Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
4 letters
6 upfront
Emerging issues
14 SA hopes to answer big questions around the impact of small
science
18 Aquatic ecosystems
The hunt’s afoot for Kruger’s amphibians in new kiss-and-tell study
Water history
22 Olifants River – home to one of South Africa’s oldest irrigation
schemes
31 Riparian habitat
The fall and fall of Mapungubwe’s riverine forest
34 Agriculture
WRC tools help farmers improve efficiency, cut costs
36 Water personalities
The ripple effect: Liani and Maria are cycling for change
Capacity building
43
magazine on water and water research
published by the South African Water Capacity building
Research Commission (WRC), a Growing Africa’s future water leaders
statutory organisation established in
1971 by Act of Parliament.
Subscription is free. Material in this 44 Water kidz
How much water did you have today?
46
publication does not necessarily reflect
the considered opinions of the mem- Last Word
bers of the WRC, and may be copied CSIR showcases its science
with acknowledgement of source.
ISSN 0258-2244 September/October 2010 Volume 9 No 5
Editorial offices:
Water Research Commission, Private
Bag X03, Gezina, 0031, Republic of
South Africa.
Cover: The debate is raging over the benefits
Tel (012) 330-0340. Fax (012) 331-2565.
versus the risks of nanotechnology. See page 14.
WRC Internet address: Cover illustration by Ralf Broemer.
http://www.wrc.org.za
Editor: Lani van Vuuren,
E-mail: laniv@wrc.org.za;
Editorial Secretary: Mmatsie Masekoa,
E-mail: mmatsiem@wrc.org.za;
Nano debate: Revolution or risk?
Layout: Drinie van Rensburg,
E-mail: driniev@wrc.org.za
The Water Wheel September/October 2010 3
Letters
T he team producing the Water Wheel for a small canal to supply water to the Engineering at UOFS) and Dries van der drastically. Although it was very late, the
magazine deserves a jolly big pat Rama area. Merwe (soil scientist in the OFS region authorities this time at least listened to
on the back. The magazine contents are No soil surveys were done before or at Glen). The Pretoria delegates included soil scientists and adapted the planning
interesting, well written, informative during the planning stage of the Orange Dr SJ du Plessis, Deputy-Secretary of the accordingly. Unfortunately this is seldom
and of a very high quality. The layout and River scheme to determine how much Department of Agricultural Technical Ser- the case, not only in South Africa. An
presentation is superb and very profes- irrigable land there was in the envisaged vices, Mr Kriel, Secretary of the Depart- unused canal section south from the
sional. I particularly enjoy the articles irrigated areas and where these irrigable ment of Water Affairs, Mr Du Plessis, Chief Vanderkloof Dam which was built
on the history of dams and readers’ soils were. Soil surveys were conducted Planning Engineer of the Department of prematurely at a cost of about R2-million
comments. only when the Gariep Dam was already Water Affairs, and others. It was pointed (a lot of money at the time) is still a silent
Having been involved in hydrology being constructed. When soil surveys out to the delegation that the extent ‘monument’ for what could have been a
for some 41 years now, I find the various eventually started in the northern Karoo, of irrigable soils south of the river was major disaster.
articles on climate change and global close to where the Vanderkloof Dam was extremely limited, but that there were It can safely be said that Roelf Burger,
warming intriguing as many theories to be built, it soon became clear that large blocks of irrigable soils north of the through his unwaivering courage and
exist, resulting in our renowned scientists there were extremely little irrigable soils river, especially in the Plooysburg area. perseverance saved the country from an
occasionally being at loggerheads with in the area. There were only a few small The day of tough discussions was fol- economic, agricultural and ecological
each other, often leaving readers amused areas near Hopetown. lowed by a site visit on the Friday. I could disaster.
and sometimes confused. More of this The findings by the young soil scien- not join the visit because of lecturing To date there has been no large-scale
please. tists doing the survey led to great drama. duties. As I left the Agriculture building irrigation development on the irrigable
You can truly be proud of an outstand- They started contacting Prof Roelof the afternoon Skroef arrived full of smiles. areas identified north of the Orange
ing publication. Keep up the excellent du Toit (Roelf or “Tuffy”) Burger, then He told me that before 10:00 the morning River. According to the PhD thesis of Dr
work. Head of the Department of Soil Dr Du Plessis told his advisors that they Koos Eloff (1984) these amount to about
Felix Wulff, Pretoria Science at the University of the Orange had misled him. 370 000 ha, of which about 160 000 ha
Free State, informing him of their find- The next week it was announced that are in the Plooysburg area. Only a few
ings. They knew that he had the strength it was decided to postpone the construc- small areas have since been developed.
Why ORP was never
of character to take this up strongly and tion of the Vanderkloof Dam due to ‘infla- In 2009, a senior Water Affairs engineer
expanded clearly with the authorities in Pretoria, tion’. The fact is that the dam, especially told me that there is presently no water
which he did repeatedly. He invariably the outlets, had to be redesigned and available for development of these large
of irrigable soils south of the river and record. The NASA Goddard Institute was selected in consultation with are interested in the answers to the
these were developed or if large areas for Space Studies has found that the Royal Society. It consisted of professor’s questions, there is plenty of
north of the river were developed earlier. global surface temperatures have scientists from Cambridge, Imperial information available. The New Scientist
Ironically there is thus presently not a lack increased significantly since the late College, MIT, University of Arizona has a series “Climate change: A guide
of irrigable land in the central parts of the 1970s. These findings (and many and ETH (Swiss Federal Institute of for the perplexed” and The Scientific
country, just a lack of water. others) vindicate the “hockey stick” Technology, Zürich). Its conclusions American has published “Seven Answers
Prof Giel Laker, Pretoria graph mentioned in his letter. were even more emphatic. According to Climate Contrarian Nonsense”. Both
to the panel’s chairman, they found are easily found on the internet.
Climate change – reader 4 The European winter of 2009/2010 “absolutely no evidence of any Rob Dyer, Durban
provides some answers was one of the coldest on record. impropriety whatsoever”, and
This is not a serious argument against concluded that the allegations had Prof Will Alexander
P rofessor Alexander’s letter in the global warming. Firstly, there is no been made by people “who do not responds:
May/June edition of the Water Wheel evidence that average global tem- like the implications of some of the
C
(Climate Change – More Questions than peratures were cooler than normal, conclusions” reached by CRU. limate change scientists have three
Answers) is a defense of his argument and secondly, climate is a long-term fundamental obligations. First, they
that there is no need to take measures phenomenon. Climate has been 6 The International Panel on Climate have to determine the natural conditions.
to mitigate against climate change. confused with weather. Change (IPCC) has been publishing Second, they have to determine the
In support of his position, he makes a false information to support its posi- departure from these conditions if no
number of points, none of which carry 5 Scientists at East Anglia University’s tion on AGW. action is taken to control greenhouse gas
serious weight: Climate Research Unit have been These are errors in how the panel’s emissions. Third, they have to determine
manipulating the evidence that findings have been communicated, the reduction in the undesirable conse-
1 His research has shown no indication supposedly points to anthropogenic and have no bearing on the quences if these emissions are controlled.
of significant changes to rainfall (human induced) global warming underlying science. To label them as These three responses have to be a
trends in South Africa. (AGW). “fraudulent activities” is ridiculous. numerical format in order to facilitate
Professor Alexander’s interpretation of Professor Alexander’s account of What they indicate is that the IPCC mitigation and adaptation procedures.
his own research has been challenged this episode is highly selective, should exclude non-scientific sources The procedures in turn require the
by South African climatologists. But focusing on the media headlines for information in its reports and cooperation of those of us in the applied
whatever the interpretation, rainfall quoting a few fragments of the improve its editing procedures. and engineering sciences.
in South Africa is but a tiny element many thousands of e-mails released Sadly, climate change scientists refuse
of the global climate. It cannot on its by the hackers. He omits crucial The IPCC’s reports reflect the scientific to consider inputs from those of us in the
own be used to judge whether climate information on subsequent inquiries consensus that anthropogenic global other disciplines. I have yet to see this
models are accurate. into the matter: In January 2009 the warming is happening now. This view is information in a climate change publica-
Science and Technology Committee supported by the large majority of scien- tion. The absence of this information sup-
2 Rainfall trends elsewhere in the world of the British House of Commons tific institutions across the world. These ports my view that there is no need for
similarly show no evidence of climate announced an inquiry and called for include the US National Academy of Sci- concern regarding climate change until
change. submissions. The concerns expressed ences, the UK Met Office, the American such time that this information has been
This is simply incorrect. For example, by the three scientific institutions Association for the Advancement of Sci- produced, verified and distributed.
Australian researchers have found a mentioned by Dr Alexander formed ence, the American Geophysical Union, The following are the responses to Rob
link between surface sea tempera- part of their submissions to the the American Institute of Physics and Dyer’s comments.
ture changes in the Indian Ocean inquiry. The inquiry report was the American Meteorological Society.
and off Indonesia to the significant released at the end of March. It Virtually all peer reviewed climato- 1 Rainfall is the dominant concern glo
decline in rainfall in South East cleared the scientists of all serious logical research on climate change also bally as well as in South Africa. Without
Australia since 1950. NASA has found allegations. On the integrity of the supports this consensus. it there would be no life on this planet.
a link between drought in East Africa scientists, the inquiry found that The implications of the consensus are If the model outputs predict a drier
since 1980 and higher Indian Ocean “the scientific reputation of Professor that the risk of rapid global warming is climate when the opposite is the case,
temperatures. Jones and CRU remains intact”. On very high, and that the consequences then they are obviously inaccurate.
the actual climate science, it found of this are likely to be catastrophic for
3 There has been no significant increase that “the controversy did not chal- human society. In attempting to refute 2 There is no evidence of a decrease in
in global temperatures over the past lenge the scientific consensus that the scientific consensus, Professor Alex- South African rainfall during the past
few decades. ‘global warming is happening and ander has focused on media headlines 100 years despite increasing global
Again, the scientific evidence is to the that it is induced by human activity”. and has regrettably made unfounded temperatures and emissions. This
contrary. The UK Met Office recently A more detailed inquiry into the attacks on the integrity on fellow scien- demonstrates that there is a funda-
published a report indicating that conduct of the researchers was tists at the University of East Anglia. mental error in the basic theory.
global temperatures have risen 0.75° set up by the University, led by an For any readers who are concerned
over the last 100 years, with 2000 to international team of scientists. The about the risk that global warming 3 The hockey stick growth has been totally
2009 being the warmest decade on “CRU Scientific Assessment Panel” poses to future generations, and who discredited. It is based on studies of tree
M inister of Water & Environmental in eight of the country’s nine provinces. managed forests, energy use and carbon healthy competition within the paper
Affairs, Buyelwa Sonjica, together The grasslands biome is one of the most dioxide emissions, water consumption industry as to who can achieve the light-
with eight MECs responsible for environ- threatened biomes in South Africa, with and water pollution. est footprint,” noted Karjalainen.
mental affairs have signed the Grasslands 30% of grasslands irreversibly trans- Five globally significant fine paper Results and profiles of the participat-
Declaration committing government formed and only 1,9% of the biodiversity manufacturers, including Mondi Group ing companies can be found at www.
to the conservation of grasslands target for the biome formally conserved. from South Africa, have been the first to panda.org/PaperCompanyIndex.
biodiversity. According to Sonjica, grasslands
The Declaration is an effort to collabo- sustain the economic heartland of South Are protected areas harbouring
rate in good faith to pursue biodiversity Africa by providing the bulk of its water.
targets and objectives in securing and “Several of South Africa’s priority river invasive species?
sustaining the ecosystem services of the catchments occur in the grasslands biome,
grasslands biome. Among others, it com-
mits government to take active measures
including the Thukela River catchment.
Good management of South Africa’s P rotected areas, long thought of as
safe refuges for animals and plants,
are under increasing threat from invasive
ecosystems, the biggest single threat to
biodiversity. In Zambia, for example, the
Giant Mimosa (Mimosa pigra), originally
to involve stakeholders in the manage- mountain grasslands will result in more
ment and conservation of biodiversity of water being released back into the river alien species, which not only affect biodi- alien to Africa, has spread over 3 000 ha
grasslands. catchment system in the form of 12,8 m3 of versity but also people’s livelihoods. of prime habitat since being introduced to
The South African grasslands biome water in winter river flows. In Rand value, Protected areas can have huge social the Kafue floodplain in the 1980s, pushing
is the second-largest in South Africa, this equates to between R18-milion and and economic value, particularly in Africa, out many large and important aquatic
covering an area of 339 237 km2. It occurs R788,7-million per annum.” where national parks are a major tourist antelopes, water birds, reptiles, amphib-
attraction and a significant source of ians, fish, invertebrates and plants from
income. But according to the Global Inva- their natural habitat.
Biodiversity climbing the sive Species Programme, many managers Mesquite (Prosopis juliflora) is one of
of protected areas in Africa are not aware the most widespread dryland invasive
corporate agenda – study of the severity of the problem which is on species in north and east Africa having
their doorsteps nor how to address it. already invaded 500 000 and 700 000 ha
reservoir-dwelling C. venusta, commonly of rivers and reservoir sites in the Mobile River
known as the blacktail shiner, are smaller Basin in Alabama. He found that the charac-
heads, lower-set eyes, a shorter dorsal fin teristics of shiners from reservoirs diverged
A more flexible approach to the more of their original extent protected,” positioned closer to the head and deeper consistently from those in rivers. This indicates
expansion of protected area systems Fuller noted. “We can do this if we bodies. that water impoundment – constructing
could ultimately protect much more reverse the protection status of the least “The public hears that dams do things dams – may be an evolutionary driver acting
biodiversity for the same budget. cost-effective sites and use the resulting like prevent salmon from migrating on aquatic biodiversity.
This is according to a paper in scientific capital to establish and manage new
journal, Nature. Lead author Dr Richard protected areas.” New conservation plans for
Fullor of the University of Queensland,
in Australia, said that without spending
Fuller and his co-authors, includ-
ing colleagues from CSIRO and the
endangered wetland bird
extra money “we could dramatically University of Queensland, acknowledge
improve the performance of protected
area systems by replacing a small number
that community values would need
to be incorporated when consider-
N ew conservation plans for the
Siberian Crane (Grus leucogeranus)
covering its entire range and migration
Global Environment Facility, government
officials, scientists and conservationists
are coming together to adopt strategies
of poor performing areas with more cost- ing changes to the protected status
routes that span continents have now to reduce hunting, improve water
effective ones.” of selected reserves. However, the
been endorsed to save the species from management and mitigate the impact of
Protected areas are one of the most benefits of reducing management costs
extinction. climate change.
important tools in modern nature conser- in low performing areas are also worth
During its annual migration, the Among others, loss of wetland
vation, with over 100 000 sites covering exploring.
Siberian Crane travels 5 000 km from its habitats is a major threat to the Siberian
about 12% of the land and territorial By being informed by this analysis
breeding grounds in Yakutia and western Crane. Water management for wetland
waters of countries worldwide. The paper method, future investments in protected
Siberia, intermediate resting and feeding areas is therefore crucial. Agriculture use,
examines how effectively different sites areas could better protect biodiversity
places, to its wintering sites in southern diversion of water resources and channels
can conserve a range of vegetation types. from threats such as climate change. “As
China and Iran respectively. During these have resulted in severe shortages at the
“Replacing the least cost-effective the rate of investment in new protected
extensive journeys along three migration birds’ critical habitats. This mismanage-
1% of Australia’s 6 990 strictly protected areas has slowed globally in recent years
routes, called flyways, they overcome ment is enhanced by climate change,
areas could more than double the number ensuring the best places are protected is
considerable obstacles such as high intensifying pressure on the species.
of vegetation types that have 15% or more important than ever.”
mountains and vast deserts. Major threats At present, plans are being prepared
like hunting in West and Central Asia and to improve water resource management
the drainage of critical wetlands in East at sites such as the Thanedar Wala Game
Water on Asia put them at even greater risk. Only Reserve and the Taunsa Barrage, both
S
according to a study in simple filtration,” notes Colwell. afe and clean drinking water and humans with malaria is providing new
Bangladesh. The researchers also looked at the sanitation is a human right essential hope to countries where millions of
Using the simple sari incidence of cholera in households during to the full enjoyment of life and all other people die from the disease each year.
to filter household water the follow-up period. While not statistically human rights, the General Assembly of University of Arizona (UA) ento-
protects not only the significant, they found the incidence of the United Nations (UN) has declared. mologists, who created the mosquitoes
household from cholera, hospitalisation for cholera during the The 192-member Assembly also called which are completely immune to the
but reduces the incidence five-year period between studies reduced on UN member states and international malaria parasite, Plasmodium, aim to
of disease in neighbouring households by 25%. “With the lower rate of filtration organisations to offer funding, technol- one day replace wild mosquitoes with
that do not filter. “During an earlier study, in this follow-up study, it is not surprising ogy and other resources to help poorer lab-bred populations unable to act as
this filtering method was field tested in that the observed reduction in disease countries scale up their efforts to provide vectors. “If you want to effectively stop
Matlab, Bangladesh, and proved to reduce was not as high as the 48% observed in clean, accessible and affordable drinking the spreading of the malaria parasite,
the incidence of cholera by 48%. This the original trial, suggesting that active water and sanitation to all. The text of the you need mosquitoes that are 100%
latest follow-up study, conducted five reinforcement would have been effective in latest resolution expressed deep concern resistant to it. If a single parasite slips
years later to see whether filtering by sari ensuring higher protection,” says Colwell. that an estimated 884-million people lack through and infects a human, the
has persisted, showed that nearly a third Researchers also found an indirect access to safe drinking water and more whole approach will be doomed to fail,”
of the village women continued to filter benefit. Household that did not filter their than 2,6 billion people do not have access says Prof Michael Riehle of the UA’s Col-
water for their households, with both water, but were located in neighbour- to basic sanitation. Studies also indicate lege of Agriculture and Life Sciences,
an expected and unexpected benefit,” hoods where water filtration was regu- that about 1,5 million children under the who led the research effort.
explains Rita Colwell of the University of larly practiced by others also had a lower age of five die each year and 443 million Riehle’s team used molecular biol-
Maryland, a researcher on the study. incidence of cholera. “Results of this study school days are lost because of water- and ogy techniques to design a piece of
Over 7 000 village women collecting showed that the practice of filtration not sanitation-related diseases. genetic information capable of insert-
water daily for their households in only was accepted and sustained by the ing itself into a mosquito’s genome.
Bangladesh were selected from the same villagers but also benefited those who This construct was then injected into
population used in the previous study. filtered their water, as well as their neigh- the eggs of the mosquitoes. The emerg-
Survey data showed that 31% continued bours not filtering water for household ing generation carries the altered
to filter their water, of which 60% used use, in reducing the incidence of cholera,” genetic information and passes it on
a sari. “This is a clear indication of both concludes Colwell. to future generations. For their experi-
ments, the scientists used Anopheles
stephensi, a mosquito species that is an
Waterborne diseases could cost US over $500-m a year important malaria vector through the
Indian subcontinent.
When the researchers studied the
H ospitalisations for three common
waterborne diseases cost the American
healthcare system as much as US$539-mil-
Beach and his colleagues estimated the
hospitalisation cost of three common
waterborne diseases in the US, namely
rhoea, which is a nuisance but quickly goes
away. However, these infections can cause
severe illness that often result in hospital
genetically modified mosquitoes after
feeding them malaria-infested blood,
they noticed that the Plasmodium
lion a year, according to researchers from the Legionnaires’ disease, cryptosporidiosis and stays of more than a week, which can quickly
parasites did not infect a single study
Centre for Disease Control and Prevention. giardiasis. For each case of disease, they drive up healthcare costs,” notes Beach. Other
animal. “We were surprised how well
“These cost data highlight that water- calculated the cost paid by the insurer, the symptoms can include rashes, eye and ear
this works,” reports Riehle. “We were just
related diseases pose not only a physical out-of-pocket cost to the patient and the infections and respiratory or neurological
hoping to see some effect on the mos-
burden to the thousands of people sickened total amount paid. systems, and can be fatal in severe cases.
quitoes’ growth rate, lifespan or their
by them each year, but are also a substantial Total estimated costs for hospitalisation Modest investments in preventing these
susceptibility to the parasite, but it was
burden in healthcare costs, including direct for the three diseases was between diseases could lead to reduced disease
great to see that our construct blocked
government payments, reports Michael US$154-million and US$539-million. and significant healthcare cost savings,
the infection process completely.”
Beach, who led the study. In-patient hospitalisation costs per case aver- maintains Beach. Some examples of
The research has been published in
At present, there are well-documented aged more than US$34 000 for Legionnaires’ possible, low-cost interventions include
the July 15 edition of the journal Public
data on the total healthcare costs asso disease, about US$9 000 for giardiasis and public education campaigns, appropriate
Library of Science Pathogens. For more
ciated with all waterborne diseases. more than US$21 000 for cryptosporidiosis. maintenance of water systems, and regular
information, go to www.plospatho-
However, using data from a large insurance “When people think about these diseases, inspection of pools and other recreational
gens.org/home.action.
claims database between 2004 and 2007, they usually think of a simple case of diar- water facilities.
te detergents int
of zero-phospha , local stakeholders and researchers from DBG Williams; R Simelane) has been done in light of
Dickens, M Graham
Investigation of
Kin
g, ashwini n Hill,
Jadhav, na Mark robertson,
water allocation plan for present and identified for nationally standardised fish ryan Bru
dvig & Jol weji Katem
ene fishe
r
bo, John
anthony
Wilson,
future water use in the valley, and to bioassay protocols as well as for the use
nces
associated with
Water – Research on Berg River Water from ecotoxicity tests. This project,
Management (WP de Clerq; N Jovanovic initiated in 2002, aimed to, among
South Africa
TT 446/10
discovering a sublethal dose of herbicide Report No: 1554/1/10 order to develop reasonable conceptual broad-scale assessment of impacts and
which will retain water hyacinth plants in Kinetic Development of Oxidation Zones in models describing the occurrence and ecosystem services, and socio-economic
a system to maintain populations of the Tailings Dams with Specific Reference to the flow dynamics of groundwater in the and sustainability studies.
agents. In addition, a management plan Witwatersrand Gold Mine Tailings Dams Eastern Karoo Basin.
has been developed to guide water man- (B Yibas; W Pulles and C Nengovhela) Report No: KV 242/10
agers as to what action should be taken The understanding of oxidation zones Report No: 1785/1/09 Developing Sediment Quality Guidelines for
in terms of combining biological control and phreatic water surfaces plays an Review of Technology Used in Strategic South Africa (AK Gordon and WJ Muller)
with herbicidal control under different important role in the prediction of acid Asset Management: Existing and Future The issue of sediment contamination
climatic and nutrient conditions. rock drainage. Many gold mines in South Needs (CJ von Holdt; HMS Belmonte and JE in South African freshwaters has been
Africa are currently engaged in active Amadi-Echendu) largely ignored. Currently no sediment
Report No: TT 458/10 reclamation of gold tailings dams. This This study was commissioned by the WRC quality guidelines exist for freshwaters in
Towards Standards for Municipal Invoices large-scale reclamation of dams provides primarily to determine what technologies this country. The objective of this project
in South Africa (Sarah Slabbert Associates) a perfect opportunity to study tailings are currently available to water utilities was to critically review sediment quality
dam profiles and characterise their that can be used to determine the guidelines derivation methods being
oxidation profiles. This study of oxidation condition of assets deployed for water utilised internationally, and to identify
zones of tailings dams was initiated based extraction, storage and distribution. The specific factors that need addressing in
s for
Towards standard on literature surveys conducted by PHD study also reviewed national and interna- order to derive and implement effective
l invoices in So uth Africa
municipa
ociates
and personal communications, which tional trends in management processes sediment quality guidelines in South
Sarah Slabbert Ass
showed that the reported values for the with regard to condition assessment, Africa.
depth of the oxidation zones of gold-mine and prediction of asset performance and
tailings in the Witwatersrand Basin are asset risk determination techniques as Report No: 1690/1/09
inconsistent and have a considerable applicable to water assets. It is envisaged Remote Sensing as a Tool for Resource
range from 20 cm to more than 7 m. It is that this review would serve as a useful Assessment towards the Determination
believed that the findings of this project point of reference for South African of the Legal Compliance of Surface and
have advanced our knowledge and utilities as they embark on the journey Groundwater Use (L Gibson; Z Münch;
TT 458/10 ability to practically implement improved towards effective management of water J Engelbrecht; N Petersen & J Conrad)
prediction capacity by being able to bet- infrastructure assets. Since South Africa is such a water scarce
ter understand the active oxidation zone country, it is important for water resource
within the tailings dams that need to be Report No: TT 433/09 to managers to have accurate information
The tax invoices or bills that municipali- described in a predictive model. TT 443/09 on all aspects of water resource occur-
ties send out to customers on a monthly Wetland Health and Importance Research rence and use. This includes knowledge
basis are a key interface between local Report No: 1565/1/10 Programme (H Malan – Series Editor) of the level of compliance of water users
government and citizens. Consumers’ Flow Conceptualisation, Recharge and This series of reports (No 1 to 11) is to water use licence legislation and the
level of understanding of their municipal Storativity Determination in Karoo Aqui- an output of the Wetland Health and quantity of unlicensed water usage and
invoices is therefore indicative of the fers, with Special Emphasis on Mzimvubu-, Importance research programme funded storage. The overall objective of this
effectiveness of this communication. Keiskamma- and Mvoti-Umzimkulu Water by the WRC. This programme forms Phase project was to determine the useful-
Local and international research has Management Areas (C Dondo; L Chevallier; 2 of the National Wetlands Research Pro- ness and applicability of using remote
shown that consumers of many municipal AC Woodford; R Murray; LO Nhleko; gramme, and is broadly aimed at assess- sensing technologies as a tool for resource
entities, in both the developed and A Nomnganga and D Gqiba) ing wetland environmental condition and assessment towards the determination
developing countries, struggle to under- The WRC and Department of Water socio-economic importance. The series of the legal compliance of surface and
stand their municipal invoices. A lack of Affairs have invested substantial includes reports on assessing wetland groundwater use.
understanding of invoices has a negative financial resources on research into the environmental condition using biota,
effect on customer awareness, participa- geohydrology of Karoo aquifer systems Wetland He
alth and Im
tion and the regulation of water services. over the past three decades. However, Wetland Health and Importance Research Programme
arch Program
portance Re
se
W
10 A etland Valuation Volum
me
It also leads to distrust in the correctness it has been shown that little geohydro- The Assessment of Temporary Wetlands Tool for the e III
2 Livelihood Va As se ssment
logical research has focused on the Karoo During Dry Conditions lue of Wetla of the
of the invoice, which, in turn, could affect nds
consumers’ willingness to pay. Through aquifers in the Eastern Cape and southern
TT 434/09
TT 442/09
this document, the WRC has created a KwaZulu-Natal, where the basic needs
Wetland
Wetland Health and Importance Research Programme – 2
pal invoices. The standards document is as borehole depths, water strikes, strike
10
an effort to steer municipalities, financial yields and pumping tests, were not previ-
services, businesses and customers ously organised into a useful and easily
towards quality and efficiency in water accessible format. The need was therefore
management. identified to properly restructure it in Author: J Tur
pie
Series Editor
: H Malan
Authors: J Day, E Day, V Ross-Gillespie & A Ketley
Series Editor: H Malan
TT 434/09
TT 442/09
M
aterials with nano-scale present, there are more than 1 000 has grown rapidly since the launch
dimensions are as old as nanotechnology-enabled consumer of the National Nanotechnology
time and often occur natu- products available to the public Strategy in 2006. To date, the gov-
rally in the environment, for example, globally and the number is growing ernment, through the Department
volcanic dust, pollen grains and min- exponentially on a daily basis. of Science & Technology (DST),
eral composites. However, our ability Today, one can find these tiny has invested over R170-million in
to manufacture engineered nanomate- particles in everything from non-stick different aspects of nanotechnol-
rials is relatively new. The small size of cookware and batteries to T-shirts and ogy R&D. The core R&D efforts are
these materials (one nanometre equals health supplements. It is estimated chiefly focused on the development
a billionth of a metre) means they that at the present rate, the inventory of engineered nanomaterials.
have different properties than those will reach the 1 600 mark within the Academic institutions, for
of larger particles of the same sub- next year. By 2014, nanotechnology is instance, the universities of Johan-
stance; they may be more conductive, expected to contribute up to 15% of nesburg, Witwatersrand, Zululand
stronger, or more chemically reactive, the global manufacturing output, with and Stellenbosch, have developed
for example. a worldwide economic value exceeding strong nanotechnology research
Because of these novel proper- US$2,6-trillion. The USA, Japan and centres. Similarly, the potential of
ties engineered nanomaterials offer European countries such as Germany, nanotechnology has been recognised
considerable promise, from business France and the United Kingdom are by organisations such as the CSIR,
opportunities to meeting global chal- the global nanotechnology leaders in Mintek and the Water Research
lenges in energy, water treatment, business. However, ‘newcomers’ such Commission (WRC), and it is
healthcare and climate change. To date, as China, India and Korea are fast expected that others, particularly
billions of dollars have been invested growing in this field with respect to from industry, will soon follow suit.
in research and development (R&D) the number of patents registered and This year the WRC, for example,
in this field by governments (including scientific papers published. is investing more than R1,7-million
South Africa) and private investors. in nanotechnology R&D projects,
Since the Water Wheel first intro- mostly towards the treatment of
duced nanotechnology to its readers
Nanotechnology in water and wastewater (domestic,
in 2008 (January/February edition) South Africa industrial and mining) and for envi-
the number of consumer products ronmental remedial applications,
containing engineered nanomateri-
als has increased considerably. At I n South Africa, nanotechnol-
ogy, while still in its infancy,
such as the treatment of acid mine
drainage. The Commission is also
represented on the Steering Com- nanoparticles are potentially toxic to in the toxicity of nanoparticles
mittee of Mintek’s Nanotechnology human tissue and cell cultures. when exposure of them occurs in
Innovation Centre as well as on the Unlike macro-scale chemicals the workplace, or near the point of
International Water Association’s whose toxic effects are dependent on manufacturing due to the high con-
Water and Nano Specialist Group inherent chemical composition, in the centrations of mobile nanoparticles at
to closely track global advances in case of engineered nanomaterials, the or near that point, explains Stéphan
nanotechnology. toxicity is dependent on numerous fac- Roux of CSIR’s National Resources
“The potential benefits of nano- tors, particularly the physico-chemical and the Environment (NRE). “Once
technology are staggering – and properties (e.g. surface chemistry, released into the environment,
almost limitless,” reports Dr Jo size, shape, surface area, etc) and nanoparticles may well become bio-
Burgess, WRC Research Manager. environmental factors (surrounding unavailable very quickly due to the
“Just looking at the water sector, pH, organic matter, ionic strength, aggregation in natural, often aqueous
nanotechnology has endless poten- cell membrane, etc.). This large num- surroundings,” he notes. “It is there-
tial applications from drinking water ber of factors has made it difficult to fore likely that significant fractions of
treatment (both routine and in emer- adequately elucidate the toxicological nanoparticles released into the envi-
gencies), treatment of sewage, new effects of engineered nanomaterials to ronment may become inert, or at least
water pipes that are hydrophobic and the receptor organisms. far less toxic than the characteristics
do not corrode, to selective ways of Because the properties of engi- of these nanoparticles may suggest
removing metals from wastewater, neered nanomaterials are distinc- when studied in isolation.”
one at a time.” tive from those of their counterpart If these questions are not answered
macro-scale chemicals the present adequately it may jeopardise the long-
Benefits vs risks risk assessment tools used for the term sustainable use and exploitation
latter may not be adequate to evaluate of nanotechnology capabilities for
W hile the potential benefits of the risk of materials with nano-scale the good of society. This would be an
nanotechnology in all aspects dimensions. We simply have not yet unfortunate scenario especially given
of human life is beyond debate, there developed the tools or the human the numerous benefits associated with
is growing global concern over the capacity to assess the risk of engi- this technology.
potential health, safety and environ- neered nanomaterials and/or monitor
mental implications of this technol- their movement in the environment. Regulating
ogy both to humans and ecosystems. For this reason, tracking the fate and nanotechnology
It is recognised that because of the behaviour of engineered nanomateri-
R
widespread use of engineered nano- als in the environment is currently egulators all over the world
materials in consumer products and impossible. (Looking for a nanopar- are entering unknown ter-
industrial applications our exposure ticle in a river, for example, is like ritory with respect to legislating
to them is practically unavoidable. kicking a soccer ball somewhere on nanotechnology. Last year, Canada
For example, engineered nano Earth and then attempting to deter- became the first country in the world
materials used in products such as mine where it fell). to introduce a mandatory safety
fuel additives, cosmetics, and sprays It is for these reasons that, accord- reporting scheme for companies pro-
will interact directly with people and ing to Dr Burgess, finding a way of ducing engineered nanomaterials.
the environment. adequately assessing the risk of engi- In this country, any company pro-
Another example is silver nano- neered nanomaterials is extremely ducing more than two kilograms
particles used in socks and other important. Among the questions of engineered nanomaterials must
products for antibacterial purposes, remaining are those surrounding
which have been shown by US sci- the potential bioaccumulation and
bio-persistence of these materials in
Further reading
entists to result in unexpectedly high
increases in the concentrations in species; links between the physico-
• Musee N et al (2010) ‘A South African research agenda to
biosolids in wastewater systems and chemical properties of engineered
investigate the potential environmental, health and safety risks
are suspected to kill many of the nanomaterials and the observed
of nanotechnology’ in Journal of Science 106 (3-4), accessible at
microorganisms that are essential for ecotoxicity in animals and plants; and
http://www.sajs.co.za/index.php/SAJS/article/view/159
the optimal functioning of biological the effect of weathering of both engi-
• Visit: http://nanohealth.org.za/nano_discussions for more
wastewater treatment systems (e.g. neered nanomaterials and covalent
information about the First National Workshop on Risk Assess-
nitrogen removing bacteria respon- surface modifications under diverse
ment of Nanotechnologies and Nanosciences.
sible for the removal of nitrates from environmental conditions, just to
• Visit: http://www.nanotechproject.org/inventories/consumer/
wastewater). Other preliminary name but a few.
browse/categories/ for a global inventory on consumer products
international scientific research has It is also important to note that
containing nanomaterials.
shown that many types of engineering there may be a substantial difference
-tell study
Once upon a time, a kiss and a frog were and fragmentation, alien plants and Another concern, he says, is the
afforestation as well as pesticides and increase in air pollution from nearby
enough for a happy ending. In fact, the
pollution. Threatened species occur industrial areas and Mozambique.
humble amphibian has fared well in the predominantly in the Eastern and It is suspected that the KNP lies in a
realm of fiction. However, show-stopper Western Cape, as well as Kwazulu- ‘cloud’ of pollution as a result of its
Natal. However, the species in the location. Questions are now being
names like the Golden Leaf-Folding Frog,
northern parts of the country could raised about the effect of increased
the Eastern Olive Toad and the Shovel Foot also be, metaphorically speaking, water pollution, and possibly that of
Squeeker have not seen them shine in the sitting in the boiling pot. acid rain, on the aquatic stages of the
Frogs and toads in the Kruger amphibian’s life.
area of conservation. Now researchers are
National Park (KNP) may be In 2009, the KNP tasked a group
looking to save what is left of the Kruger protected against many of the of researchers, under the helm of
National Park’s frog population. threats faced by relatives elsewhere, Dr Wynand Vlok, to find the
but they are far from unaffected. answers to some of these slippery
Article by Petro Kotzé.
Dr Andrew Deacon, Programme subjects. Vlok and his team are busy
Manager for Small Vertebrates with an assessment of the current
I
ndeed, life for a frog is no fairy of the Savanna Unit of the KNP biodiversity of amphibians associ
tale. Amphibian population explains that about 10% of the ated with the major river systems
declines and species extinction park’s frogs live in its rivers, while and wetlands of the KNP, as well as
are occurring around the world. thousands converge at smaller, the physical and chemical factors
Locally, the picture is just as gloomy. seasonal wetlands during breeding affecting their distribution. The
According to James Harrison, pro seasons. These habitats are espe Water Research Commission (WRC)
ject leader of The Atlas and Red Data cially vulnerable to air and water is one of the sponsors of the project.
Book of Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho pollution. Problems with the park’s
and Swaziland (published in 2004) rivers became glaringly obvious Assessing the situation
locally, 25 species are classified as after recent, comprehensive media
V
threatened or as near threatened, coverage of the death of hundreds lok, of BioAssets, is no stranger
more than 20% of the total number of crocodiles in the Olifant’s River to WRC-sponsored projects.
of species. He adds that as new spe Gorge (also discussed in the Water He was previously involved in the
cies are still being discovered and Wheel edition of January/February assessment of the water quality
described, the number of threatened 2009). Deacon says that some of parameters of the Nylsvley flood
species is likely to grow. the rivers’ predicament relates to plain catchment. He explains that the
During Harrison’s study, 14 a decrease in water volume and an absence of many of the mentioned
threats to South African frogs were increase in the amount of pollution common threats to amphibians
identified, of which the four most due to continuous irrigation and makes it a good place for a com
important are habitat destruction development outside the park. parison of the current biodiversity
BioAssets
ent species’ calls to potential mates
and rivals. In addition to the adult
frog inventory, tadpoles, often
found in larger concentrations at
breeding sites over longer periods
of time, are sampled. Surface-water
and deep-water temperatures are
also recorded. This data can now
be used to estimate species rich
ness at the sites and to determine
which sites are more suitable for
amphibians’ development. The
primary goal of these habitat-based
studies is a species inventory but,
in addition, other aspects such
as the effects of pollution and
the presence of predators can be
BioAssets
determined.
Chemical factors that might
affect amphibian distribution are
tested at the University of Johan
nesburg. Amphibians from some
of the most abundant species are
dissected for biochemical analysis.
Of special importance for this pur
pose are the livers, adipose tissue
and for histological examination,
the gonads.
Further tests are done on water
and sediment samples from the test
areas. Different chemical factors
such as metals are identified and
quantified, as well as organic con
BioAssets
(Phrynobatrachus acridoides).
According to Harrison, the sig
of the distribution of amphibians Further developments nificance of surveys lies primarily in
in the park, as well as the effects of revealing patterns of distribution and
T
pollution on this. Frogs and tad he study has already yielded the location of threatened species,
poles can then not only be used as some exciting results outside in order to identify priority areas for
indicators of water quality but, says of the expected areas of perfor conservation action. In an area like
Deacon, to put pressure on decision mance. From the historical list of 37 the KNP with unique management
makers to curb pollution through amphibians that should be found at problems, research findings can also
legislation.
Support from the WDM Programme will be considered for projects which embody the Programme objectives. The Programme
Implementation Unit (PIU) invites Expressions of Interest (EOIs) for WDM projects. The EOI should outline the project details,
the WDM intervention required, an estimated budget, and proposed time frame. It should be no longer than 10 pages. There are
three fundamental criteria an EOI should exhibit, namely (1) pro-poor impact, (2) cost effectiveness, and (3) demonstration value.
The types of projects the WDM Programme will consider supporting include technical as well as community based projects.
Once an EOI is received, an assessment is made by the PIU and a decision is taken, in consultation with the
Reference Group (RG), regarding support for implementation.
EOI guidelines are available from the WDM Programme website as well as from the PIU.
The process is flexible and tailored to each case.
Olifants River –
Home to one of South Africa’s
oldest irrigation schemes
It took two walls across the Olifants River to one of the ten oldest towns in the century small-scale irrigation was well
country, Clanwilliam’s beginnings go established. Originally known as Jan
provide enough water for irrigation farmers
as far back as 1660 when a team of Disselsvlei (after Jan Dissel, a local
in this part of the Western Cape. Lani van Dutch explorers sent out by Jan van pioneer), the area first formed part of
Vuuren takes a look at the history of the Riebeeck first reached the Olifants the district of Stellenbosch, but was
River. The river was named by Jan declared a sub-district of its own in
Bulshoek and Clanwilliam dams.
Danckaert, the Dutch cadet in charge 1808 by the Earl of Caledon, then Gov-
K
of the party, who, upon entering the ernor of the Cape. In 1814, Caledon’s
nown today for its rooi- valley, saw 300 elephants frolicking successor, Sir John Cradock, renamed
bos and wine, the hamlet on the riverbank. the area after his father-in-law, the
of Clanwilliam lies at the The first farm in the Olifants River Earl of Clanwilliam.
foot of the Cederberg Mountains valley was awarded to Pieter van Zyl Originally, farmers planted crops
in the Western Cape. Regarded as in 1732, and by the late eighteenth in the fine alluvial deposits on the
eWISA
O n 16 October, 1858, Patrick
Fletcher left Cape Town for
Clanwilliam on orders from the Colo-
nial Secretary to undertake one of
the first surveys for a potential large
irrigation scheme in the Cape. He
travelled to the Olifants River mouth
and surveyed the latter upstream
for about 37 km. His report, which
included estimates for two possible
dams, was submitted in 1860.
Around 120 people were living
around the irrigable portion of the
Olifants River at that time. Accord-
ing to Fletcher, however, the farm-
ers were not very successful: “The
total income of the whole valley
could not have exceeded £1 400 per
annum during the last nine years.
Except when the river overflows they
scarcely grow sufficient bread for
DWA/eWISA
their own consumption.”
In 1883, Hydraulic Engineer to
the Cape Colony, John Gamble, sug-
gested the construction of a series The Bulshoek Dam production. During the following Kanthack was at first sceptical
of moderately-sized weirs to restore features 15 hand- decades the farmers would appeal to of the possibility of such a scheme.
operated gates of the
original conditions in the river i.e. government time and time again for In his 1909 report he writes: “Local
Ashford type. These
resulting in floodwaters once again gates, which sit on top assistance in various forms without opinion as to the suitability of the
spilling over its banks. Despite peti- of the solid weir, slide success. Finally, in 1907, the Cape land for irrigation was very conflict-
tions from farmers in the area to the in cast-iron grooves of government asked the Director of ing and it was with some feeling of
government, Gamble’s plans were special construction Irrigation, Francis Edgar Kanthack, uncertainty that I authorised a trav-
with a patented system
rejected due to the prohibitive cost to determine the possibility of an erse line of levels along the Olifants
of anti-friction rollers.
of the scheme. Not long after that Each gate is 4,6 m high irrigation scheme on the Olifants River...some 20 miles below
the post of Hydraulic Engineer was and 6 m wide. River. His brief was to investigate the Clanwillian down to the mouth.”
abolished as a result of economic possibility of introducing irrigation
circumstances prevailing at the Cape, on a perennial basis by means of a Bulshoek Dam
and Gamble returned to England. canal system fed from a high weir
T
Meanwhile, local farmers started with ‘considerable storage capacity’ his was followed by a contour
their own irrigation initiatives, as much land as possible on both survey and a soil survey, and, in
including the use of steam pumps, banks of the Olifants River and along September 1908, Kanthack himself
windmills and bucket pumps the lower reaches of the Doorn and visited the district. He must have
(bakkiespompe) to boost their Hol Rivers. cut quite the scene in his motorcar,
DWA/eWISA
By 1920, the canal on the left
bank was completed up to Baklei
plaas and the masonry of the
143,3-m-long weir and headworks as
well as the erection of the steel gates
and superstructures were practically
finished by 31 March of that year.
The entire scheme was eventually
completed in 1924 at a total cost of
£601 569.
Clanwilliam Dam
DWA/eWISA
D espite the construction of
Bulshoek Dam water demand
soon again outstripped supply,
especially during the hot summer Top: The Clanwilliam employed. White workers earned
months. In 1927, a start was made Dam shortly after its 4 shillings and eight pennies a day,
to line the canals with concrete, and completion. The original
while their coloured counterparts
dam was a mass concrete
by 1932 nearly £89 000 was spent gravity structure with earned two shillings and 6 pennies a
on this endeavour. Meanwhile, a centrally situated day. In his 1934 report, Director of
the Union Irrigation Department overspill section. Irrigation Alfred Lewis complains
undertook surveys along the Olifants about the productivity of the white
River and its tributary, the Doorn Bottom: The outlets of
workers. Recruited by the Depart-
the Clanwilliam Dam
River, in search of a suitable site for a in 1936. ment of Labour, many of these
new storage dam. It was hoped that workers probably had no construc-
this new dam would not only store tion skills (in subsequent reports the
eWISA
enough water for the existing irriga- aversion of many of these workers to
tion scheme, but allow for the expan- hard, physical labour is also noted).
Scotland in cooperation with engi- sion of agricultural activities. Staff housing comprised wood
neer WM Watt. The firm also over- A suitable site was found just houses with tin roofs, along with a
saw the construction of the weir. The outside Clanwilliam. Work started combined mess hall and entertain-
site selected was now on the farm with the construction of staff hous- ment area. Meals were supplied to
Bulshoek, a few kilometres down- ing and the erection of machinery in workers daily at a cost of one shil-
stream of the original site. September 1932. As with many water ling, and the mess hall was managed
Floods as well as an apparent lack infrastructure schemes at the time, by the farmer on whose farm the
of labour prevented construction only white workers were employed dam was being built.
of the weir and canals from start- on the construction of the dam. By December 1933, the founda-
ing until March 1913. The project However, as the new dam would tions had been completed and plac-
mainly employed white workers, inundate part of the Clanwilliam- ing of concrete started in January
who earned two shillings and eight Piketberg Road, a new bypass had to 1934. Clanwilliam Dam was com-
pennies a day. Cement was imported be created, and here use was made of pleted in March, 1935. The original
from England, while the sandstone ‘coloured’ labour. dam was a mass concrete gravity
was obtained from a nearby quarry. At the height of construction structure with a centrally situated
Work was disrupted again by the (1934) an average of 428 whites overspill section, 117 m long.
First World War (1914-1919), during and 366 coloured workers were By 1962 the Olifants River valley
Sources
André Roux
• Cape of Good Hope. ‘Report on a
proposed irrigation project in the Clan
william and Van Rhynsdorp districts,
was inhabited by about 13 000 Canals filled with water project will not only see the
from the Bulshoek Weir 1909’ by FE Kanthack
people. The ever increasing need increase of storage capacity of the
and Clanwilliam Dam • ‘Clanwilliam’, www.sahistory/org.za/
for water resulted in the dam being dam, but also aims to upgrade
supply water to the places.villages/westernCape/clanwil
raised between 1962 and 1964. The members of the Lower and strengthen the wall to ensure
liam.htm
overspill crest was increased in Olifants River Water its safety and long-term viability,
• ‘Dam project could improve aquatic
length, remodelled and raised by the Users Association. especially during flood events. This
The area is especially environment’ by L van Vuuren in the
addition of 3,05 m of mass concrete will entail increasing the width and
renowned for its Water Wheel, January/February 2006
on top of the crest, and the instal- height of the wall and spillway. A
viticulture and rooibos • ‘Die Bulshoekdam’ by J Butler in The
lation of 13 crest gates, each 7,77 m tea-growing activities. new multi-level outlet structure
Civil Engineer in South Africa, May 1991
wide and 3,05 m high. will also be constructed.
• Large Dams and Water Systems in South
In addition, the non-overspill A portion of the N7 national
Africa by SANCOLD
flanks were raised by 4,88 m by road will be affected by the raised
• ‘A short history of irrigation develop
means of mass concrete. A bridge water level and will be re-aligned by
ment in South Africa’ by CO Linscott
superstructure was constructed the South African National Roads
in South African Irrigation Department
across the dam to provide access for Agency. Minor roads, property
Magazine, June 1924
the operation of the gates. For stabil- developments and cultivated land
• Union of South Africa. ‘Report of the
ity, the dam was tied to its founda- surrounding the dam basin will also
Director of Irrigation for the period
tions by means of post-tensioned be affected by the raised water level.
1 January 1912 to 31 March 1913’
cables positioned along the centre According to the National
• Union of South Africa. ‘Report of the
line of the dam. Clanwilliam Dam Water Infrastructure Branch of the
Director of Irrigation for the period
has a present height of 43 m, and a
1 April 1933 to 31 March 1934’
capacity of around 122 million m3.
This dual-purpose project will not only • Union of South Africa. ‘Report of the
see the increase of storage capacity of Director of Irrigation for the period
Future plans
the dam, but also aims to upgrade and 1 April 1934 to 31 March 1935’
• Thanks and appreciation to eWISA
A t present, plans are being strengthen the wall to ensure its safety
and André Roux for photographs, and
finalised to raise the dam by and long-term viability, especially the Department of Water Affairs for
another 13 m. This dual-purpose during flood events. additional information.
M
ine-water related research Prior to 1990 most South African contribution towards finding solu-
has become an important mine-water related research was tions for AMD follows.
research area for the WRC conducted by the now disbanded
and millions of Rands are spent every Chamber of Mines Research Organi- Improved predictive
year on projects investigating solu- sation. The WRC’s involvement in ability
tions to one of South Africa’s most mine-water research was limited to
complex water pollution dilemmas.
The Commission is the newest mem-
ber of the Global Alliance of research
determining the water requirements
and pollution potential of gold and
uranium mines. Between 1990 and
T wo aspects of research related to
improved predictive ability have
received special attention: firstly, the
organisations, which supports the 2000 research focused on the impact ability to predict the generation of
activities of the International Network mining has on the surface environ- acid drainage, and secondly, the abil-
for Acid Prevention. ment, on treatment options for mine ity to predict the rise in water levels
There are about 270 gold-mine tail- of plants to treat the AMD emanat-
ings covering 180 km2 in South Africa. ing from the coal fields.
AMD during high flow conditions Treatment treat 75 Mℓ/day of AMD from
would have on water quality contrib- gold mines using the CSIR’s ABC
uted to the development of a strategy
technologies (Alkali-Barium-Calcium) desalina-
I
whereby AMD from Mpumalanga tion process, which uses barium to
n contrast with water-rich min-
coal mines is released periodically dur- precipitate sulphates. A pilot plant
ing regions, South Africa does
ing years with above average runoff. using the degrading packed bed
not only face the high acidity and
Several research projects have reactor, which overcame the failure
dissolved metal problems associ-
highlighted the benefits in the form that is commonly experienced with
ated with AMD. The limited dilu-
of smaller volumes of water that passive sulphate removal systems
tion potential associated with low
would accumulate in underground once the easily oxidisable organic
rainfall exacerbates the contribu-
mines if the ingress of water through material has been depleted, and
tion of salinity associated with this
surface cracks and fissures could be that significantly improved the effi-
water to the salinisation of water
reduced. The Department of Miner- ciency of passive systems, is also
resources. For example, effluents
als & Energy initiated a multimillion currently being constructed.
from gold mines contribute about
Rand project through the Council The cost saving associated with
35% of the salt load but only 6% of
of Geosciences to identify and close using limestone (calcium carbon-
the water flow at the Barrage in the
these ingress points as a priority. ate) rather than lime (calcium
Vaal River (the major water source
Two interesting projects aimed at hydroxide), and the effectiveness
of the industrial heartland of South
minimising the impact of produc- of the technology for the neutrali-
Africa). For this reason much of
tion of AMD are currently being sation of acid waters, have been
the research into treatment tech-
conducted. The first is assessing the demonstrated in a number of
nologies undertaken in the country
viability of extracting good quality applications.
are focusing on developing tech-
groundwater in aquifers overlying
nology that would remove sulphate
deep mines in order to reduce the
in addition to metals and the Technology transfer
percolation of good quality water into
neutralisation of acidity.
T
the mines. The potential benefit is to he Department of Water
The research into water treat-
prevent the subsequent contamina- Affairs has completed a series
ment technology is currently being
tion of this good quality water with of Best Practice Guidelines for
implement and evaluated at a range
AMD and in the reduction of the Resource Protection in the South
of pilot and operational scales at
volume of AMD requiring mitigation. African Mining Industry. The
a number of locations. In a joint
The second is an investigation into series deals with various aspects
venture, Anglo Coal and BHP
the feasibility of either removing or The patented BioSure from the department’s water
Billiton constructed a 20 Mℓ/day
accelerating the oxidation of pyrites process, which uses management hierarchy (integrated
sewage sludge as
reverse osmosis plant at 99% water
associated with mining. In this way, mine-water management through
energy source for recovery to produce potable water
mining may be able to deal with to water treatment); through to
the neutralisation of from AMD. Treated water from
AMD problems during the lifespan of acid mine drainage general water management strate-
the Emalahleni Water Reclamation
a mine, so that mines would not have has been successfully gies and specialised mining activi-
Plant is sold to Emalahleni Munici-
a post-closure AMD legacy. applied at full scale. ties, such as small-scale mining.
pality to supplement its water sup-
ply. Two similar plants are planned Workshop and symposia on
for the treatment of AMD from aspects surrounding AMD, mine
other Mpumalanga coal mines. closure and other related activities
Funded by the WRC, the Rhodes are organised regularly. In 2009,
BioSure process, whereby sewage the Mine-Water Division of the
sludge is used as energy source for Water Institute of Southern Africa,
the biological reduction and removal together with the International
of sulphates from AMD, has been Minewater Association hosted a
implemented at ERWAT’s Ancor successful International Minewater
wastewater treatment works. At Conference.
times, as much as 10 Mℓ/day of toxic South African activities have made
mine-water from Grootvlei has been significant contributions on several
treated this way. fronts in the quest to deal with the
The Western Utilities Corpora- problems associated with AMD ema-
tion, established to treat AMD nating from mining activities.
from four basins in the Witwaters To access the WRC’s AMD-related
rand goldfields, is planning to research, visit: www.wrc.org.za.
T
he Mapungubwe area in
Limpopo is renowned for its
golden rhino artefact that
has become the icon of a society
which settled close to the Limpopo
River for some 400 years between
about 900 and 1300 AD. The river
was not only the lifeblood of this
society, which depended on flooding
for irrigation of soils to be cropped,
but is also offered a multitude of
other resources. Riverine forest
provided some of these. Stretches of
forest along both the Limpopo and
Shashe rivers support monarchs of
sycamore figs, ana trees, nyala trees,
fever trees, marulas, weeping boer-
beans, and a smattering of other
species.
These verdant pockets of forest
are in stark contrast with the sur-
rounding landscape of semi-arid
savanna dominated by the ubi
quitous mopane tree. Most of our
savanna trees in the lowveld support
open riverine woodland, but in their
classification of the vegetation of
South Africa, Mucina and Ruther-
ford recognised the Limpopo river-
ine forests of this region as a distinct
forest type.
T
Drought probably caused the
oward the end of the thirteenth dieback of this fever tree.
century, owing to a rapid change
in climate as the effects of the
Mapungubwe’s
a century or so occurred during the
middle of the Little Ice Age, with
unknown impacts on these forests,
but their presence today indicates
that they recovered.
Once most humans had departed,
elephants once again became lords of
riverine forest
the forest. White agricultural settle-
ment started occurring toward the The Greefswald riverine forest along the Limpopo River on
end of the 1800s. Hunting intensi- the northern South African border is increasingly threatened
fied, and by the 1900s elephants had
by natural and anthropogenic activities. SAEON Observation
been displaced further north. By
the 1950s almost all land along the Science Specialist Prof Tim O’Conner tracks the impact of
Limpopo River had been committed these outside influences on this unique habitat.
to agriculture.
in the 1980s. A diamond pipe was of, and tagged, 428 canopy trees
discovered on the farm Venetia, des- that were each measured for their
tined to become the largest diamond size, degree of creeper infestation,
mine in South Africa. The decision and canopy volume lost to drought-
to develop the mine required water. dieback or windshear.
Where else to look in this arid land-
scape than toward the Limpopo Drought, flooding and
River some 40 km north? elephants
Geography and access dictated
F
that the Greefswald Forest was the ifteen years later I was in a posi-
most obvious point of supply. As the tion to follow up on what had
water was to be pumped from within happened to this forest. But what
the forest interior, a comprehensive are the chances of three infrequent
assessment of potential impacts of events occurring within such a short
Tim O’Connor
about half the trees had been Each of the main canopy species Perhaps other surveys could be
debarked to a degree. experienced a different degree of influenced in a similar manner.
The individual and cumulative impact from the different agents of Following the fate of individual trees
impact of different agents on canopy mortality. Species such as rain trees, rather than simply measurement of
trees was quite dramatic. Overall boerbeans, and nyala berries had been stands of vegetation improved con-
a quarter of the trees were lost, an less affected by most agents, such siderably the quality of the study –
effect which was greater than it may that woodland composition was now all the more easily accomplished now
sound because many of these were becoming dominated by these seem- Below top: A fever tree
in an era of GPS.
the larger rather than the smaller ingly more drought-tolerant species. is slowly smothered by
canopy individuals. As a conse- Initial concern about the impact a climber (Combretum • This article first appeared in the
quence, the forest was transformed of water abstraction on riparian microphyllum). South African Environmental
to open woodland. forest was ultimately dwarfed by Observation Network (SAEON)
Below bottom: An
Drought accounted for 76% of the impacts of severe drought in eroded section of the
newsletter, June 2010. Visit
trees lost, and the 2000 flood for an combination with climber infesta- riverbank where many www.saeon.ac.za for more
additional 21%. Creepers were impli- tion, mega-flood, and elephants. The fig trees have been lost. information.
cated in the drought-related death of dominant species of this forest can
nearly half of the trees which suc- live for centuries, such that a 17-year
cumbed to drought, but interestingly study is of short duration.
their effect was felt mostly by species
with microphyllous (small) leaves, Useful pointers for
such as Acacia xanthophloea, rather SAEON
than broad-leaved species.
I
It could not be determined t may have been fortuitous
directly whether a tree had suc- to capture the effect of three
cumbed to natural drought or major events that transformed the
deprivation of water supply by Greefswald Forest, but it may also
abstraction, but tree mortality presage future patters of riparian
within the area of abstraction was forest change globally in response to
approximately one and a half times increasing climatic variability and
that of what it was without – a ever-increasing demands on water.
hard lesson learned, but pumping At this time, a large water impound-
patterns now better accommodate ment on the Shashe River is close to
drought. completion, and increasing amounts
Sycamore figs had lined the banks of water will be abstracted from
of much of the 4,4 km riverfront that the Limpopo catchment for power
was sampled, but a large proportion generation. The South African
of these were lost downstream when Environmental Observation Net-
Tim O’Connor
the 2000 flood eroded up to 60 m of work (SAEON) has this data as one
bank for a distance of at least 1,6 km. small means of assessing anticipated
There was no evidence in support of impacts of decreased flow on ripar-
mortality by ingress of saline water, ian habitats.
porcupine, or windthrow, although This account offers some useful
the latter had reduced the size of a pointers for SAEON in achieving
number of trees. its goals. First, it was born of an
By 2007 the first deaths result- environmental impact assessment
ing from elephant ring-barking had process. These are being undertaken
started to occur, and more were all the time yet the data generated by
likely to follow as the overall extent this process is not easily accessed.
of debarking, had increased. The Second, it resulted from the
species most targeted were marulas, interest of an individual rather than
fever trees, and sycamore figs. being the outcome of a formal pro-
Elephants, however, had also cedure, yet most thinking is centred
severed most of the creeper con- on organisational links. Third, even
nections with the supporting tree, though it was not required, it was
Tim O’Connor
C
ompared to other countries, information on which decisions can developed with funding from the
the level of subsidisation of be based. It supports, but does not WRC, namely SWB (Soil-Water-
agriculture in South Africa replace, the decision-maker in risk Balance) and the international
is one of the lowest in the world. management. award-winning WAS (Water Admin-
This means that local farmers have RiskMan is especially suitable for, istration System).
to continually raise the efficiency of among others, the quantification of The FARMs program generates
their operations to remain profit- interest rate, irrigation cost, product short-term whole farm plans and
able. Over the past few years, local price, yield or production variation enterprise budgets with fixed quanti-
agriculture has also been hard hit and hail damage; evaluating different ties and prices. Tested for several
by exceptionally high input price production management strategies; farmers in the irrigation areas of Riet
increases, for example, fuel, fertilis- and determining the effect at whole River, Rama and Loskop, training has
ers and electricity. farm level of including or excluding also been extended to agribusinesses,
Water management, mainly in a crop or livestock enterprise from bureau services and advisors in the
respect to irrigation practice, is one a farm plan. It can also assist in the main irrigation areas of South Africa.
of the most critical determinants of verification of risk data; simulate the Technology is one of the greatest
economically efficient crop produc- total margin above specified costs drivers for progress in agriculture,
tion, particularly in a seasonally dry or net cash flow at whole farm level; however, new technology is only
country such as South Africa. In the and rank production management valuable when it is appropriately
case of pivot irrigation, for example, strategies, taking risk attitudes into applied. The tools developed by the
the cost of the pump, maintenance account. WRC have already proven to make
and water levies can make up to 25% a difference in the lives of farmers,
of the production costs per hectare, IrriCost and others are encouraged to make
thus it is a considerable expense full use of these programs, which are
I
requiring the necessary attention. At rriCost is an aid for the manage- available free of charge.
the same time, there is pressure from ment of irrigation costs. Both the For more information on the
government on the agricultural seg- capital and operating costs must be agricultural tools available from the
ment to reduce its overall water use. considered when purchasing a new WRC, contact Publications at Tel:
Through the years the WRC has irrigation system. Thus the IrriCost (012) 330-0340, E-mail: orders@wrc.
funded the development of several cost-accounting program has been org.za or visit: www.wrc.org.za. For
computer-based tools to assist farm- developed to estimate both the advice on implementation of these
ers in managing their costs and annual fixed and variable costs of decision support tools, please contact
Water management
risks. Hundreds of commercial and irrigation systems. Dr Bennie Grové or Prof Klopper
is one of the most
emerging farmers have already been This Windows-based program Oosthuizen at the Department of critical determinants of
trained on, and are already benefit- can be used by all farmers, exten- Agricultural Economics, University of economically efficient
ing from, these tools. sion officers and advisers involved the Free State in Bloemfontein. crop production.
in centre pivot and hand-line irriga-
RiskMan tion who have access to a personal
computer. The scope of IrriCost’s
R
opment of this program was to pro- iskMan and IrriCost have now
vide risk-management information also been combined in a single
to bridge the gap between theory and system, FARMS (Farm level Agri-
practice at whole farm level. cultural Management Simulator).
Any agribusiness advisor or This computer program combines
farmer can make use of the pro- the benefit of the two programs with
gram. RiskMan weighs up alterna- other tools to form a comprehensive
tive actions to reduce exposure to farm management decision-support
www.sxc.hu
35
www.sxc.hu
Many people realise the challenges South Africa is pollution. The tight team of four is just their jobs and packed their bags to
as inspirational as their campaign, “do something that matters”. Maria
facing with regards to its water, but not many people
Ripples for Good. Travelling by any was 24 years old and Liani 32 when
will stand up and do something about it. Maria Botha means possible, they are spreading they first cycled from St Lucia to Cape
and Liani Broodryk are two of those rare people. their words of wisdom through south- Town. “Our country is amazing”, they
ern Africa. They’ve almost drowned, say. “We haven’t met one person along
These modern-day water disciples have hit the rivers
been without water for days and our way that has made us feel like we
and roads, preaching for change in our water ways, survived a serious road accident, but are in danger,” Maria adds. Dante and
one town at a time. Petro Kotzé got them to stand still their spirits have not been dampened. Katryn are also great travel buddies.
“People’s inherent goodness” make “We know that if they are uncomfort-
long enough to report on their activities.
up for it, they say. As Maria puts it, “it able, we should move camp.”
“
W
hat is needed along puts a smile on your dial.” After Cape Town they continued
with fresh water is fresh After touring South Africa, their to Upington, got a lift with farm-
thinking.” When Nobel mission will take them to Mozambique, ers to Springbok and decided to
Peace Prize winner and 7th Secretary Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia and canoe down the Orange River. “We
General of the United Nations, Kofi Angola, where they will have a closer had never done anything like that
Annan uttered these word, he could look at transboundary water resources. before,” explains Liani. “We didn’t
have been speaking of two women But this is just a continuation of a even know that we needed a guide”.
right at the southern tip of Africa. journey that started a while back. Admittedly, they might have gotten
Indeed, Maria Botha and Liani into hotter water than expected. One
Broodryk, along with their two dogs, With or without a near drowning and a lost canoe later,
Dante and Katryn, have devoted them- paddle it was time to move on again.
selves to motivating others to value Next, they cycled from Springbok
T
water and share the knowledge that he Ripples team reached the to Potchefstroom. A year passed and
something can be done about water tipping point six years ago, quit the girls took a break to gather their
strengths. They always supported explains Liani. “Basic water is free.” Top right: Dante
causes close to their hearts during Their campaign’s slogan aptly states takes a closer look
at the Olifants River
their trips and before long, people that “it starts with you”. “If you have to
outside Witbank in
asked them when their next adven- wait for the government to solve your Mpumalanga.
ture would be. problems, you’re waiting for better
Middle right: Liani and
“At the end of the day we all have an idealistic Katryn share a moment
on the road.
picture in our heads of what we want out of life.
The majority of people are really good at heart, Bottom right: The
have a dream and are on their way somewhere.” mighty Vaal River – an
impressive sight in spite
of the problems that the
Soon, Dante and Katryn were days,” she says. It’s no use pointing team encountered on
loaded up for an expedition from the finger at somebody else for the their way.
Rustenburg to the Drakensberg solution if you are not also making an
Mountains, where they wanted to effort to change your own habits.
walk from Witsieshoek to the Sani Maria and Liani believe that
Pass. Somewhat unprepared for what the more they tell their story, the
lay ahead, they eventually reached more they empower people with
their destination a month later. the knowledge that they can change
“We’ve also tackled the Transkei”, their own environments. “As soon as
says Maria, “and we got stuck in our message touches one person, and
many things, like growing our food a small town, and then he’d sud-
and as a source for drinking,” they denly start telling you all these
exclaim. “If this continues, what will amazing things about pollution
happen to our children?” and water conservation.”
“We realised something was hap- The ripples have also circled out
pening to the country’s water, and to bigger organisations. Currently
we decided it would be our mission travelling on motorcycles sponsored
to fight it.” Maria, Liani, Dante and by Yamaha, Ripples for Good are able
Katryn took an eight-month break to visit more communities quicker.
to regroup and research water issues Dante and Katryn get Royal Canin
and role players in the industry. food couriered to them wherever
Ripples for Good was born. they are and Garmin ensures that the
girls know in what direction they’re
The ripple effect aiming most of the time. Compa-
nies like Avroy Shlain also organise
The Programme is focused on building a WDM culture in the Southern African Development
Community (SADC) region to ensure effective and sustainable use of water that contributes to
the SADC goals of regional integration and poverty alleviation.
The WDM Programme invites all WDM specialists in the region to register with the Programme’s
WDM Specialist Database.
A national forum for young water scientists states have limited water resources, and outbreaks of disease which
which may constrain future eco- impact on water needs and use.
aims to bring multiple disciplines together
nomic development. This makes it
around one goal. Shanna Nienaber and imperative to work carefully with Towards a trans
Inga Jacobs report. this resource to ensure its continued disciplinary response
T
availability, at an affordable price,
T
he water resources of the to existing and future generations. raditionally, the technical and
Southern African Develop- In addition, there are pronounced scientific communities have
ment Community (SADC) developmental differences in SADC, been called on to respond to the
are highly sensitive and complex to rendering some countries more concerns of the water sector. This
understand, govern, use effectively effective than others at mobilising had led to much technical and
and distribute fairly. This reality is necessary human, financial and tech- scientific innovation to respond to
created by many overlapping factors, nologies resources to address water water challenges. However, emerging
among others the fact that water is scarcity and related human welfare water concerns and complexities are
fundamentally a shared resource in needs. Finally, SADC is confronted demanding more integrated levels
the region. by numerous social challenges, such of ingenuity and expertise from
Some of the most economi- as population growth, urbanisation, a diverse set of backgrounds. No
cally developed southern African climate change, refugee movements, amount of technical and scientific
ingenuity is adequate if the solutions the region. Furthermore, a primary manner. It is transdisciplinary, and
generated are not relevant, digest- goal of social science is to influence has strong links with the South
ible and acceptable to the specific public policy by general practical African Young Water Profession-
socio-political and socio-economic knowledge that can help policy-mak- als (YWP), which provides linkages
contexts of our time. ers make informed decisions and in and access to a wider national and
Given this realisation, there is so doing help to foster more effective global water network with the Water
growing recognition of the need for policy and governance options. Institute of Southern Africa and the
more transdisciplinary responses International Water Association.
to the challenges facing the water Young Scholars Forum
sector. Transdisciplinarity is about Activities
G
rising to the challenge of working iven the complexity of the chal-
T
together; understanding the con- lenges facing the water sector o date YSF has been involved in
cepts, contributions and language of in SADC and the obvious value of a number of initiatives to pro-
different disciplines; and integrating transdisciplinarity in responding to mote its mission and aims, including
the perspectives of different actors these issues; it is essential to rise to three events held in collaboration
into comprehensive solutions for the this challenge. with the YWP Gauteng Chapter as
water sector. The Young Scholars Forum (YSF) well as other events held in Pretoria
One of the hindering factors to in Transboundary Water Governance and Durban.
transdisciplinarity is the reality that is funded by the Water Research In November the YSF will host
there is an ongoing lack of social Commission, and aims to incentiv- a workshop in transdisciplinarity
scientists dealing with water issues. ise transdisciplinarity in the water at the CSIR, in Pretoria. The theme
This can be, at least in part, attrib- sector. The WRC’s commitment to of this event is ‘Exploring transdis-
uted to university curricula that do funding this initiative is a clear indi- ciplinarity to address change in the
not adequately equip social science cation of the growing recognition, by SADC water sector: establishing the
students with the skills needed to institutions in the water sector, of the role of social scientists in the vision’.
grapple with environmental issues; need to build capacity in transdisci- To overcome the challenges of the
funding agendas that tend to favour plinarity in order to foster a sector SADC water sector, it is essential to
natural science methodology and thus that is equipped to respond to the come to grips with working across
support less social science research; challenges of water management and disciplines, across boundaries, and
and an organisational bias favour- governance. with a diverse spectrum of actors.
ing natural scientists and technical YSF’s mission is to facilitate col- Young water professionals are stra-
experts in research organisations. laborative exchange between young tegically placed to respond to this
Dr Inga Jacobs of
This is tied to the (mis)perception water professionals and students unique challenge. YSF is a construc- the CSIR speaks to a
that ‘hard science’ is more accurate around issues facing the water sector. tive way to help promote transdisci- group of young water
and valuable than the ‘soft’ and often Conscious effort is made to accom- plinarity, and to groom, recruit and professionals at an
qualitative science of social scientists. modate multiple voices, facilitate mentor young professionals who are event organised by
Despite these challenges, there the Young Scholars
understanding of the language and moving into the sector. This ulti-
Forum in collaboration
is growing recognition of the need perspectives of different disciplines, mately assists in paving the way for with the Young Water
for social scientists equipped with and to nurture the presence of more effective, impactful and relevant Professionals Gauteng
skills, understanding and passion minority voices in the water sector solutions for the SADC water sector. Chapter.
for governance issues in the water such as social scientists.
sector. A social science presence The specific aims of the YSF are
is important as social scientists to build a community and network
have unique expertise in cultural, of professionals who have an interest
behavioural and societal realities. in dealing with the social dimensions
This equips them with the skills to of water challenges in our region, to
interpret subjective, objective, inter- create opportunities for younger and
subjective and structural aspects of more experienced professionals to
society. This aids understanding of interact and share knowledge, and
the social developments, needs and to increase social science literature
drawbacks of a context. Also, social output relating to water issues.
science has a familiarity with institu- This forum is unique in that it is
tional capacity building mechanisms focused on the specific issue of water
and thus can offer critical support governance. It is theme-based, allow-
to the bodies and individuals that ing young professionals to develop
are mandated to manage water in their expertise in a focused, proactive
Growing Africa’s
future water leaders
T
he African water sector faces
many challenges and inspi-
rational leaders are required
to pick up the torch of effective water
management into the future.
One institution aiming to grow this
leadership is the International Water-
Centre (IWC) Water Research Node at
Monash South Africa.
While there are experienced people
working at the coalface of the African
water sector already, they are in short
supply and overworked. More skilled
young people are required to pick up
the slack, reports Dr Dirk Roux, Direc-
tor of the IWC Water Research Node.
According to Dr Roux, these leaders
Monash SA
require a depth and breadth of knowl-
edge to direct sustainable use, effective
management and wise governance need to develop creative and critical Current students is placed on working with other
of water resources. “They need to be thinking skills to solve the complex- at Monash SA’s research organisations, universi-
humble enough to serve, yet have the International
ity of problems Africa is now faced ties and implementation agencies in
WaterCentre Water
vision and energy to inspire people to with and to manage water projects South and Southern Africa.
Research Node, Liezl
treat water resources like the finite and in a holistic way. Craig and Karin
most precious resources that they are.” Breytenbach. Finding solutions for
The IWC Water Research Node IWC Water Research Node the future
was set up at Monash South Africa to
T
help create these water leaders.
“I
he IWC Water Research Node f you want to make a difference
uses integrated water manage- in the African context,” says Liezl
Integrated water ment as a critical theme to make Craig, one of the current students,
management both a practical and theoretical con- “water management is the field to
tribution to an inter- and transdis- enter. There are numerous challenges
S o just how much water are you con- number by the number of people in the • One egg requires 200 litres of water.
suming every day? It really depends on country then the water in the yearly water • One kilogram of sheep meat has a water
your diet. Animal protein has an especially footprint for the entire South African footprint of 6 100 litres
• About 50 litres of water is used to pro-
duce one orange.
• One kilogram of maize requires 900 litres
of water.
Further reading
• Visit www.waterfootprint.org to your family’s consumption and plan meals electricity, and this adds to the water foot-
find out more about the water foot- accordingly. Tossing out leftover or spoilt print of the products we consume. Water is
print of different products and to food means wasting every drop of water also used to make the plastic packaging that
calculate your own water footprint. that went into growing that food (think of we buy our produce in.
• Visit www.h2oconserve.org for that every time you don’t ask for a doggie We all need to become more conscious
quizzes and tips on how to reduce bag when eating in a restaurant). about how much water it takes to maintain
your water footprint. Secondly, eat healthier. Your mother our lifestyles. So drop that packet of crisps
• Visit: http://tlc.howstuffworks.com/ was right when she told you to eat your and reach for that orange!
home/going-green1.htm for vegetables. Not only is it better for your
general tips on greener living. body (and your waistline), it is good for the
environment too. Meat requires five to ten
times more water to produce than vegeta-
bles. Even better, grow your own fruit and
vegetables. Supermarket produce is machine
agitated, power-washed, fan-dried, refrig-
erated and kept from freezing, all which
requires electricity. Water is used to make
All photographs by
Lani van Vuuren
a, all from
and Ivy Ndhundhum
a-Lemboumba
rnin Ombind
Minister of Science & Technology Naledi Pandor delivered the keynote address.
ti en ce M thunzi, Satu e CSIR.
Dr Pa re at th
l Laser Cent
the Nationa
ican
, all of the South Afr
s Coetzee, Rob Wallis and Ryan Cowley Dr Nqaba Ngcobo
Pieter de Beer, Mariu , Chair of the Parli
Technology. amentary Portfoli
o Comm ittee on Science &
Air Force.
There were 67 po
sters on display at
the conference.
Andri Barnard, Lara Kotzé-Jacobs and Ilse Wepener, all from CSIR Polymers and
Composites.
46 The Water Wheel September/October 2010
A campus of Monash University Australia
The masters research thesis will form the bulk of the course weighting,
The course while the coursework component introduces students to some of the
• Commences in Semester 1 of each year at the Monash South Africa
complex underlying concepts, such as biological, social and economic
campus in Ruimsig, Johannesburg
factors, which affect sustainable water management.
• Full-time over two years
• Focus on interfaces between science, policy and management
• Lectures and supervision by various experts from South Africa and
Admissions criteria
• A four-year qualification or equivalent honours degree
Australia
• 70% achievement or higher in this qualification
• Small intake of students to allow personal coaching and mentoring
• Proficiency in written and spoken English
• Attractive scholarships available
It is recommended that applicants have a science background,
• Internationally-recognised degree endorsed by four leading Australian
research aptitude, an interest in multi-disciplinary water issues and
universities
some work experience.
Student profile
Learning objectives This course is ideal for professionals with an interest in research from a
At the end of the course students will be able to: variety of water-related backgrounds such as engineering, social sciences,
service provision, environment, conservation, health and many others. The
• appraise freshwater ecosystems as complex social-ecological systems
course can be used as a gateway to a PhD program or to work in the
• evaluate the imperative of sustainable development in relation
interface between science and management of water resources.
to the planning and management of water resources
• design an integrated water resource management plan
More information
• develop a research project proposal
Tel: 011 950 4143
• execute an integrated water management research project Email: hester.stols@monash.edu
• present their research findings Web: www.monash.ac.za/research/water-research-node
• prepare an academic paper ready for submission to a scientific journal. Deadline: 31 October 2010
Monash South Africa is registered with the Department of Education as a private education
institution under the Higher Education Act 1997. Registration number: 00HF02.