00 and therefore, we obtain the normalization condition 0 0 Jvtvac=1 (Jv? de =i if Vis areal function) (3.5) x » Consider the total energy of a particle in a classical Newtonian physics approach. If the particle has a momentum p and a potential energy V, its total energy is given by: 2 we =a, (A3.6)412 Annex Note that p=pixy.z), p? = pe +7, +e, and Vs Applying these concepts to an electron having a mass m for the one- dimensional case one obtains Table A. 1 ‘Table A.1: Physical variables and operators. Quantity Classical Quantum mechanics mechanics Momentum p=my ea tha Kinetic energy 2m mj dx a Potential energy Total energy Mass | m Velocity, dE group velocity dp In this Table, k is a wave vector or a wave number that corresponds to the momentum of the particle. ‘The Schrodinger equation is basically the quantum mechanical equivalent of classical mechanics E = 4° + ¥. For the one-dimensional case the quantum mechanical equivalent of total energy is: (A3.7) and, in three dimensions: we VY + Vayz.0¥ (A3.8) where V? is the Laplacian operator defined by: ey ey ay PYiva0 =o ta toI7. Annex 413 If the potential energy function is time independent (87/61 = 0) one is able to construct a solution to the Schrodinger equation through the {technique of separation of variables where the wave function is written as the product of a time-independent term, y(x,y,z) and a space-independent term, T(t), such that ¥(xy,2,) = yexy.z) T(d). The introduction of these terms into (A3.8) yields Re Te (- Spy PPwesn2)) + M2) wbso2) TO = wlxy.2) Amt # 72 (-F Pvt) + Vo) wes2)) 7 e) (3.9) The left-hand term of this equation depends only on space, while the right-hand term depends only on time, which indicates that the separation of Y into the product of y and T was successful. We can now solve the Schrédinger equation for the variables y and T separately, and with this solution find Y = y7. Equation A3.9 makes sense only if both terms are equal to a constant which we shall call E, therefore, we can write: oT _, Te) = exp (Hy (A3.10) TO aaimoe and therefore: Pexy.z.l) = wlsy.z) exp F ) (A3.11) Introducing Expression A3.11 into A3.8 one obtains the time- independent Schréidinger equation: Time-independent Schrédinger equation we Im Vvtey2) + [VOxy.2) - E] wloya) = 0 (A3.12) where E is the (constant) energy of the particle, where the energy of the patticle is given by non FOP) = wesa) E70 = E Maye) _ haMa.y,414 Annex Ad. Crystallography - Reciprocal Space Most semiconductors are crystalline materials. Elemental semiconductor atoms such as silicon or germanium belong to column IV of the periodic table and have four electrons on their outer shell. In a crystal these atoms form four covalent bonds with neighboring atoms in order to complete their outer shell. Each atom is thus in the center of a tetrahedron, the comers of which are occupied by other similar atoms (Figure A.1). Figure A.t: Sil on atom forming covalent bonds to other silicon atoms. ‘The atoms in a crystal form a pattern that is repeated in the three directions of space with perfect regularity. That pattern is called the “unit cell". Silicon and germanium have the diamond lattice structure. This structure can be viewed as two interweaving face-centered lattices. In this case the unit cell is a cube (Figure A.2), The length of each cube side is, called the "lattice parameter", which is equal to 5.43 and 5.64 A in silicon and germanium, respectively In the unit cell presented in Figure A.2 atoms labeled "1" are completely enclosed in the unit cell. Atoms at the center of each of the six sides of the cell and labeled "1/2" belong half to the unit cell and half to an adjacent cell. Atoms located at the comers of the cube and labeled "1/8" have one-eighth of their volume included in the unit cell and contribute to seven other cells. Therefore, the unit cell contains 4 x 1+ 6x 2 +8 x 1/8 = 8 atoms. Semiconductors formed using elements from columns IIL and V of the periodic table, such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), have the zincblende crystal structure. The GaAs lattice cell can be viewed as two interpenetrating face-centered lattices, one containing gallium atoms, and the other containing arsenic atoms. It is also represented by Figure A.2 where atoms labeled "1" are gallium and atoms labeled "1/2" and "1/8" are arsenic (and vice-versa). The lattice parameter of GaAs is 5.65 A.17. Annex as Figure A.2: Atoms in the unit cell of silicon (diamond lattice structure), The most basic property of a crystal is that the same pattern of atoms is repeated over and over again in the three directions of space, The position of any cell in the erystal is given by a vector 1 defined by: 1=ma+nb +pe (A4.1) where m,n and p ate integer numbers, and a,b and ¢ ate the vectors of the lattice parameters of the unit crystal cell (Figure A.3). In most semiconductors the cell is cubic and a,b and ¢ have the same length. Figure A.3: Unit cell ofa cubic crystal lattice.416 Annex One can define three new vectors: bxe exa 2n——— , b* = 20 an a-bxe a-bxe a-bxe (4.2) Vectors a*, b+ and ¢* belong to what is called the “reciprocal lattice”. While vectors a, b and c belong to real space and are measured in meters or centimeters, vectors @*, b* and e* belong to a space where the measurement unit is meter! or centimeter-!, which is called the “reciprocal space". Note that a+a*= b:b*= c-¢*= 2m and a-b* = b-e* = 0;a* is thus parallel to @ and perpendicular to 6 and ¢, if there is such a thing as being parallel or perpendicular to a vector belonging to another space. Figure A represents vectors a*, b* and c*. They are perpendicular to crystal planes (100), (010) and (001), respectively. Vectors perpendicular to planes (110) and (111) are represented as well. Any vector k in the reciprocal space obeys the following equation: k= fa* + gb* + he* (A43) where f, g and h are integer numbers. : BF f= (100) (O10) a1) any (001) Figure A.d: Main crystal planes of a semiconductor having a cubic lattice, Vectors 2, b* and c* belong to the reciprocal space and are represented herein the real-space unit cells for a visualization purpose only.I7. Annex 4lT Problems Problem A4.L a Calculate the number of atoms in a cubic centimeter of silicon and germanium. b: Calculate the number of atoms per square centimeter at the surface of an (100)- oriented silicon sample. & Problem A4.2: Using Matlab place silicon atoms in the silicon unit cell in order to produce a 3D plot similar to Figure A.2, View it from different directions: random, (100), (110) and (111). The lattice parameter is $43 A. Use commands sx, sy, s2)=sphere{20) and surf (sx, sy, 2) (0 draw the atoms. Use command Line ( {x1 x2], [Y1 ¥2], [21 22)) to plot the bonds between the atoms. W psn 943 ‘Using Matlab place silicon atoms in 3x3x3=27 silicon unit cells in order to produce 43D plot of the latice, View it from different ditcetions: random, (100), (110) and. (11D, The lattice parameter is 5.43 A. Use commands |x, sy, sz) =sphere (20) and surf1 (sx, sy, s2) (o draw the atoms. Use command Line ([X2 X21, (YI ¥2), [21 221) to plot the bonds between the atoms.