HAKI 2018 Seminar

28-29 August 2018, Jakarta

SEISMIC DESIGN USING THE AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE

BUILDING CODE, ACI 318-14

Andrew W. Taylor*, PhD, SE, FACI

*
KPFF Consulting Engineers
1601 Fifth Avenue, Suite 1600, Seattle, Washington, 98101, USA
e-mail: <andrew.taylor@kpff.com> webpage: http://www.kpff.com

Keywords: American Concrete Institute, ACI 318, building codes, reinforced concrete,
seismic design, earthquakes

Abstract. Seismic design provisions have long been a key part of the American
Concrete Institute Building Code, “ACI 318 Building Code Requirements for
Structural Concrete.” Beginning with the 1971 edition of ACI 318 guidelines for
seismic design appeared in Appendix A, “Special Provisions for Seismic Design.”
Over time, these seismic provisions were revised and in 1989 they were moved
into the body of the Code, where they were placed in a new Chapter 21. ACI 318
Subcommittee H has been responsible for reviewing and updating the seismic
design provisions of ACI 318 with each new edition of the Code. In 2014, as part
of an overall reorganization of the Code, the seismic provisions were further
updated and moved to Chapter 18. This paper describes the current conceptual
framework for seismic design with ACI 318-14, and highlights certain detailing
provisions that are essential to the ductile response of reinforced concrete walls
and moment frames that are subject to earthquake loads. After reviewing the
requirements for seismic design in the current Code, ACI 318-14, we take a brief
look at trends that may be expected in the next version of the Code, ACI 318-19.
1 INTRODUCTION
This paper presents a brief overview of seismic design of reinforced concrete buildings as
presented in the ACI 318 Building Code, ACI 318-14. This overview includes a short history of the
development of the ACI seismic design provisions; a description of the current conceptual
framework for seismic design with ACI 318-14; the relationship of the ACI 318 seismic provisions
to the regulations found in other building codes; seismic design requirements that are specific to
common lateral force resisting systems; and a brief discussion of analysis guidelines.

2 DEVELOPMENT OF THE ACI 318 CODE

In 1908 the National Association of Cement Users (NACU), which later became the American
Concrete Institute (ACI), published a report, titled NACU Report of the Committee on Laws and
1
Ordinances . This report was 7 pages long, and formed the basis of what would eventually
become the ACI 318 Building Code. Two years later, in 1910, the NACU issued what many
consider to be the first ACI Building Code, titled NACU Standard No. 4, Standard Building
Regulations for the Use of Reinforced Concrete. Since then, ACI has published 21 editions of the
concrete building code, the latest being the 2014 edition, Building Code Requirements for
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Structural Concrete (ACI 318-14) and Commentary (ACI 318-14R) .

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3 TRANSITION FROM ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN (ASD) TO STRENGTH DESIGN (SD)

At its inception in 1910, the ACI Building Code was written in accordance with the principles of
allowable stress design (ASD), the predominant engineering design philosophy of the day. As time
passed, however, the principles of strength design (SD), also known as load and resistance factor
design (LRFD), or ultimate strength design (USD), were developed and introduced to the structural
engineering profession.

In the 1956 edition of the ACI Code an appendix was added that described design procedures for
flexure and axial load using strength design principles. These procedures were presented as an
alternate method of design, but were not required. Then, in 1963, strength design provisions were
revised and expanded, and moved into the body of the Code. From that point forward the ACI Code
permitted both strength design and allowable stress design as valid methods for design of reinforced
concrete structures.

Gradually, allowable stress design began to fall out of favor in the structural engineering
profession, and strength design became the dominant approach. In 1971 the allowable stress design
provisions were moved to Section 8.10 of the Code, and in the 1977 edition all allowable stress
design provisions were moved into an appendix to the Code. Although the strength design method
was in ascendancy at that time, many practicing engineers preferred to continue using allowable
stress design, so the ASD provisions were retained in an appendix for many years. Finally, in the
2002 edition of ACI 318, the allowable stress design provisions of Appendix A were removed
completely. However, through the 2011 edition of the Code, a note appeared in the commentary,
Section R1.1, stating

“In the 1999 code and earlier editions, Appendix A contained provisions for an
alternate method of design for nonprestressed reinforced concrete members using
service loads (without load factors) and permissible service load stresses. The
Alternate Design Method was intended to give results that were slightly more
conservative than designs by the Strength Design Method of the code. The Alternate
Design Method of the 1999 code may be used in place of applicable sections of this
code.”

This note no longer appears in the 2014 edition of the ACI 318 Code.

4 REORGANIZATION OF THE ACI 318 CODE

The 1971 edition of the ACI 318 Code was published in a reorganized format. This format
contained a mixture of chapter types, with some chapters dedicated to the design of specific
types of concrete members (e.g. walls, footings), other chapters focused on classes of structural
behavior (e.g. flexure and axial loads, shear and torsion) and other chapters covering prescriptive
and performance requirements (e.g. strength and serviceability requirements, details of
reinforcement). The general form of the 1971 organization remained in place for the next 43
years. With each subsequent edition of the Code, new sections were introduced, existing
provisions were revised and expanded, and appendices were adde d. Over time, the Code
became more complicated, and the logic of the Code became less obvious.

In 2006 ACI began exploring the idea of a code reorganization, after receiving numerous
comments from practicing engineers and instructors that the organization of the Code had
become too complex. It had become difficult for users of the Code to find logical paths through
the provisions that applied to the design of a particular structural member, and it had become a
challenge for teachers of the Code, such as university professors, to present the Code to
students in a way that could be easily grasped. After conducting opinion surveys, and convening
focus groups of engineers, building officials, and other Code users, ACI began the process of
drafting a revised outline of the Code. The objective of this outline was to recast all the
provisions of the Code in a format that would improve the ease-of-use of the Code, reduce
potential design errors, and set the stage for future revisions and additions to the Code.

In 2008, ACI Committee 318 voted to proceed with the proposed reorganization, recognizing
that this would be a challenging undertaking, but one that was clearly needed. For the next six

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years, Committee 318 focused on revising the Code and in 2014 ACI published the newly
reorganized edition. The 2014 ACI 318 Code comprises ten parts, as shown in Table 1 below.

Part
Part 1: General
Part 2: Loads & Analysis
Part 3: Members
Part 4: Joints, Connections,
Anchors
Part 5: Earthquake Resistance
Part 6: Materials & Durability
Part 7: Strength and
Serviceability
Part 8: Reinforcement
Part 9: Construction
Part 10: Evaluation
References and Appendices
Table 1: Organization of the 2014 ACI 318 Code
Chapters
1 – General
2 – Notation and Terminology
3 – Referenced Standards
4 – Structural System Requirements
5 – Loads
6 – Structural Analysis
7 – One-Way Slabs
8 – Two-Way Slabs
9 – Beams
10 – Columns
11 – Walls
12 – Diaphragms
13 – Foundations
14 – Plain Concrete
15 – Beam-Column and Slab-Column Joints
16 – Connections Between Members
17 – Anchoring to Concrete
18 – Earthquake-Resistant Structures
19 – Concrete: Design and Durability Requirements
20 – Steel Reinforcement Properties, Durability, & Embedments
21 – Strength Reduction Factors
22 – Sectional Strength
23 – Strut-and-Tie Models
24 – Serviceability Requirements
25 – Reinforcement Details
26 – Construction Documents and Inspection
27 – Strength Evaluation of Existing Structures
Commentary References
Appendix A: Steel Reinforcement Information
Appendix B: Equivalence Between SI-Metric and U.S. Units

5 SEISMIC DESIGN PROVISIONS IN ACI 318

By the time the first several editions of the ACI 318 Code had been published, the dangers of
earthquakes in the United States had been long recognized. Notable early damaging
earthquakes in the United States included the 1811-1812 New Madrid Zone (middle America)
Earthquakes, the 1886 Charleston, South Carolina earthquake, the 1906 San Francisco,
California earthquake, and the 1933 Long Beach, California earthquake. Although each of these
events raised the awareness of earthquake hazards, it was not until the late 1960s and early
1970s that credible earthquake engineering provisions were introduced into the building codes .
The 1971 San Fernando, California earthquake accelerated this development.

Early editions of the ACI 318 Code only briefly mention seismic design. For example, in 1956
edition, Section 1110, there is a provision stating that stresses from wind and ear thquake loads
shall be included when evaluating allowable stress levels. The 1963 edition, in Section 1004,
permits a one-third increase in allowable stresses when wind or earthquake loads are included in
a load combination. It was not until the 1971 ACI 318 Code that an attempt was made to
introduce comprehensive seismic design provisions. These provisions were published in
Appendix A, titled “Special Provisions for Seismic Design.” Later, in 1989, the seismic design
provisions were moved into Chapter 21 of the Code, and in the 2014 reorganization the seismic
design provisions were moved to Chapter 18, “Earthquake-Resistant Structures.”

With each new edition of the Code, the seismic design chapter undergoes significant revisions
and expansions. This is partly driven by the intensive earthquake engineering research programs

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that are underway in many earthquake-prone areas of the world, and partly by the evolving
understanding by the ACI 318 Code committee of the seismic behavior of concrete structures.
Chapter 18 (formerly Chapter 21 in ACI 318-11) addresses the seismic design of concrete
structures. This chapter was not reorganized in the transition from ACI 318-11 to ACI 318-14
because it is a chapter that focuses on lateral force resisting systems (LFR Ss), rather than on
individual member behavior. Thus, Chapter 18 does not readily fit into the same organizational
scheme as the member chapters, 7 to 14 (see Table 1).

Even though Chapter 18 was not re-organized for ACI 318-14, a few technical changes were
introduced, which a briefly summarized here. New, more stringent, requirements have been
introduced for the detailing of confining reinforcement in columns of Special moment frames that
carry high axial loads, or are constructed with high-strength concrete (greater than 69 MPa). For
the beam-column joints of special moment frames, there are new limits on the ratio of beam
depth to joint depth. This is to prevent the formation of a steep diagonal compression strut within
the joint. Also, for beam column joints at the exterior of special moment frames, it is now
required that the 90-degree hooks of beam longitudinal reinforcement be turned towards one
another, projecting into the interior of the joint, rather t han projecting outwards from the joint. The
designer should also be aware that there are new provisions regarding the use of headed
reinforcing bars in the joints of special moment frames. These provisions are related to minimum
bar spacing, and to the provision of additional confining reinforcement in “knee” joints where
headed bars are terminated. Regarding special structural walls, there are new requirements
related to wall slenderness (ratio of wall thickness to unsupported wall height), the number of
curtains of reinforcement required in walls, and reinforcement detailing in boundary elements.

6 SEISMIC DESIGN PHILOSOPHY OF ACI 318-14

The seismic design provisions of ACI 318 are founded on three basic principles.

 First, both concrete and reinforcement are permitted to respond in the inelastic range
when subjected to earthquake-induced forces. This is in keeping with the strength
design philosophy utilized throughout the Code, as described above in Section 3.

 Second, controlled inelastic action is accepted at pre-determined locations, generally

known as “plastic hinges,” within the lateral-force-resisting system. Typical locations
for plastic hinges are at the ends of beams in concrete moment frames, and at the
bases of shear walls.

 Third, prescriptive rules for reinforcement detailing are enforced, which enable plastic
hinges to undergo multiple cycles of inelastic deformation. This plastic hinging serves
two purposes: the formation of plastic hinges reduces the lateral stiffness of the
structure, thereby lengthening the structural period, which generally reduces the
seismic response of the structure; and plastic hinges dissipate energy through
hysteretic action, resulting in increased damping and reduced seismic response.

7 HOW ACI 318-14 RELATES TO OTHER BUILDING CODES

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In the United States the primary building code is the International Building Code (IBC). Most
states currently adopt the 2015 version of the IBC, although some states will begin adopting the
2018 version of the IBC in 2019. The IBC cites external “Reference Standards” for detailed
regulations concerning design loads, design rules for specific materials (e.g. steel, concrete,
masonry, timber, etc.), and testing methods.

In the IBC, design loads and related design rules are governed by reference to the American
Society of Civil Engineers standard ASCE 7, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
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Structures . The 2015 IBC refers to ASCE 7-10, while the 2018 IBC will refer to ASCE 7-16.
ASCE 7 contains an important table, Table 12.2-1, titled “Design Coefficients and Factors for
Seismic-Force-Resisting Systems.” In this table the key parameters required for seismic design
of buildings are defined. As an example, Table 2 below shows the ASCE 7 seismic design
parameters for Special Reinforced Concrete Shear Walls.

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Parameter in ASCE 7-10 Example Remarks

Table 12.2-1
Special reinforced
Seismic Force Resisting
concrete shear walls
System
(building frame system)
ASCE 7 Section Where
Detailing Requirements
Are Specified
Response Modification
Coefficient, R
Overstrength Factor, Ω0
Deflection Amplification
Factor, Cd
Structural System
Limitations, Including
Structural Height Limits
*Seismic Design Category
Table 2: Example of parameters specified in ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1
There are at least 15 other reinforced
concrete lateral-force-resisting systems
defined in Table 12.1-1 of ASCE 7-10
Section 14.2 refers to the ACI 318
ASCE 7 Section 14.2
Building Code for most reinforced
“Concrete”
concrete design provisions
This is a factor to account for ductility
6 and redundancy of the lateral-force-
resisting system.
This is a factor to account for expected
2.5
overstrength of certain parts of the
lateral-force-resisting system.
This is a factor to increase lateral
deflections computed using elastic
5
analysis and the response modification
coefficient R.
Building height may be limited by the
maximum heights shown in ASCE 7
SDC* B No limit
Table 12.2-1, or by practical
SDC C No limit
considerations such as control of
SDC D 48.8 m
earthquake lateral displacements;
SDC E 48.8 m
maximum allowable shear stress in the
SDC F 30.5 m
joints of moment frames; or maximum
allowable shear stress in shear walls.

Thus, Table 12.2-1 of ASCE 7 serves as the “starting point” for seismic design of all reinforced
concrete buildings, since this table defines both the key design parameters and limitations for the
lateral-force-resisting system. Other parts of Chapter 12 of ASCE 7 define the seismic loads to
be used in design; and other chapters of ASCE 7 describe requirements for seismic design of
non-structural components, material-specific requirements, seismic design of non-building
structures, etc. The material design standard required by ASCE 7 for concrete buildings is the
ACI 318 Building Code. Specifically, the 2016 version of ASCE 7 references the 2014 version of
ACI 318.

It is worth noting here that ASCE 7-10 allows for implementation of Performance-Based
Seismic Design (PBSD) through provisions in sections 12.2.1, “Alternative Structural Systems”
and 1.3.1.3 “Performance-Based Procedures.” Section 12.2.1 states

“Seismic force-resisting systems not contained in Table 12.2-1 are permitted provided
analytical and test data are submitted to the authority having jurisdiction for approval that
establish their dynamic characteristics and demonstrate their lateral force re sistance and
energy dissipation capacity to be equivalent to the structural systems listed in Table 12.2-
1 for equivalent values of response modification coefficient, R, overstrength factor, Ω0,
and deflection amplification factor, Cd.”

A PBSD design will also require structural design review by a peer review panel, as described in
ASCE 7-10 Section 16.2.5. Even when a structural design review is not required (Section
12.2.1), the Authority Having Jurisdiction may elect to require a review based on factors such as
the height of the building, a novel structural configuration, challenging foundation conditions, or

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other unusual circumstances. Further discussion of performance-based seismic design is found

in Section 10 below.

8 SEISMIC DESIGN APPROACH IN ACI 318-14

Provisions related to seismic design in ACI 318-14 are found in Chapter 18, “Earthquake-
Resistant Structures.” The chapter is organized with general information appearing first in
Sections 18.1 and 18.2, followed by specific provisions for lateral-force-resisting systems and
components in Sections 18.3 through 18.14. Table 3 below outlines the main sections of Chapter
18.

Section
Title
Number
18.1 Scope
18.2 General
18.3 Ordinary moment frames
18.4 Intermediate moment frames
18.5 Intermediate precast structural walls
18.6 Beams of special moment frames
18.7 Columns of special moment frames
18.8 Joints of special moment frames
18.9 Special moment frames constructed using precast concrete
18.10 Special structural walls
18.11 Special structural walls constructed using precast concrete
18.12 Diaphragms and trusses
18.13 Foundations
18.14 Members not designated as part of the seismic-force-resisting system
Table 3: Contents of Chapter 18, “Earthquake-Resistant Structures”

In the following sections, each of the sections listed in Table 3 will be briefly summarized, and
relevant background information will be provided. In a few instances provisions that have been
updated in the 2014 version of the ACI 318 Code will be highlighted.

8.1 Section 18.1 – Scope

In Section 18.1 it is noted that Chapter 18 applies only to structures that are assigned to
Seismic Design Categories (SDC) B, C, D, E, and F. Chapter 18 does not apply to structures in
SDC A, because there are no seismic design requirements for SDC A structures in ACI 318-14.

Chapter 18 applies to both cast-in-place and precast concrete structures. For the higher
SDCs (D, E, and F), Chapter 18 also governs the design and detailing of certain structural
elements that are not part of the lateral-force-resisting system. Most notably, this includes
columns that are intended to carry only gravity loads; in SDCs D, E, and F, such columns may be
subjected to lateral inter-story displacements that are deemed large enough to potentially cause
damage to the columns and compromise their ability to support gravity loads. This subject is
addressed in detail in Section 18.14 of ACI 318-14.

Section 18.1.2 states explicitly that the goal of the provisions in Chapter 18 is to provide
structures that resist earthquake loads through ductile, inelastic response occurring at
predetermined locations in the structure.

8.2 Section 18.2 – General

In this section, general information about seismic design is conveyed, including requirem ents
for the design of moment frames and shear walls assigned to a range of Seismic Design
Categories (SDCs). These requirements are summarized in the Chapter 18 commentary, Table
R18.2, which is reproduced below. As noted earlier, there are no requirements for SDC A, and
progressively more requirements for SDC B through F. It is important to understand that, in

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addition to the requirements of Chapter 18, reinforced concrete structures must comply with all
other applicable provisions of Chapters 1 to 17, and 19 to 26.

Figure 1: Table R18.2 from ACI 318-14

Key decisions that must be made when analyzing reinforced concrete structures are the
assumptions regarding effective section properties. Because some members of the lateral-force-
resisting system undergo inelastic deformations under earthquake loading, it is appropriate to use
effective, or cracked, section properties in linear analysis models. The commentary to section
18.2.2 states

“For lateral displacement calculations, assuming all the structural members to be fully
cracked is likely to lead to better estimates of the possible drift than using uncracked
stiffness for all members. The analysis assumptions described in 6.6.3.1.2 and 6.6.3.1.3
may be used to estimate lateral deflections of reinforced concrete building systems.”

Similarly, effective section properties should be used when computing the vibration modes of the
structure for the purpose of calculating minimum seismic base shear, for example, when applying
Section 12.8.2 of ASCE 7-10. Section 6.6.3 of ACI 318-14, “Section Properties,” provides
alternatives for calculation of effective section properties when performing elastic analysis at
factored load levels. One of these is Table 6.6.3.1.1(a), reproduced below in Figure 2. In this
table, the symbols Ig and Ag denote the moment of inertia and the cross sectional area of the
member in the absence of cracking. Another is Table 6.6.3.1.1(b), reproduced in Figure 3, which
provides alternate means for calculating effective moments of inertia. Finally, Section 6.6.3.1.2
provides a third alternative: “For factored lateral load analysis, it shall be permitted to assume I =
0.5Ig for all members or to calculate I by a more detailed analysis, considering the reduced
stiffness of all members under the loading conditions.”

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For analysis of lateral deflections under service loads (as opposed to factored loads), Section
6.6.3.2.2 states that “It shall be permitted to calculate immediate lateral deflections using a
moment of inertia of 1.4 times I defined in 6.6.3.1 [i.e. using one of the methods described in the
previous paragraph], or using a more detailed analysis, but the value shall not exceed Ig.”

Figure 2: Table 6.6.3.1.1(a) from ACI 318-14

Figure 3: Table 6.6.3.1.1(b) from ACI 318-14

Section 18.2.3 states that anchors that resist earthquake forces must be designed in
accordance with the provisions of section 17.2.3 of Chapter 17, “Anchoring to Concrete.” Note
that in ACI 318-11 these anchoring provisions appeared in Appendix D, but in ACI 318 -14 those
provisions have been moved, without substantive changes, to Chapter 17.

In the reorganized 318-14 Code, all strength reduction factors, Φ, have been placed in
Chapter 21, “Strength Reduction Factors.” (The exception is that the Φ values of for anchoring
to concrete are still in Chapter 17).

Concrete and steel material requirements for Special lateral-force-resisting systems are
specified in sections 18.2.5 and 18.2.6. 18.2.5 notes that concrete material requirements may be
found in Table 19.2.1.1, which establishes the minimum specified concrete strength for Special
systems as 20.7 MPa for both normalweight and lightweight concrete, and the maximum concrete
strength as 34.5 MPa for lightweight concrete (no maximum strength is specified for normalweight
concrete). Reinforcement for Special seismic systems must meet the requirements of 20.2.2, and
in particular, Tables 20.2.2.4a and b. It is important to note that the main flexural reinforcement
for all Special moment frames and shear walls is limited to ASTM A706 with maximum 414 MPa
yield stress (or specially qualified ASTM A615 with maximum 414 MPa yield stress). There has
been some discussion within the ACI 318 Code committee about increasing the maximum yield
stress for flexural reinforcement in Special seismic systems to 552 MPa, but this has not yet been
approved.

Mechanical splices and welded splices of reinforcement are addressed in Section 18.2.7. Two
types of mechanical splices are defined: Type 1, which is required to develop at least 125 percent

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of the yield force of the bar; and Type 2, which is required to develop at least the specified tensile
strength of the bar. Mechanical and welded splices must not be placed closer than two member
depths away from sections where yielding of the reinforcement is likely to occur. Furthermore,
stirrups, ties, and inserts must not be welded to longitudinal reinforcement.

8.3 Section 18.3 – Ordinary moment frames

This is the first of several sections that address the design and detailing of three classes of
cast-in-place moment frames: Ordinary moment frames (18.3), Intermediate moment frames
(18.4); and Special moment frames (18.6, 18.7, and 18.8).

The requirements for Ordinary moment frames are minimal. For beams, at least two
continuous reinforcing bars are required at the top and bottom faces of each beam and these
bars must be anchored at the faces of supports to develop the bar yield stress in tension. For
columns, if the column is not slender (i.e., if the length to thickness ratio is less than or equal to
5) then the nominal shear strength of the column, including the strength reduction fact or Φ, must
be at least the smaller of a) the shear associated with development of nominal moment strength
of the column, and b) the maximum calculated column shear obtained by substituting Ω0E for E in
load combinations.

8.4 Section 18.4 – Intermediate moment frames

This section builds on the requirements for Ordinary moment frames by stating additional
requirements for Intermediate moment frames. Requirements are introduced for minimum
positive moment strength at the faces of joints, as well as limits on minimum positive and
negative moment strength along the length of beams.

For beams, the nominal shear strength, including the strength reduction factor Φ, must be at
least the smaller of a) the total shear produced by plastic end moments in the beam, assuming
reverse curvature bending, and b) the maximum calculated beam shear obtained by substituting
2E for E in load combinations. Minimum hoop spacings near the ends of beams (where plastic
hinging may occur), and near the centers of beams, are specified. If axial loads in beams are
greater than Agf’c/10, then additional rules for detailing confining reinforcement must be applied.

For columns, (18.4.3) the nominal shear strength, including the strength reduction factor Φ,
must be at least the smaller of a) the shear caused by the development of plastic hinges at each
end of the column, when the column is in reverse curvature bending, and b) the maximum
calculated column shear obtained by substituting Ω0E for E in load combinations. Column
detailing requirements include provisions for closely-spaced hoops near each end of the column,
and if the column carries high axial loads, these closely-spaced hoops must extend over the
entire column height.

For joints, (18.4.4), the transverse reinforcement provisions of Chapter 15, “Beam-Column and
Slab-Column Joints” are required.

A special section, 18.4.5, addresses moment frames that consist of two -way flat slabs (without
beams) and columns. Reinforcement requirements are specified within a strip of slab along
column lines, called the “column strip.” Additional rules are presented for the distribution of slab
flexural reinforcement between the top and bottom layer in the slab, and for the quantity of
flexural bars that must run continuously over the length of each span. Finally, a limit is specified
for the maximum two-way shear force permitted at columns.

8.5 Section 18.5 – Intermediate precast structural walls

ACI 318-14 does not contain specifications for intermediate cast-in-place structural walls, but
it does address the design of intermediate precast structural walls. This is a brief section of the
Code, which does not present detailed provisions. Instead, general principles are expressed,
with the details of the design left to be determined by the engineer. For example, yielding
elements of connections between wall panels shall be fabricated from steel, but the details of the
connections are not specified. Regarding the design of wall piers (vertical wall segments with

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boundaries defined by wall openings or free edges), the requirements for design are the same as
for cast-in-place wall piers, in sections 18.10.8 or 18.14.

8.6 Section 18.6 – Beams of special moment frames

The provisions for design of special moment frames are divided into three sections: 18.6 on
beams, 18.7 on columns, and 18.8 on joints. For beams of special moment frames, the
provisions are quite detailed, requiring about five pages of text in the Code.

The beam provisions begin with section 18.6.3.1 on dimensional limits of special moment
frame beams, to ensure that the beams are sufficiently slender that their behavior is dominated
by flexural response, rather than shear response. This is followed by rules regarding longitudinal
reinforcement, including the provision of minimal continuous bars through joints; limits on the
ratios of positive and negative moment strength at the faces of joints; and permitted locations of
lap splices and mechanical splices.

Section 18.6.3.5 briefly describes the minimum requirements for prestressing in beams of
special moment frames, if prestressing tendons are used.

Requirements for transverse reinforcement in beams are stated in 18.6.4. To promote

adequate flexural ductility, and shear strength, of beams, the extents of regions of closely-spaced
hoops are specified, the configurations of hoops are described (including overlapping hoops, and
vertical tie bars), and special rules are presented governing transverse reinforcement in beams
with high axial loads.

The shear strength of beams is required to be greater than the shear force that occurs when
plastic moments are formed at both ends of the beam, with the beam bending in reverse
curvature, combined with the shear force from factored vertical loads acting over the length of the
beam. The concrete component of shear strength, Vc, shall be taken equal to 0 when both a) the
earthquake-induced shear force in the beam is greater than or equal to one -half of the total
factored shear force developed in the beam, and b) the factored axial compression force is less
than Agf’c/20.

8.7 Section 18.7 – Columns of special moment frames

The overarching design philosophy for special moment frames in the ACI 318 Code is that
under earthquake loads, plastic hinges should form at the ends of beams before plastic hinges
have the opportunity to form at the ends of columns. This is sometime referred to as the “strong
column/weak beam” concept. The rationale for this rule is that there is a lower probability of a
collapse mechanism developing when the hinges form first at beam ends, as opposed to when
hinges form first at the ends of columns. Figure 4 below illustrates that far fewer plastic hinges
are required to form a collapse mechanism when columns are weaker than beams, when
compared with the collapse mechanism that may form when beams are weaker than columns.
Figure 5 shows the formation of a story mechanism, caused by weak columns, at the Olive View
Medical Center, following the 1971 San Fernando, California, earthquake.

To promote the formation of plastic hinges in beams before plastic hinges form in columns ,
ACI 318-14 section 18.7.3.2 requires that at every beam-column joint the sum of nominal flexural
strengths of columns must be 20 percent greater than the sum of nominal flexural strengths of
beams. This is illustrated in Figure 6.

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Figure 4: Story mechanism associated with weak columns; sway mechanism associated with
5
weak beams

Figure 5: Story mechanism formed at a hospital in California after the 1971 San Fernando
5
Earthquake

Figure 6: At a beam-column joint, the sum of nominal flexural strengths of columns must be
greater than or equal to 120 percent of the sum of nominal flexural strengths of beams, according
5
to ACI 318-14 18.7.3.2

Regarding longitudinal reinforcement in Special moment frame columns, the allowable area o f
reinforcement is between 1 and 6 percent of the overall concrete area. When circular columns
are used, the minimum number of longitudinal bars is six. Mechanical splices of longitudinal
column bars are allowed anywhere over the height of the column, wh ile lap splices must be
positioned within the middle 50 percent of the column height.

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The rules for transverse reinforcement in columns of Special moment frames are detailed.
The objective of these rules is to create a confined concrete core within each column that will
remain intact throughout the formation of plastic hinges, and subsequent cyclic bending in the
inelastic range. To briefly summarize the detailing rules, closely-spaced confining hoops are
required near the top and bottom of each column, over a length l0., where l0 is the greatest of a)
the depth of the column at the joint face or yielding section, b) one -sixth of the clear height of the
columns, or c) 460 mm. In addition, every-other longitudinal column bars must be supported
laterally by the corner of a hoop or the hook of a tie, and the horizontal distance between these
lateral supports must not exceed 350 mm. If the factored axial load on a column exceeds
0.3Agf’c, or if f’c is greater than 69 MPa, then every longitudinal bar must be supported laterally
by the corner of a hoop or the seismic hook of a tie, and the horizontal distance between points of
support must not exceed 200 mm. This latter configuration is illustrated in Figure 7 below.

Figure 7: Example of confining reinforcement in the column of a Special moment frame when
Pu > 0.3f’cAg, or f’c > 69 MPa. xi must not exceed 200 mm. (Figure courtesy ACI)

The factored shear force for design of Special moment frame columns is based on the
maximum shear force that can be developed within the column when the “maximum probable
flexural strength,” Mpr, is developed at each end of the column, in combination with the calculated
range of factored axial force acting on the column, Pu. Mpr is calculated assuming a tensile stress
in the longitudinal bars of 1.25fy, and a strength reduction factor Φ of 1.0. The factored shear
force for design must also not be less than the factored shear force obtained from the structural
analysis under earthquake and gravity loads.

8.8 Section 18.8 – Joints of special moment frames

Detailing requirements are also spelled out for the beam-column joints of Special moment
frames. The objective of these requirements is to ensure that the concrete at the core of the
joints is well-confined, and to prevent the joints from failing in shear. Joint shear forces are
calculated assuming that beam bars framing into the joint develop a tensile stress of 1.25fy.

Beam bars that terminate at an exterior joint must be extended as close to the exterior face of
the joint as is practicable. When beam bars pass all the way through an interior joint, the column
dimension parallel to the beam bars must be at least 20 times the diameter of the bar (26 times
for lightweight concrete). The proportions of each joint must be selected such that the depth h of
the joint (where h is the horizontal distance from one side of the joint to the other, measured
parallel to the direction of beams) is not less than one-half the depth of any of the beams that
frame into the joint. Section 18.8.3 is based on the principle that the closely-spaced transverse
reinforcement at the ends of columns must essentially continue t hroughout the height of joints.
This improves the confinement and shear strength of the joints.

When headed deformed bars (reinforcing bars with large heads, as defined in section
20.2.1.6) are terminated in exterior joints of special moment frames, the clear spacing between
bars cannot be less than three times the diameter of the bar (18.8.5.2). Furthermore, the top of

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 Andrew W. Taylor

the joint where such bars are terminated must include additional reinforcement to prevent
compression failure of the top surface of the joint, or the column above the joint must extend at
least the joint depth h above the joint. Both of these conditions are illustrated in Figure 8 below.
It should be noted that sections 18.8.5 contains provisions for the development lengths of hooked
and straight reinforcing bars within joints of Special moment frames that are different from the
typical development length provisions found in Chapter 25.

h
Beam

≥h
h
Beam

Column

Alternative
reinforcement Column
- bars
Figure 8: Exterior moment frame joints with beam reinforcement that terminates in headed
deformed bars (Figure courtesy ACI)

8.9 Section 18.9 – Special moment frames constructed using precast concrete
The underlying philosophy of the provisions for precast concrete Special moment frames is
that precast moment frames should emulate all respects of the behavior of cast -in-place frames.
That is, there should be no difference in the seismic response of the two types of moment frames.
Prescriptive requirements for Special precast moment frames are outlined in sections 18.9.2.1
and 18.9.2.2. Special precast moment frames that do not comply with these prescriptive
provisions are permitted, provided the precast moment frames comply with section 18.9.2.3.
Section 18.9.2.3 cites the testing protocols for precast moment frames contained in the report
6
ACI 374.1 , as well as other requirements for similarities between the precast moment frames
that are tested and the precast moment frames that are designed.

8.10 Section 18.10 – Special structural walls

Possibly the most common concrete lateral-force-resisting system used for mid-rise and high-
rise buildings in regions of high seismicity in the United States is the Special structural wall. The
provisions governing the design of Special structural walls in ACI 318 -14 have been developed
on the basis of extensive laboratory testing and field observations. These provisions cover not
only the design of the walls themselves, but also the design of wall piers within the walls.

Section 18.10.2 states that the minimum reinforcement ratio for vertical and horizontal web
reinforcement (reinforcement within the central region of the wall) is 0.0025, unless the factored
shear stress in the wall is less than 0.083√f’c (MPa), which is not common. The maximum
spacing of both vertical and horizontal reinforcement is 450 mm. Two curtains of reinforcement
are required in all Special structural walls when the factored shear stress is greater than 0.17√ f’c
(MPa), or if the ratio of the overall height of the wall to the overall width of the wall is greater than
or equal to 2.0. As a practical matter, virtually all Special structural walls have two curtains of
reinforcement. Longitudinal flexural reinforcement shall extend at least 0.8 times the overall
width of the wall above the point where it is no longer needed. In locations where it is likely that
longitudinal flexural reinforcement will yield under earthquake loading, the development lengths
are computed for a bar stress of fy, and that length is increased by a factor of 1.25.

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 Andrew W. Taylor

In Section 18.10.4.1, the overall nominal shear strength of a wall, Vn, shall not be greater than

Vn = Acv(αcλ√f’c + ρtfy) ACI 318-14 Equation 18.10.4.1

where Acv is the concrete shear area of the wall, αc is a factor that varies between 0.17 and 0.25,
depending on the height-to-width ratio of the wall, λ is a factor to account for lightweight concrete,
ρt is the reinforcement ratio for transverse (horizontal) shear reinforcement, and fy is the yield
stress of the shear reinforcement.

For vertical wall segments that resist a common lateral force, (e.g. the two piers formed by an
opening at the center of a wall), the shear strength Vn may not be taken as greater than
0.66Acv√f’c, and for any individual wall segment, Vn may not be taken as greater than
0.83Acw √f’c. These limits are intended to prevent the formation of highly-loaded diagonal
compression struts in vertical wall segments that could fail in a brittle manner. For horizontal wall
segments and coupling beams, Vn may not be taken as greater than 0.83Acw √f’c. Figure 9 below
illustrates a vertical wall segment and a horizontal wall segment.

Figure 9: Vertical and horizontal wall segments (ACI 318-14 Figure R18.10.4.5)

Regarding design for flexure and axial force, section 8.10.5 specifies that the provisions of
section 22.4 “Axial strength or combined flexural and axial strength” shall be followed. Effective
flange widths are to be included in the cross-section analyzed. Effective flange widths are
generally taken as extending “...from the face of the web a distance equal to the lesser of one -
half the distance to an adjacent wall web and 25 percent of the total wall height,” (section
18.10.5.2) unless a more detailed analysis is performed to determine effective flange widths.

Arguably the most important portions of a Special structural wall are the so-called “special
boundary elements” at the ends of the wall. These are wall zones that are reinforced with
confining reinforcement details that enable the boundary zones to undergo multiple cycles of
compression and tension in the inelastic range with minimal degradation of strength. The rules
for proportioning and detailing boundary elements are detailed and complex: se ction 18.10.6
extends over five pages of the Code. Rather than attempting to explain all of these provisions,
the remarks on special boundary zones in this paper will be limited to a discussion of basic
principles.

First, special boundary elements are not necessarily required over the entire height of a wall,
and in some cases they are not required at all. The rules for determining where special boundary
elements are required are stated in sections 18.10.6.2 and 18.10.6.3. In 18.10.6.2, special
boundary elements are required where the neutral axis depth, c, exceeds a specified value.
Alternatively, in 18.10.6.3, special boundary elements are required where the extreme fibre
compressive stress exceeds 0.2f’c.

Reinforcement detailing of special boundary elements is addressed in section 18.10.6.4. The

underlying purpose of these details is to confine the core concrete in the boundary element, and
to reduce buckling of longitudinal reinforcing bars. Section 18.10.6.5 provides rules for detailing
the portions of Special structural walls where special boundary elements are not required by

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 Andrew W. Taylor

18.10.6.2 and 18.10.6.3. These detailing rules are less stringent than the rules for detailing
special boundary elements.

Coupling beams, which typically provide interaction between two or more Special structural
walls, are governed by section 18.10.7. Because the inelastic response in coupled walls subject
to strong earthquake shaking is mainly concentrated in the coupling beams, the provisions
governing the reinforcement detailing of coupling beams are aimed at preserving the ductile
behavior of the beams under multiple inelastic cycles. Because coupling beams are subjected to
high shear demands, some of the detailing provisions in 18.10.7 are intended t o limit the flexural
capacity of coupling beams: high flexural capacity drives up shear loads, which could hasten
shear failure. The confinement of the concrete core of a coupling beam is paramount to the
longevity of the beam over multiple inelastic cycles. Therefore, detailed rules for confining
reinforcement are provided in section 18.10.7.4. Two examples of acceptable methods for
confining coupling beams are shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10: Two methods of detailing confining reinforcement for coupling beams (adapted from
ACI 318-14 Figure R18.10.7)

It is common in structural walls for openings in the walls to form relatively narrow piers within
the wall. These are known as “wall piers” in ACI 318-14. The definition of a wall pier appears in
Chapter 2. This definition is reproduced below, and an example of a wall pier is shown in Figure
11.

Figure 11: Wall pier, as illustrated in ACI 318-14 Figure R18.10.8

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 Andrew W. Taylor

Detailing provisions for design of wall piers are contained in section 18.10.8. Figure 11 above
illustrates the requirement for supplemental reinforcement to transfer horizontal shear forces from
the top and bottom of an exterior wall pier into the adjacent portions of the wall. In addition, it
should be noted that, according to 18.10.10, columns that support discontinuous shear walls must
be detailed with additional transverse reinforcement, as described in 18.7.5.6.

8.11 Section 18.11 – Special structural walls constructed using precast concrete
Precast Special structural walls must satisfy the same requirements as cast -in-place structural
walls, as set forth in section 18.10, “Special structural walls,” as well as the bas ic provisions for
Intermediate precast structural walls in section 18.5.2. One type of Special precast structural wall
that is permitted by this section is a wall constructed using unbonded post -tensioning tendons.
Such walls must be designed using a protocol that is developed in accordance with the ACI
7
acceptance criteria ACI ITG-5.1 .

8.12 Section 18.12 – Diaphragms and trusses

This section applies to all diaphragms and structural trusses that are part of the lateral-force-
resisting system in the higher Seismic Design Categories (SDC) D, E, and F. This section
carefully describes the general requirement for a continuous load path in diaphragms, from the
diaphragm, through connectors (if any), through collectors, and into the lateral-force-resisting
system.

Sections 18.12.4 through 18.12.6 address cast-in-place composite and noncomposite topping
slab diaphragms, as well as minimum diaphragm thickness. Section 18.12.7 describes the
requirements for reinforcement in diaphragms. This includes minimum r einforcement content,
maximum spacing, and arrangement of welded wire reinforcement. Bonded prestressing tendons
may be used as reinforcement in diaphragms, provided the design stress in these tendons under
seismic loads does not exceed 420 MPa. An important provision related to unbonded
prestressing tendons is that pre-compression provided by unbonded tendons can be used to
resist diaphragm seismic design forces. In other words, slabs that are post -tensioned with
unbonded tendons can, in some cases, be designed with reduced levels of non-prestressed
deformed bars because of the pre-compression forces provided by the unbonded tendons.

When mechanical couplers are used to splice reinforcement that transfer s seismic forces to
the lateral-force-resisting system, those couplers must be Type 2 (i.e. the coupler must be
capable of developing the full tensile strength of the coupled bars). When a collector element
resists a compression stress greater than 0.2f’c, the collector element must be detailed with
transverse reinforcement similar to a column.

The requirements for detailing the longitudinal reinforcement of collector elements at splices
and anchorage zones are described in section 18.12.7.6. Experience has shown that these
requirements are sometimes not met in actual design and construction practice. In particular, the
provisions governing the minimum center-to-center spacing of bars (three bar diameters, but not
less than 38 mm) and minimum concrete cover (2.5 bar diameters, but not less than 51 mm ) can
present practical challenges.

In 18.12.9.1 the nominal shear strength of a diaphragm is specified to be

Vn = Acv(0.17λ√f’c + ρtfy) ACI 318-14 Equation 18.12.9.1

where the symbols have the same meaning as in Equation 18.10.4.1 presented earlier for walls.
For calculation of the shear strength of diaphragms constructed with precast elements and a
topping slab, it is important to distinguish between diaphragms with composite topping slabs and
diaphragms with non-composite topping slabs. For the former Acv is calculated including both the
precast diaphragm thickness and the topping thickness; for the latter, Acv is calculated including
only the thickness of the topping slab. In addition, care should be taken when computing the
shear strength of diaphragms at the joints between precast elements, as describe d in 18.12.9.3
and 18.12.9.4.

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 Andrew W. Taylor

Although true structural trusses constructed of reinforced concrete are rare, ACI 318 -14
provides basic guidance on the design of trusses in section 18.12.11. The primary rules are that
truss elements with high compressive loads must contain lateral reinf orcement similar to that
found in columns, and all continuous reinforcement in trusses must be developed or spliced with
details that will develop the yield stress of the reinforcement, fy.

8.13 Section 18.13 – Foundations

The foundation provisions in Chapter 18 of ACI 318-14 address both shallow foundations
(footings, foundation mats, pile caps, grade beams, and slabs-on-ground that transmit earthquake
forces) and deep foundations: (piles, piers, and caissons).

It is unfortunate that code provisions for the design of deep foundations appear not only in ACI
3 4
318-14, but also in the 2015 IBC and ASCE 7-10 . In some cases the provisions from these
three documents are inconsistent or incomplete. An effort is under way to coordinate the
provisions found in all three documents, with the objective of creating a single set of provisions
for deep concrete foundations that would reside only in the ACI 318 Code. This may be
accomplished with the 2019 edition of ACI 318-19.

8.14 Section 18.14 – Members not designated as part of the seismic-force-resisting system
This section focuses on the design of structural elements that are not considered part of the
lateral-force-resisting system, but which nonetheless are affected by the (primarily lateral)
deflections that occur in the structure as it responds to an earthquake. Throughout Chapter 18
rules are put in place to ensure the ductile response of all yielding elements of the lateral -force-
resisting system. Such safeguards, however, are not necessarily provided in ot her chapters of
ACI 318 for elements of the gravity-load-supporting system which must deform laterally along
with the lateral-force-resisting system. It is sometimes said that the gravity-load-supporting
elements of the structure must “go along for the ride” with the lateral-force-resisting system. The
purpose of Section 18.14 is to lay out rules for reinforcement detailing of gravity -load-supporting
elements that will render those members compatible with lateral deformations imposed by
seismic loading.

Section 18.14 applies only to structures in Seismic Design Category D, E, or F. Seismic

deformations of gravity-load-supporting elements in buildings with Seismic Design Category A, B,
or C are deemed to be small enough that supplementary seismic detailin g is not required for
gravity-load-supporting elements.

Section 18.14 applies to the following elements of the gravity-load-supporting system:

columns, beams, joints, slabs, and wall piers. The method for assessing the behavior of these
gravity-load-supporting elements under seismic deformations is unique to this section. These
elements are evaluated under the combined displacement δu (the lateral design displacement)
and the gravity load combination 1.2D + 1.0L + 0.2S or the gravity load combination 0.9D. (In the
first load combination 1.0L may be taken as 0.5L, except for garages, areas occupied as places
2
of public assembly and all areas where L is greater than 4.8 kN/m ).

For cast-in-place beams, columns, and joints, when the applied displacements and loads do
not cause the shears and moments in an element to exceed the design shear or moment
strength, certain reinforcement detailing rules are required which result in higher levels of
reinforcement, particularly lateral reinforcement, than if the elemen t were subjected to gravity
loads alone. The provisions for this additional reinforcement are found in 18.14.3.2. If the
applied displacement and loads do exceed the design shear or moment strength of an element,
then a different set of detailing rules applies. These rules are contained in 18.14.3.3. For precast
beams and columns, yet another set of rules applies, as described in 18.14.4. Slab -column
connections are addressed in 18.14.5, and wall piers in 18.14.6.

9 TRENDS TO ANTICIPATE IN ACI 318-19

Since 2015, work has been under way on the next edition of the ACI 318 Code, ACI 318 -19.
This version of the Code will maintain the new organizational format introduced with the 2014

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Code, but as with every new edition of the Code, technical changes will be introduced to reflect
recent advances in research and practice. The ACI 318-19 Code committee has not yet
completed its work, but it is anticipated that the ACI 318-19 Code will be published in mid-2019.
Following are some of the general areas that have received discussion in the open meetings of
the ACI 318-19 committee.

 Reinforcement detailing provisions for special reinforced concrete lateral force

resisting systems.
 Design of one-way and two-way concrete slabs
 Provisions for concrete foundations
 Design of precast concrete diaphragms
 General provisions for detailing of reinforcement
 Provisions for shear design

It is too early to determine if any of the subjects listed above will in fact be affected by
changes; final adoption of changes to the Code will be determined by committee ballot, and the
public comment period that will likely take place in late 2018 or early 2019. This public comment
period will be announced on the ACI web site.

10 PERFORMANCE BASED SEISMIC DESIGN

Performance based seismic design (PBSD) is an approach to earthquake engineering that has
grown steadily in prominence over the last 30 years. Today, many major buildings and facilities
in regions of high seismicity in the United States are designed eithe r wholly or partially using
elements of the PBSD philosophy. Although ACI 318-14 does not directly address PBSD
methods, it is a topic worth mentioning here, since the trend worldwide appears to be towards
more frequent use of PBSD in practice and in building codes. For example, the current United
8
States code for seismic evaluation and rehabilitation of existing buildings, ASCE 41 , is structured
almost entirely around a PBSD philosophy.

Briefly stated, PBSD involves pairing selected levels of seismic hazard with desired levels of
seismic performance. Often, seismic hazard is expressed in terms of the probability of
exceedence of a certain event within a specific time period. For example one might specify the
maximum considered earthquake for design as the event with a 2 percent probability of
exceedence in any 50 year period, or a 10 percent probability of exceedence in any 50 year
period. These two events have mean recurrence intervals of approximately 2475 years and 475
years, respectively. Similarly, levels of seismic performance can be defined many different ways.
Commonly used levels of seismic performance adopted in PBSD include Operational, Immediate
Occupancy, Life Safety, and Collapse Prevention. The definitions of these performance levels
vary from project to project, but listed below in Figure 12 are examples of definitions that might be
considered typical.

When the seismic hazards are combined with the seismic performance levels, we obtain a
seismic performance matrix, an example of which is shown in Figure 1 3. Within the context of
this figure, one can define a number of different PBSD objectives. These are indicated by the
diagonal lines in Figure 13. For example, “Code Level” performance might be defined as the
lowest diagonal line, where the seismic performance goal is “Life Safety” in a “Rare” earthquake
(sometimes defined as the 475 year event). It can also be seen that for the “Code Level” line one
would expect “Collapse Prevention” performance in a “Very Rare” earthquake (sometimes defined
as the 2475 year event). Other PBSD objectives could be “Enhanced Level Performance” or
“Exceptional Performance” as shown by the other two diagonal lines in Figure 1 3. It is important
to understand that neither the PBSD performance levels, or the seismic hazard levels, have been
defined in the IBC, ASCE 7, or ACI 318. Instead, these design objectives are usually agreed
upon on a project-by-project basis, through cooperation of the project owner, architect, engineer,
and building official. Often times projects designed using PBSD are required by the building
official to undergo an engineering peer review. This is a process in which an independent
engineer, or panel of engineers, reviews and reaches consensus with the project engineer on the
analysis and design approach adopted to achieve the stated PBSD goals.

18

Collapse Prevention Level
Overall Damage Severe
Personnel Safety Major injuries or deaths
Structural Frame Structural frame is near collapse.
Cladding Extensive loss of cladding.
Windows Extensive broken windows.
Doors Extensive jamming of doors and
blocking of exits.
Walls Extensive damage to walls, many not
repairable.
Mechanical and Electrical Systems Extensive damage of mechanical and
electrical systems, not repairable.
Elevators Extensive damage of elevators, not
repairable.
Computers and Data Storage Extensive damage, not repairable.
Sensitive Equipment Extensive damage, not repairable.
Figure 12: Examples of PBSD performance levels
Andrew W. Taylor
Life Safety Level
Moderate
Minor injuries
Structural frame is permanently
damaged and may not be repairable.
Damage to cladding, but cladding
remains on building.
Cladding may have to be replaced.
A few windows may be broken.
Some doors jammed.
No exits blocked.
Extensive damage to walls, many not
repairable.
Moderate damage of mechanical and
electrical systems.
May not be repairable.
Extensive damage of elevators, may be Moderate damage of elevators.
repairable.
Extensive damage, may not be
repairable.
Extensive damage, not repairable.
Figure 13: PBSD matrix
19
Immediate Occupancy Level Operational Level
Light Very Light
Minor injuries No injuries
Minor, repairable damage to Minor or no damage to structural
structural frame. frame.
Does not interfere with immediate Since repair is not required, operations
use, but may interfere with long-term are not interrupted.
use.
Minor cladding damage. Little or no cladding damage.
Does not interfere with immediate Operations not interrupted for repair.
operations, but may require future
repair or replacement.
Minor or no window damage. No window damage.
Some doors jammed. No jamming of doors.
Requires immediate repair.
Minor damage to walls. Little or no damage to walls.
Requires repair in future. Operations not interrupted for repair.
Minor damage of mechanical and No damage to mechanical and
electrical systems. electrical systems.
Repairable in 24 hours or less if repair Operations continue uninterrupted.
services are available. Power and utilities available from
Power and utilities may be auxiliary sources.
unavailable.
Elevators functional.
May not be functional for several
days, if repair services are not
available.
Minor damage, requiring repairs. Fully functional.
Data may be lost. No loss of data.
Down time depends on availability of
repair services.
Moderate damage, requiring repairs. No damage to sensitive equipment.
Experiments lost.
Down time depends on availability of
parts and repair services.
 Andrew W. Taylor

11 CONCLUSION
This paper has presented an review of the seismic analysis and design provisions in the ACI
318-14 Building Code. The overall seismic design philosophy of the ACI 318 Code has been
explored, and specific design provisions for various lateral-force-resisting systems have been
presented. It is hoped that this summary will serve as a useful gu ide to practicing engineers, as
well providing a roadmap for architects, building officials, and building owners who wish to obtain
an overall understanding of the seismic provisions set forth in ACI 318-14.

REFERENCES
1
ACI 318, 100 Years of ACI Building Code Requirements, American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Hills, Michigan (2014).
2
ACI 318, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-14) and Commentary (ACI
318-14R), American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan (2014).
3
IBC-15, International Building Code, International Code Council, Country Club Hills, Illinois (2015).
4
ASCE 7-10, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, American Society of Civil
Engineers, Reston, Virginia (2010).
5
FEMA 451B, NEHRP Recommended Provisions for New Buildings and Other Structures: Training
and Instructional Materials, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, D.C., (June
2006).
6
ACI 374.1-05, Acceptance Criteria for Moment Frames Based on Structural Testing and
Commentary (Reapproved 2014), American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan (2014).
7
ACI ITG-5.1-07, Acceptance Criteria for Special Unbonded Post-Tensioned Precast Structural Walls
Based on Validation Testing and Commentary, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
Michigan (2007).
8
ASCE 41-13, ”Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit of Existing Buildings (41-13), American Society of
Civil Engineers, Reston, Virginia (2013).

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