Holy Angel University

Module 4 – Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

School of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

Mechanical Properties of
Engineering Materials
Module 4 – Strength of Materials from Stress and Strain

Objective At the end of this module, students will have

 An ability to relate stress to strain; and identify all the
significant mechanical properties of a specific engineering
material with the aid of a stress-strain diagram.

Content This lecture focuses in the application of stress-strain diagram and

its uses, which are as follows:
 Tension and Compression Test
 Stress-Strain Diagram
 Hooke’s Law; Poisson’s Ratio
 Strain Energy from Stress-Strain Diagram
 Ductile and Brittle Materials
 Failure of Materials due to Creep and Fatigue

Activities During the module, students will perform the graded activities to
measure their progress during the course. Quizzes, seatwork,
assignment, problem set computations, recitation, and research
work are the examples of such graded activities.

Readings R.C. Hibbeler, 2011. Mechanics of Materials (8th Edition)

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA : Pearson Prentice Hall

Instructor : Engr. Mark Kenneth M. Tuazon Page 1 of 11

Module 4 – Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

4.1 TENSION AND COMPRESSION TEST

To properly design a structural or mechanical component, the engineer must understand and work within the
characteristics and limitations of the material used in the component. Materials such as steel, aluminum, plastics,
and wood each respond uniquely to applied loads and stresses. To determine the strength and characteristics of
materials such as these requires laboratory testing. One of the simplest and most effective laboratory tests for
obtaining engineering design information about an engineering material is called tension test. Test performed in
reinforced concrete and other construction materials is compression test. Although several important mechanical
properties of a material can be determined from this test, it is used primarily to determine the relationship between
the average normal stress and average normal strain in many engineering materials such as metals, ceramics,
polymers, and composites.

4.2 STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM

The s It is not feasible to prepare a test specimen to match the size, and of each structural member. Rather, the
test results must be reported so they apply to a member of any size. To achieve this, the load and corresponding
deformation data are used to calculate various values of the stress and corresponding strain in the specimen. A
plot of the results produces a curve called the stress–strain diagram. There are two ways in which it is normally
described.
Conventional Stress–Strain Diagram. We can determine the nominal or engineering stress by dividing the applied
load P by the specimen’s original cross-sectional area A0. This calculation assumes that the stress is constant over
the cross section and throughout the gauge length. We have

Likewise, the nominal or engineering strain is found directly from the strain gauge reading, or by dividing the
change in the specimen’s gauge length, by the specimen’s original gauge length Here the strain is assumed to be
constant throughout the region between the gauge points. Thus,

If the corresponding values of and are plotted so that the vertical axis is the stress and the horizontal axis is the
strain, the resulting curve is called a conventional stress–strain diagram. Realize, however, that two stress–strain
diagrams for a particular material will be quite similar, but will never be exactly the same. This is because the results
actually depend on variables such as the material’s composition, microscopic imperfections, the way it is
manufactured, the rate of loading, and the temperature during the time of the test.

We will now discuss the characteristics of the conventional stress–strain curve as it pertains to steel, a commonly
used material for fabricating both structural members and mechanical elements. The characteristic stress–strain
diagram for a steel specimen is shown below. From this curve we can identify four different ways in which the
material behaves, depending on the amount of strain induced in the material.

Instructor : Engr. Mark Kenneth M. Tuazon Page 2 of 11

Module 4 – Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

(1) ELASTIC BEHAVIOR. Elastic behavior of the material occurs when the strains in the specimen are within the light
orange region shown. Here the curve is actually a straight line throughout most of this region, so that the stress
is proportional to the strain. The material in this region is said to be linear elastic. The upper stress limit to this
linear relationship is called the proportional limit. If the stress slightly exceeds the proportional limit, the curve
tends to bend and flatten out as shown. This continues until the stress reaches the elastic limit. Upon reaching
this point, if the load is removed the specimen will still return back to its original shape.

(a) Proportional limit is the stress at which the stress-strain plot is no longer linear. Strains in the linear portion
of the stress-strain diagram typically represent only a small fraction of the total strain at fracture. As long
as the stress in the material remains below this limit, no permanent damage will be caused during loading
and unloading. In an engineering context, this means that a component can be loaded and unloaded
many, many times and it will still behave “just like new”. this property is called elasticity, and it means that
a material returns to its original dimensions during unloading.

(b) Elastic Modulus. Most components are designed to function elastically. Consequently, the relationship
between stress and strain in the initial linear region of the stress-strain diagram is of particular interest for
engineering materials. The slope of this linear relationship of the diagram is called the elastic modulus. The
elastic modulus (E) is a measure of material’s stiffness.

(c) Work Hardening. The strain below the proportional limit is termed
elastic strain. This strain will be fully recovered after the stress is
removed from the material. The strain between proportional limit and
elastic limit is termed inelastic strain. When the stress is removed a
portion of the inelastic strain will be recovered. As stress is removed
from the material, it unloads on a path parallel to the elastic modulus
line; that is parallel to the path of the linear curve. A portion of the
elastic limit will recover elastically. However, the portion of the strain
remains in the material permanently. This strain is referred to as
residual strain or permanent set or plastic deformation.

Instructor : Engr. Mark Kenneth M. Tuazon Page 3 of 11

Module 4 – Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

As stress is reapplied, the materials reload in a linear elastic manner upon reaching the elastic limit, the
material will resume following the original stress-strain diagram. The proportional limit after reloading
becomes the stress at the elastic limit, which is greater that the proportional limit of the original loading. This
phenomenon is called work hardening because it has the effect of increasing the proportional limit for the
material.

(d) Elastic Limit. The largest stress that a material can withstand without any measurable permanent strain
remaining after the complete release of stress. The procedure required to determine the elastic limit
involves cycles of loading and unloading, each time incrementally increasing the applied stress.

(2) YIELDING. A slight increase in stress above the elastic limit will result in a breakdown of the material and cause
it to deform permanently. This behavior is called yielding, and it is indicated by the rectangular dark orange
region of the curve. The stress that causes yielding is called the yield stress or yield point, it is defined as the
stress that will induce a specified permanent set in the material usually 0.05% to 0.2%; and the deformation that
occurs is called plastic deformation. (The upper yield point occurs first, followed by a sudden decrease in load-
carrying capacity to a lower yield point, and these are for low-carbon steels). Notice that once the yield point is
reached, then as shown, the specimen will continue to elongate (strain) without any increase in load. When the
material is in this state, it is often referred to as being perfectly plastic.

For materials that do not have a well-defined yield point, yield stress is
determined by the offset method. This method consists of drawing a
line parallel to the initial tangent of the stress-strain curve; this line
starts at a prescribed offset strain, usually 0.2% ( 𝜖 = 0.002 ). The
intersection of this line with the stress-strain curve, shown in next page,
is called the yield point at 0.2% offset.

(3) STRAIN HARDENING. When yielding has ended, an increase in load can be supported by the specimen,
resulting in a curve that rises continuously but becomes flatter until it reaches a maximum stress referred to as
the ultimate stress (𝝈𝒖 ). The rise in the curve in this manner is called strain hardening, and it is identified as the
region in light green.

(4) NECKING. Up to the ultimate stress, as the specimen elongates, its cross-sectional area will decrease. This
decrease is fairly uniform over the specimen’s entire gauge length; however, just after, at the ultimate stress, the
cross-sectional area will begin to decrease in a localized region of the specimen. As a result, a constriction or
“neck” tends to form in this region as the specimen elongates further. This region of the curve due to necking
is indicated in dark green. Here the stress–strain diagram tends to curve downward until the specimen breaks
at the fracture stress (𝝈𝒇 ). Note: The method of calculating stress is called engineering stress which does not
take into account any changes in specimen’s cross sectional area; while true stress considers the accurate
specimen diameter when the load increases.

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Module 4 – Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

4.3 HOOKE’S LAW

The stress–strain diagrams for most engineering materials exhibit a linear relationship between stress and strain
within the elastic region. Consequently, an increase in stress causes a proportionate increase in strain. The
proportionality of load to deflection was first recorded, this fact was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1676, Ut tension
sic vis (“as stretch so the force”), using springs and is known as Hooke’s law. It may be expressed mathematically as

Here 𝑬 represents the constant of proportionality, which is called the elastic modulus, modulus of elasticity or
Young’s modulus, named after Thomas Young, who published an account of it in 1807. The equation actually
represents the equation of the initial straight-lined portion of the stress–strain diagram up to the proportional limit.
Furthermore, the modulus of elasticity represents the slope of this line. It should be noted that the modulus of
elasticity is a mechanical property that indicates the stiffness of a material.
Hooke’s law also applies to shear stress and shear strain, where 𝑮 is called the shear modulus or the modulus of
rigidity.

4.4 POISSON’S RATIO

A material loaded in one direction will undergo strains perpendicular to the direction of the load as well as
parallel too it. In other words,
 If a solid body is subjected to an axial tension, it contracts in the lateral directions.
 If a solid body is compressed, it expands in lateral directions.
This phenomenon, where deformations are greatly exaggerated. Experiments have shown that the relationship
between lateral and longitudinal strains caused by an axial force remains constant, provided that the material
remains elastic and is homogenous and isotropic. This constant is a property of material, just like other properties
such as elastic modulus. The ratio of the lateral or transverse strain to the longitudinal strain for a uniaxial state
of stress is called Poisson’s ratio, after Simeon D. Poisson, who identified the constant in 1811. Poisson’s ratio is
denoted by the Greek symbol 𝜈 (nyu) and it is defined as follows:

The ratio is valid only for uniaxial state of stress. The negative sign appears because the lateral and longitudinal
stains are always opposite signs for uniaxial stress (if one strain elongates, the other strain is contraction).
Poisson’s ratio is a dimensionless quantity, and for most metals, Poisson’s ratio has a values between 0.250 to
0.333. For an “ideal material” having no lateral deformation when it is stretched or compressed Poisson’s ratio
will be 0. Because the volume of material must remain constant, the largest possible Poisson’s ratio is 0.500.
Values approaching this upper limit are found only for materials such as rubber.

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Module 4 – Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

4.5 RELATIONSHIP OF E, ν and G

It will be shown in succeeding discussions, specifically at Strain Transformation, that the three material constants,
𝐸, 𝜈 and 𝐺 are actually related by the equation

4.6 STRAIN ENERGY

As a material is deformed by an external loading, it tends to store energy internally throughout its volume. Since
this energy is related to the strains in the material, it is referred to as strain energy. To obtain this strain energy
consider a volume element of material from a tension test specimen.
For applications, it is sometimes convenient to specify the strain energy per unit volume of material. This is called
the strain-energy density, and it can be expressed as

Modulus of Resilience. In particular, when the stress reaches the proportional limit, the strain-energy density is
the area under the elastic region of the stress-strain diagram. From the elastic region of the stress–strain
diagram, notice that is equivalent to the shaded triangular area under the diagram. Physically a material’s
resilience represents the ability of the material to absorb energy without any permanent damage to the material.
Modulus of Toughness. Another important property of a material is the modulus of toughness. This quantity
represents the entire area under the stress–strain diagram, and therefore it indicates the strain-energy density
of the material just before it fractures. This property becomes important when designing members that may be
accidentally overloaded. Alloying metals can also change their resilience and toughness.

Instructor : Engr. Mark Kenneth M. Tuazon Page 6 of 11

Module 4 – Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

4.7 DUCTILE AND BRITTLE MATERIALS

Ductile Materials. Any material that can be subjected to large strains before it fractures is called a ductile material.
Mild steel, as discussed previously, is a typical example. Engineers often choose ductile materials for design
because these materials are capable of absorbing shock or energy, and if they become overloaded, they will
usually exhibit large deformation before failing. Ductility describes the material’s capacity for plastic deformation.

Two measures of ductility are obtained from tension test, the first is the engineering strain at fracture. This
method is called percent elongation. To determine this measure, the two halves of the broken specimen are
fitted together, the final gage length is measured, and then the average strain is calculated from the final gage
lengths, and is usually expressed as percentage. The percent elongation is then

The second measure is the percent reduction in area at the fracture surface. It is also expressed as a percentage
and is defined within the region of necking as follows

Brittle Materials. Materials that exhibit little or no yielding

before failure are referred to as brittle materials. Compared
with their behavior in tension, brittle materials, such as gray
cast iron, exhibit a much higher resistance to axial
compression. For this case any cracks or imperfections in the
specimen tend to close up, and as the load increases the
material will generally bulge or become barrel shaped as the
strains become larger.

4.8 FAILURE OF MATERIALS DUE TO CREEP AND FATIGUE

Creep. When a material has to support a load for a very long period of time, it may continue to deform until a
sudden fracture occurs or its usefulness is impaired. This time-dependent permanent deformation is known as
creep. Normally creep is considered when metals and ceramics are used for structural members or mechanical
parts that are subjected to high temperatures.
Fatigue. When a metal is subjected to repeated cycles of stress or strain, it causes its structure to break down,
ultimately leading to fracture. This behavior is called fatigue, and it is usually responsible for a large percentage
of failures in connecting rods and crankshafts of engines; steam or gas turbine blades; connections or supports
for bridges, railroad wheels, and axles; and other parts subjected to cyclic loading. In all these cases, fracture will
occur at a stress that is less than the material’s yield stress.

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Module 4 – Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

Class No. – Student No. : __________________________________ RATING : ______________________

Section – Schedule : __________________________________ Submission Date : ______________________

ACTIVITY 8 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

INSTRUCTIONS Determine all the required mechanical properties of engineering materials in each problem. Show
all necessary computations for each. Highlight your answers.
For Problem A and B, utilize the given stress-strain diagram and identify the points using a black
pen, and show the necessary solution, in the template, if possible.
For Problem C and D, create a stress-strain diagram similar to the examples. Tabulate your
answers to establish the points of the stress-strain diagram. Use cross-sectional paper to draw the
diagram (you may cut it and/or fold), and use the template to provide solutions.
MATERIALS Metered cross-sectional paper (available in Orchids or Erson’s bookstore), red pen 0.50 THK, blue
pen 0.50 THK, black pen 0.5 THK, ruler, pencil, French curve
SITUATION Problem A. (RE001). A bronze alloy specimen having a diameter of 12.8 mm and a gage length
of 50 mm was tested to fracture. Stress and strain data obtained during the test are shown.
Determine the following: (a) modulus of elasticity, (b) proportional limit, (c) yield strength using
0.2% offset, (d) ultimate strength, (e) fracture stress, (f) true fracture stress if the final diameter of
the specimen at the location of fracture was 10.5 mm, (g) percent elongation, and (h) percent
reduction in area.
Problem B. (RE002). The stress-strain diagram for a particular stainless steel alloy. A rod made
from this material is initially 800 mm long at a temperature of 20oC. After a tension force is
applied to the rod and temperature is increased by 200 oC, the length of the rod is 804 mm.
Determine the stress in the rod and state whether the elongation in the rod is elastic or plastic.
Assume the coefficient of thermal expansion for this material is 18(10) -6/oC, and use the constant
for steel elastic modulus of 200 GPa.
Problem C. (RE003). An alloy specimen having a diameter of 12.8 mm and a gage length of 50
mm was tested to fracture. The load and deformation data during the test are given. Plot the
stress–strain diagram, and determine approximately the (a) modulus of elasticity, (b) proportional
limit, (c) yield stress using 0.2% offset, (d) the ultimate stress, (e) fracture stress, (f) true fracture
stress if the final diameter of specimen at location of fracture was 11.3 mm, (g) estimated modulus
of resilience, (h) estimated modulus of toughness, (i) percent elongation, and (j) percent
reduction in area. Use a scale of 20 mm = 50 MPa and 20 mm = 0.05mm/mm. Redraw the
linear-elastic region, using the same stress scale but a strain scale of 20 mm = 0.001 mm/mm.
Problem D. (RE004). A 1045 hot-rolled steel tension test specimen has a diameter of 6.00mm
and gage length of 25 mm. In a test to fracture, the stress and strain data were obtained.
Determine (a) the modulus of elasticity, (b) the proportional limit, (c) the yield strength using
0.2% offset, (d) the ultimate strength, (e) the fracture stress, (f) the true fracture stress if the final
diameter of the specimen at the location of the fracture was 4.65 mm, (g) the estimate modulus
of resilience, (h) the estimate modulus of toughness, (i) the percent elongation, and (j) the
percent reduction in area. Use a scale of 20 mm = 20 MPa and 20 mm = 0.02mm/mm. Redraw
the linear-elastic region, using the same stress scale but a strain scale of 20 mm = 0.001 mm/mm.

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Module 4 – Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

RE001

RE002

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Module 4 – Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

RE003

RE004

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Module 4 – Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

END CHAPTER QUESTIONS

1. How does the elastic limit differ from the proportional limit?
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2. From the stress-strain diagram, why does it seem that the fracture stress is less than the ultimate stress? Explain.
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3. Knowing the mechanical properties of materials, how do we differentiate elastic and plastic materials?
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4. Is the statement true or false? Why? - “All engineering materials are capable of yielding.”
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5. Cite a realistic example of failure of materials due creep and fatigue.

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Instructor : Engr. Mark Kenneth M. Tuazon Page 11 of 11